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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Pedagogical psychology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY The beginning of the development of pedagogical theory was laid by the fundamental work of Ya.A. Comenius' "Great Didactics", which was released in 1657. But only at the end of the XNUMXth century. pedagogical psychology began to take shape as an independent science. The entire path of its formation can be represented by three long stages. The first stage - from the middle of the XVII century. (the publication of the "Great Didactics" by Y.A. Comenius) until the end of the 1592th century. - can be called general didactic with "a felt need to psychologize pedagogy" in the words of I. Pestalozzi. The largest representatives of the pedagogical science of this period are J. A. Comenius (1670-1746), I. Pestalozzi (1827-1712), J.-J. Rousseau (1778-1776), I. Herbart (1841-1790), A. Diesterweg (1866-1824), K. D. Ushinsky (1870-XNUMX) - already considered those problems that are still in the area of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbpedagogical psychology: the relationship of development with training and education, the creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development , the role of the teacher's personality, the psychological characteristics of the organization of education, etc. This is the period of the first attempts at scientific understanding of this process, and the actual psychological aspects of the listed problems were far from fully disclosed by these researchers. The second stage in the development of pedagogical psychology has chronological boundaries from the end of the XNUMXth century (the publication of P.F. Kapterev's work "Pedagogical Psychology") to the middle of the XNUMXth century. It begins to take shape as an independent branch, based on the achievements of the pedagogical thought of previous centuries and the results of psychological and psychophysical experimental studies. Pedagogical psychology developed and took shape simultaneously with the intensive development of experimental psychology and the development of specific pedagogical systems. At this time, many works appeared devoted to the actual psychological problems of learning and learning: the features of memorization, the development of speech, intelligence, the features of developing skills (A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, J. Dewey, S. Frenet and others). An important phenomenon at this stage was the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology. In this science, on the basis of a combination of psychophysiological, anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements, the characteristics of the child's behavior were determined in order to diagnose his development. The third stage in the development of educational psychology (from the middle of the 1954th century) is distinguished on the basis of the creation of a number of psychological theories of learning proper. So, in 1960, B. Skinner, along with J. Watson, put forward the idea of programmed learning, and in the XNUMXs. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization. Then a holistic system of problem-based learning began to be developed, based, on the one hand, on the point of view of J. Dewey that learning should go through problem solving, and on the other hand, on the provisions of S.L. Rubinshtein and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phases, about the nature of the emergence of thought in a problem situation. 2. TASKS AND PROBLEMS OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY The main content of pedagogical psychology is the psychological patterns of the processes of education and upbringing. Education is traditionally understood as a process of organized and purposeful influence on the personality and behavior of the child. Education is a process, the main purpose of which is the development of the child's abilities. Education and training are the main aspects of pedagogical activity. In educational psychology, these processes are considered separately, although such a division is very conditional. Nevertheless, upbringing and training have different goals, content, methods, and leading types of activity that realizes them. Education deals with feelings, interpersonal relationships, the transfer of social values and attitudes, norms and rules of behavior. Education is based on the understanding of man by man, human morality and spiritual culture. Education, on the other hand, deals with the cognitive processes of the child, uses a variety of methods for transferring knowledge, skills and abilities. Training is based on the perception and understanding of the subject world by a person. The main problems of educational psychology 1. The problem of the sensitive period. It is associated with the allocation and maximum possible use of certain age periods for the development of certain abilities or qualities of the child. At present, all sensitive periods of the development of the intellect and personality, their beginning, duration and end are unknown. Most likely, these periods are individual and peculiar. Several sensitive periods are possible, characteristic of the same properties in different age periods. So far, there is no unambiguous solution to this problem. 2. The problem of the connection between consciously organized influence and the natural mental development of the child, in other words, the problem of the connection between biological maturation and learning and the development of the child (whether specially organized training helps or hinders the development of the child). 3. The problem of the general and age combination of training and education: what priorities and at what age should be, how to harmoniously combine the processes of education and upbringing? 4. The problem of implementing the systemic nature of the development of the child and the complex pedagogical impact: according to what laws should pedagogical influence proceed and what are its key points? 5. The problem of the relationship between the maturation and learning of the child, his inclinations and abilities, genetic and environmental conditioning, the development of psychological characteristics and the behavior of the child. 6. The problem of determining the psychological readiness of the child for conscious education and upbringing, the search for valid diagnostic tools. 7. The problem of pedagogical neglect: how to distinguish a child who is hopelessly behind in development from a pedagogically neglected one; what defects in development are eliminated at a certain stage, and what are not? 8. The problem of ensuring the individualization of education: how it is possible to create conditions for individual learning (rate, rhythm of learning with a focus on the individual characteristics of the child), when the learning process as a whole is of a group nature. 3. SUBJECT OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY The term "pedagogical psychology" are two different sciences. One of them is basic Science, which is the first branch of psychology. It studies the nature and laws of the process of teaching and education. Under the same term "pedagogical psychology" applied science is also developing, the purpose of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve pedagogical practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology. Term "pedagogical psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1. Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to refer to disciplines occupying a borderline position between pedagogy and psychology: "pedology", "experimental pedagogy". Experimental pedagogy and educational psychology were first treated as different names for the same field of knowledge. During the first third of the XX century. their meanings have been differentiated. Experimental Pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; pedagogical psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in terms of training and education. It is closely connected with pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology. When considering pedagogical psychology, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of its object and subject. In the general scientific interpretation, the object of science is understood as that area of reality, to the study of which this science is directed. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science. The subject of science is that side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. The subject does not capture all aspects of the object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject matter. Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, a person is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, etc. But each science is based on its own subject, that is, what exactly it studies in the object. For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that pedagogical psychology "studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes, patterns of formation of creative active thinking in schoolchildren, changes in the psyche, i.e., the formation of mental neoplasms." A completely different point of view is held by V.V. Davydov. He proposes to consider educational psychology as a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues this by the fact that the specificity of each age determines the nature of the manifestation of the laws of assimilation of knowledge by students, and therefore the teaching of a particular discipline should be built differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of education. Education is considered by him as a form, and development - as the content that is realized in it. 4. STRUCTURE OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY The structure educational psychology are divided into three sections: psychology learning; psychology education; teacher psychology. Subject of Learning Psychology - development of cognitive activity in the conditions of systematic training. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying: the relationship of external and internal factors that determine the differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems; correlation of motivational and intellectual plans of teaching; process management capabilities teachings и development child, etc. Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of domestic psychology, showed that assimilation process is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always assimilated as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the assimilated actions are brought to certain indicators according to some of their characteristics. Teachings - this is a system of special actions necessary for students to pass the main stages of the process assimilation. The actions that make up the activity of learning are assimilated according to the same laws as any others. In the 70s. XNUMXth century in pedagogical psychology, they increasingly began to use a different path: the study of the patterns of the formation of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in conditions of specially organized training. Research has shown that process control teachings significantly changes the course of assimilation of knowledge and skills. The studies carried out are important for finding the most optimal ways training and identifying the conditions for the effective mental development of students. In domestic pedagogical psychology, such theories of learning as the associative-reflex theory, theory of gradual formation of mental actions and others. Among Western theories of learning, the most widespread behavioral theory. The subject of educational psychology - personal development in the context of purposeful organization of the activities of the child, the children's team. The psychology of upbringing studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of a worldview, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school. Research in this area is aimed at studying: the content of the motivational sphere of the student's personality, its orientation, value orientation, moral attitudes; differences in the self-consciousness of students brought up in different conditions; structures of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality; conditions and consequences mental deprivation and more The subject of teacher psychology - psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of pedagogical psychology are: determining the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes; studying the emotional stability of the teacher; revealing the positive features of the individual style of communication between the teacher and the student, and a number of others. 5. INTERRELATION OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY WITH OTHER SCIENCES Historically, the development of the theory of education and upbringing has long been the prerogative of pedagogy alone. The first pedagogical book on the theory of learning Ya.A. Comenius' "Great Didactics" was written in the 1633th century. (1638-1), while psychology as an independent science developed much later, at the turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, that is, more than a quarter of a millennium later. The emerging new science could not immediately take up the study of the problems of education, and only in the first quarter of the XNUMXth century. psychological research began in this area. At the time of the formation of pedagogy and the deployment of the practice of mass education, the actual psychological patterns of the assimilation of knowledge and the formation of the human personality were not yet known, so the pedagogical theory of training and education developed out of connection with the data of scientific psychology due to the lack of such. At the same time, the empirically established pedagogical theory took into account and takes into account human psychology. The connection between the pedagogical and psychological sciences is pedagogical and developmental psychology, the psychology of professional pedagogical activity, the psychology of managing pedagogical systems, and many psychological studies of other areas of education. The desire of traditional elementary school pedagogy to instill correct behavior in the child through a visual demonstration of patterns of certain actions, so that their assimilation occurs through contemplation and imitation of these patterns, directly contradicts this psychological pattern of education through the child's own activity. This is the first contradiction between pedagogy and psychological theory. Another contradiction manifests itself in the fact that if psychology advocates such education, which from the very first grade forms theoretical thinking in the child and proves that this is not only necessary, but also quite accessible to six-seven-year-old children, then pedagogy considers it legitimate to rely only on the concrete-figurative thinking inherent in a preschool child, considering theoretical thinking unbearable for a younger student. Educational psychology closely associated with physiology. To understand the mechanisms for managing the physical and mental development of trainees, it is especially important to know the patterns of the life of the organism as a whole and its individual parts, functional systems. Knowledge of the patterns of functioning of higher nervous activity allows pedagogy to design developing, teaching technologies, tools that contribute to the optimal development of the individual. sociology data contribute to a deeper understanding of the problem of socialization of the individual. The results of sociological research are the basis for solving pedagogical problems related to the organization of student leisure, professional orientation, and many others. The initial value for pedagogical science is philosophical knowledge. It is the basis for understanding the goals of upbringing and education in the modern period of development of pedagogical knowledge. The theory of knowledge allows indirectly, thanks to the generality of laws, to determine the patterns of educational and cognitive activity and the mechanisms for managing it. 6. OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Observation - the main, most common in educational psychology (and in pedagogical practice in general) empirical method of studying a person. Under observation is understood as a purposeful, organized and in a certain way fixed perception of the object under study. The results of fixing the observation data are called the description of the object's behavior. Pedagogical supervision. This method is used in the process of almost any pedagogical research, which is quite natural. The study of pedagogical phenomena requires the researcher to directly observe them, accumulate and record factual material related to pedagogical work. Observation can be carried out directly or using technical means and methods of data recording (photo, audio and video equipment, observation cards, etc.). However, with the help of observation, one can detect only phenomena that occur in ordinary, "normal" conditions, and in order to cognize the essential properties of an object, it is necessary to create special conditions that are different from "normal". The main features of the observation method are: direct connection between the observer and the observed object; partiality (emotional coloring) of observation; complexity (sometimes - impossibility) of repeated observation. Depending on the position of the observer, open and covert observation are distinguished. The first means that the subjects know the fact of their scientific control, and the researcher's activity is perceived visually. Covert observation implies the fact of covert tracking of the actions of the subject. Further, continuous and selective observation are distinguished. The first covers processes in a holistic way: from their beginning to end, to completion. The second is a dotted, selective fixation of certain phenomena and processes under study. Specific requirements for the procedure for obtaining and interpreting information in observation. 1. Only external facts that have speech and motor manifestations are available for observation. You can observe not intellect, but how a person solves problems; not sociability, but the nature of interaction with other people, etc. 2. It is necessary that the observed phenomenon, the behavior, be defined operationally, in terms of real behavior, i.e., the recorded characteristics should be as descriptive as possible and as less explanatory as possible. 3. The most important moments of behavior (critical cases) should be highlighted for observation. 4. The observer must be able to record the behavior of the assessed person for a long period of time, in many roles and critical situations. 5. The reliability of the observation is increased if the testimony of several observers coincides. 6. The role relationship between the observer and the observed must be eliminated. For example, student behavior will be different in the presence of parents, teacher, and peers. Therefore, external assessments given to the same person on the same set of qualities by people occupying different positions in relation to him may turn out to be different. 7. Evaluations in observation should not be subject to subjective influences (likes and dislikes, transferring attitudes from parents to students, from student performance to his behavior, etc.). PAGE7. EXPERIMENT AS A METHOD OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Experiment - one of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates one or more variables (factors) and registration of concomitant changes in the behavior of the object under study. A well-designed experiment allows you to check hypotheses in causal causal relations, not limited to ascertaining the connection (correlations) between variables. There are traditional and factorial plans for the experiment. Formative or educational experiments form a special category of methods of psychological research and influence. They allow you to directionally form the features of such mental processes as perception, attention, memory, thinking. Procedure experiment consists in the directed creation or selection of such conditions that provide a reliable selection of the studied factor, and in the registration of changes associated with its impact. Most often, in psychological and pedagogical experiments, they deal with 2 groups: the experimental group, which includes the studied factor, and the control group, in which it is absent. The experimenter, at his own discretion, can modify the conditions of the experiment and observe the consequences of such a change. This, in particular, makes it possible to find the most rational methods in educational work with students. For example, by changing the conditions for memorizing a particular educational material, it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most durable and accurate. By conducting research under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the age and individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them. Psychological and pedagogical experiments differ: in the form of conducting; the number of variables; goals; the nature of the organization of the study. According to the form of conducting, there are two main types of experiment - laboratory and natural. Laboratory experiment is carried out in specially organized, artificial, conditions designed to ensure the purity of the results. It is used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators under strictly defined conditions. natural experiment. These shortcomings of the laboratory experiment are eliminated to some extent by organizing a natural experiment. This method was first proposed in 1910 by A.F. Lazursky at the 1st All-Russian Congress on Experimental Pedagogy. A natural experiment is carried out under normal conditions within the framework of the activities familiar to the subjects, such as training sessions or games. Formative experiment - a method used in developmental and educational psychology for tracking changes in the child's psyche in the process of the researcher's active influence on the subject. Synonyms of the formative experiment: transforming, creative, educating, teaching, method of active formation of the psyche. Goal ascertaining experiment - measurement of the current level of development (the level of development of abstract thinking, moral and volitional qualities of a person, etc.). 8. TESTING AS A METHOD OF PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Test method. In connection with the specifics of the subject of educational psychology, some of the methods mentioned above are used in it to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. However, the method of testing is becoming more and more widespread in educational psychology. Test (English test - test, test, check) - in psychology - a test fixed in time, designed to establish quantitative (and qualitative) individual psychological differences. The test is the main instrument of psychodiagnostic examination, with the help of which a psychological diagnosis is carried out. Testing differs from other methods of examination: - accuracy; - simplicity; - accessibility; - Possibility of automation. Testing assumes that the subject performs a certain activity: it can be solving problems, drawing, telling a story from a picture, etc., depending on the technique used; a certain test takes place, on the basis of the results of which the psychologist draws conclusions about the presence, features and level of development of certain properties. Separate tests are standard sets of tasks and material with which the subject works; the procedure for presenting tasks is also standard, although in some cases certain degrees of freedom are provided for the psychologist - the right to ask an additional question, build a conversation in connection with the material, etc. The procedure for evaluating results is also standard. This standardization makes it possible to compare the results of different subjects. The testing process can be divided into three stages: 1) test selection - determined by the purpose of testing and the degree of reliability and reliability of the test; 2) its conduct - is determined by the instructions for the test; 3) interpretation of the results - determined by the system of theoretical assumptions regarding the subject of testing. The purely pedagogical aspect of testing is the use of performance tests. Skill tests are widely used, such as reading, writing, simple arithmetic operations, as well as various tests for diagnosing the level of learning - identifying the degree of assimilation of knowledge, skills in all academic subjects. Usually, testing as a method of psychological and pedagogical research merges with practical testing of current academic performance, identifying the level of learning, quality control of learning material. A.K. Erofeev, analyzing the basic requirements for testing, identifies the following main groups of knowledge that a testologist should have: - basic principles of normative-oriented testing; - types of tests and their scope; - the basics of psychometry (i.e., in what units are psychological qualities measured in the system); - test quality criteria (methods for determining the validity and reliability of the test); - ethical standards of psychological testing. All of the above means that the use of testing in educational psychology requires special training, high qualifications and responsibility. 9. STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION IN PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY Education can be considered in different semantic planes. 1. Education as a system has a certain structure and hierarchy of its elements in the form of scientific and educational institutions of various types (preschool, primary, secondary, secondary specialized, higher education, postgraduate education). 2. Education as a process involves the length in time, the difference between the initial and final states of the participants in this process, manufacturability, providing changes, transformations. 3. Education as a result indicates the completion of an educational institution and certification of this fact with a certificate. Education ultimately provides a certain level of development of the cognitive needs and abilities of a person, a certain level of knowledge, skills, and his preparation for a particular type of practical activity. Distinguish between general and special education. General education provides each person with such knowledge, abilities, skills that are necessary for him for comprehensive development and are basic for obtaining further special - vocational education. In terms of the level and volume of content, both general and special education can be primary, secondary and higher. Now, when the need for lifelong education arises, the term "adult education", post-graduate education, has appeared. Under the content of education, VS Lednev understands "... the content of a triune holistic process, characterized, firstly, by the assimilation of the experience of previous generations (education), secondly, by the upbringing of the typological qualities of a person (education), and thirdly, by the mental and physical development of a person (development)". From here follow three components of education: training, education, development. We find the modern understanding of education in the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" (1992): "Under education in this Law is understood a purposeful process of training and education in the interests of the individual, society, state, accompanied by a statement of the achievement by a citizen (student) of educational levels determined by the state (educational qualifications)". General requirements for the content of education are set out in Art. 14 of this Law: "1. The content of education is one of the factors of the economic and social progress of society and should be oriented: - to ensure the self-determination of the individual, the creation of conditions for its self-realization; - development of civil society; - to strengthen and improve the rule of law. 2. The content of education should provide: - the formation of a student's picture of the world adequate to the modern level of knowledge and the level of the educational program (level of education); - an adequate world level of the general and professional culture of the society; - integration of personality into the systems of world and national cultures; - the formation of a human citizen, integrated into contemporary society and aimed at improving this society; - reproduction and development of the personnel potential of the society". 10. FORMS OF EDUCATION In developed countries, historical trends in the "rising" of the material and pedagogical components of education costs per student have been empirically determined, and a relationship has been established between the level of unit costs and the quality of the education received. A comprehensive study of educational systems and labor markets has shown that the most common types and forms of education are in dynamic accordance with the structure of the level and orientation of students' abilities and the needs of production and life. Taking into account the needs and capabilities of the individual, educational programs are mastered in the following forms: in an educational institution - in the form of full-time, part-time (evening), part-time; in the form of family education, self-education, external studies. In modern education systems, there is a tendency to evaluate the result by the output, which is represented by certain unified requirements or standards, regardless of the form of education. In recent decades, educational systems have been increasingly operating in space, moving from a contact type of learning to distance learning, where telecommunications play a major role. A combination of various forms of education is allowed. There are two forms of education in the Russian Federation. In accordance with the Law on Education, the development of an educational program is allowed either directly in an educational institution in full-time, part-time (evening) or correspondence form, or in the form of family education, self-education, external study. The first form is characterized by the fact that in the course of education there is always a connection between the student and the teacher, who is responsible for the level and quality of the education received by the student. In the second form, the student only takes exams in certain parts of the educational program, while the teachers do not monitor the process of his preparation and are not responsible for this, all responsibility for the quality of mastering the educational program lies with the student's parents and himself. These two forms are fundamentally different, but their combination is permitted by law: any child studying at school, from any class, can be transferred to the second form of education for a period of one or two years or more. For this, only the desire of the parents and the execution of the relevant documents are necessary. Within the framework of this entire system, the following structural elements of the educational process function: 1) educational information determined by educational programs; 2) means of its transmission and reception (methods of teaching and learning); 3) students and teachers. Thus, education as a system can be considered in three dimensions, which are: - social scale of consideration, i.e. f. education in the world, country, society, region and organization, state, public and private education, secular and clerical education, etc.; - level of education (preschool, school, secondary vocational, higher vocational with different levels, advanced training institutions, postgraduate, doctoral studies); - profile of education: general, special, professional, additional. 11. THE CONCEPT OF LEARNING Learning is the general ability of an individual to assimilate new knowledge, to form skills and abilities. Learnability characterizes the level of mental development of a person, the formation of generalized methods of action in him. Learning is formed from early childhood. It is especially important in this case to effectively use the sensitive periods of personality development - the periods of the greatest predisposition of a person to the assimilation of certain areas of social experience. The most important indicator of learning is the amount of dosed assistance that a student needs to achieve a given result. Learning is a thesaurus, or a stock of learned concepts and methods of activity. That is, a system of knowledge, skills and abilities that corresponds to the norm (the expected result specified in the educational standard). The process of assimilation of knowledge is carried out in stages in accordance with the following levels: discrimination or recognition of an object (phenomenon, event, fact); remembering and reproducing the subject, understanding, applying knowledge in practice and transferring knowledge to new situations. The quality of knowledge is assessed by such indicators as their completeness, consistency, depth, effectiveness, strength. One of the main indicators of the student's development prospects is the student's ability to independently solve educational problems (similar in principle to solving in cooperation and with the help of a teacher). The following are accepted as external criteria for the effectiveness of the learning process: - the degree of adaptation of the graduate to social life and professional activities; - the growth rate of the self-education process as a prolonged effect of learning; - level of education or professional skills; - willingness to improve education. In the practice of teaching, a unity of the logics of the educational process has developed: inductive-analytical and deductive-synthetic. The first focuses on observation, live contemplation and perception of reality, and only then on abstract thinking, generalization, systematization of educational material. The second option focuses on the introduction by the teacher of scientific concepts, principles, laws and regularities, and then on their practical concretization. Learnability - the ability to master new, including educational, material (new knowledge, actions, new forms of activity). Learning, based on abilities (in particular, the features of sensory and perceptual processes, memory, attention, thinking and speech) and the cognitive activity of the subject, manifests itself in different ways in different activities and in different educational subjects. Of particular importance for increasing the level of learning is the formation at certain, sensitive stages of development, in particular during the transition from preschool childhood to systematic schooling, metacognitive skills, which include the management of cognitive processes (planning and self-control, manifested, for example, in voluntary attention, arbitrary memory), speech skills, the ability to understand and use various types of sign systems (symbolic, graphic, figurative). 12. CORRELATION OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT In domestic psychology, the relationship between the concepts of "training and development" was first studied by L.S. Vygotsky. According to his concept, the mental development of an individual is more successful if training is carried out in the "zone of proximal development" - a child, under the guidance of an adult, must do what he could not do on his own, he must learn, somewhat ahead of his actual capabilities. Domestic pedagogical psychology has developed a special developmental learning theory (L.V. Zankov, D.K. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina), an integral part of which is the theory of problem-based learning (M.I. Enikeev, T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin). Education refers to the activity of the teacher to transfer knowledge and life experience to students, to form their skills and abilities. The concept of "teaching" implies the activity of the student himself, his actions aimed at acquiring knowledge, skills, development of abilities, self-improvement. Thus, the process of education proceeds as a unity of the activity of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and the student (learning activity). Secondly, from the side of the teacher, the educational process almost always represents the unity of training and education. Thirdly, the very process of such educative learning from the position of the student includes the acquisition of knowledge, practical actions, the fulfillment of educational tasks, as well as personal and communicative training, which contributes to its comprehensive development. The term "development" refers to changes that occur over time in body structure, thinking or human behavior as a result of biological processes in the body and environmental influences. Typically, these changes are progressive and cumulative, leading to increased organization and more complex functions. In other words, for specialists in the field of developmental psychology, and not only for them, at least an approximate time schedule for the appearance of specific forms of behavior in the lives of children may be of interest. Such a graph would allow students of child development to compare the timing of the onset of certain behaviors in different children from the same or different cultures or social groups. Establishing approximate age norms for a child's competence in the main areas of life allows us to assess how much a particular child is ahead of his peers in his development (or, conversely, lags behind them). Age norms can be useful when developing programs to help children with developmental delays, or, for example, when assessing the impact of various living conditions on development. Development occurs in three areas: physical, cognitive and psychosocial. The physical domain includes such physical characteristics as the size and shape of the body and organs, changes in the structure of the brain, sensory capabilities, and motor (or movement) skills. The cognitive area (from the Latin "cognitio" - knowledge, cognition) covers all mental abilities and mental processes, including even a specific organization of thinking. This area includes such processes as perception, reasoning, memory, problem solving, speech, judgment and imagination. The psychosocial area includes personality traits and social skills. It includes the individual style of behavior and emotional response inherent in each of us, that is, how people perceive social reality and react to it. Human development in these three areas occurs simultaneously and interrelatedly, which can be demonstrated by the example of a child's development in the first year of life. 13. PERSONAL-ACTIVITY APPROACH IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS The personal component assumes that both the student himself and his personal characteristics - motives, goals, psychological make-up, i.e. the student himself as a person, are placed at the center of the learning process. The teacher determines the educational goal of each lesson and directs the entire educational process to the development of the student's personality based precisely on the interests, knowledge and skills of students. Accordingly, when implementing personal-activity approach (LDP) it is necessary to formulate aloud the goal of each lesson from the perspective of each student and the entire student team as a whole, for example: "Today each of you will learn ..." or "In today's lesson we will figure out ..." LDP implies that in the process of teaching any academic subject, the national, gender, age, status and individual psychological characteristics of the student are taken into account as much as possible. In the conditions of LDP, all questions, tasks and comments addressed to the student should stimulate his intellectual activity, support and guide his learning activities without excessive fixation of attention on mistakes and unsuccessful actions. In Russian psychology, the greatest contribution to the development of a general theory of activity was made by A.N. Leontiev and S.L. Rubinstein. According to their approaches, activity is an active purposeful interaction of a person with the outside world, including other people and himself, caused by a certain need. From the position of a teacher, LDP means the organization and management of a student's purposeful learning activities in the general context of his life - the orientation of interests, life plans, value orientations, and his understanding of the meaning of learning. Implementing LDP, the teacher will have to reconsider the usual interpretation of the learning process mainly as the communication of knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities. The teacher needs to move from treating the student as an object of influence to subject-subject, equal partner cooperation with him. The informing-controlling function of the teacher is increasingly giving way to the coordinating function. The teacher becomes for the student a person who causes genuine interest both in the subject and in himself as a communication partner. As a result of such interaction, the teacher and the class form a single collective subject of educational activity. From the standpoint of the student, the LDP presupposes, first of all, the freedom of the student to choose the methods of his teaching. For the student, the psychological manifestations of the LDP teacher's implementation are ensuring the safety of the student's personal manifestations, creating conditions for his self-actualization and personal growth; this approach forms the activity of the student, his readiness for learning activities, for solving problematic problems through equal partnership, subject-subject trusting relationships with the teacher; LDP ensures the unity of the student's internal and external motives for learning activities: the main internal motive becomes cognitive, and the main external motive is the motive for achieving success. As a result of the implementation of this approach, the student's internal acceptance of the learning task is formed and satisfaction arises from its solution in cooperation with other students. 14. THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING L.S. VYGOTSKY The concept of the relationship between learning and mental development of the child, which is being developed in domestic developmental and pedagogical psychology, is based on the provision on zones of actual development (ZAR) and zone of proximal development (ZBR). These levels of mental development were identified by L.S. Vygotsky. L.S. Vygotsky showed that the real relationship between mental development and learning opportunities can be revealed by determining the level of the child's actual development and his zone of proximal development. Education, creating the latter, leads to development; and only that training is effective which goes ahead of development. Zone of Proximal Development - these are the discrepancies between the level of actual development (it is determined by the degree of difficulty of tasks solved by the child independently) and the level of potential development (which the child can achieve by solving problems under the guidance of an adult and in cooperation with peers). The scientist believed that ZPD determines mental functions that are in the process of maturation. It is associated with such fundamental problems of child and educational psychology as the emergence and development of higher mental functions, the relationship between learning and mental development, the driving forces and mechanisms of the child's mental development. The zone of proximal development is a consequence of the formation of higher mental functions, which are first formed in joint activity, in cooperation with other people, and gradually become internal mental processes of the subject. Zone of Proximal Development testifies to the leading role of education in the mental development of children. "Education is only good," wrote L. S. Vygotsky, "when it goes ahead of development." Then it awakens and brings to life many other functions that lie in the zone of proximal development. Learning can be oriented towards development cycles that have already been passed - this is the lowest threshold of learning, but it can be oriented towards functions that have not yet matured, towards the ZPD - this is the highest threshold of learning; between these thresholds is the optimal training period. ZPD gives an idea of the internal state, potential developmental opportunities of the child and, on this basis, makes it possible to give a reasonable forecast and practical recommendations on the optimal terms of education both for the mass of children and for each individual child. Determining the actual and potential levels of development, as well as the ZPD, is what L.S. Vygotsky called normative age-related diagnostics, in contrast to symptomatic diagnostics, which relies only on external signs of development. In this aspect, the zone of proximal development can be used as an indicator of individual differences in children. ZPD can also be revealed in the study of the personality of the child, and not only his cognitive processes. At the same time, the difference between the spontaneously developing personal characteristics in the process of socialization and those shifts in the development of the personality that occur as a result of directed educational influences is clarified. Optimal conditions for identifying the ZPD of a personality are created by its integration in a team. 15. PERSONAL-ACTIVITY APPROACH AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS FOR THE ORGANIZATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS Personal-activity approach - methodological concept of domestic psychology, considering psychology as a science of the generation and functioning of the psyche in the process of activity-based interaction of individuals with the environment. The main postulate of this concept: the psyche is formed and manifested in activity. All other principles of psychology are based on this postulate: development, historicism, activity, objectivity, internalization-exteriorization, the unity of the structure of external and internal activity, a systematic analysis of the psyche, the dependence of mental reflection on the place of the object in the structure of activity. On the basis of this concept, a theory of leading activity in the mental development of an individual, a theory of the structural organization of activity have been developed: activity - action - operation, shifting the motive to the goal, shifting the conditions of activity to the goal, means and conditions of activity, psychology and psychophysiology of regulation of activity; conceptual and psychological concepts of the meaning and meaning of actions, the hierarchy of personality motives are formed. The concept of the activity approach is widely and fruitfully used in all applied branches of Russian psychology (medical, pedagogical, engineering, legal, etc.). By definition, the term "approach to learning" is ambiguous. These are: a) an ideological category that reflects the social attitudes of the subjects of education as carriers of social consciousness; b) global and systemic organization and self-organization of the educational process, including all its components and, above all, the subjects of pedagogical interaction themselves: the teacher (teacher) and the student (student). The approach as a category is broader than the concept of "learning strategy" - it includes it, defining the methods, forms, techniques of learning. The foundations of the personality-activity approach were laid in psychology by the works of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, S.L. Rubinstein, B.G. Ananiev, where the personality was considered as a subject of activity, which itself, being formed in activity and in communication with other people, determines the nature of this activity and communication. Personal approach, according to K.K. Platonov, this is the principle of personal conditioning of all mental phenomena of a person, his activity, his individual psychological characteristics. The personal-activity approach in its personal component assumes that the student himself is at the center of learning - his motives, goals, his unique psychological make-up, that is, the student, the student as a person. Based on the interests of the student, the level of his knowledge and skills, the teacher (teacher) determines the educational goal of the lesson and forms, directs and corrects the entire educational process in order to develop the student's personality. Accordingly, the goal of each lesson, lesson in the implementation of the personal-activity approach is formed from the position of each individual student and the entire group as a whole. For example, the goal of the lesson can be set as follows: "Today each of you will learn how to solve a certain class of problems." Such a formulation means that the student must reflect on the current, initial, current level of knowledge and then evaluate their progress, their personal growth. 16. CORRELATIONS OF HUMAN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT AND HIS EDUCATION AND TRAINING Human development occurs in the course of mastering socio-historical experience (the world of human objects and the world of human relations). Each person enters a cultural society, appropriating its material and spiritual embodiment in the cultural and historical space surrounding him. It is to this social inheritance that human evolution owes: - change in the general structure of his behavior; - the emergence of its new forms and types of structures reflecting reality. The child's psyche develops with the active development of the outside world in various activities. In the joint activity of a child and an adult with objects of the outside world, the child's psyche is formed. The management of the child's activity by an adult is carried out in specially organized ways of transferring socio-historical experience - education and training. The activity and learning process are mediated by signs and speech as a means of fixing and transferring experience. In the process of the child's historical development, the means of transmitting socio-historical experience develop. The mastery of these means determines the process of the mental development of the child, his individuality. Learning can be viewed not only as a process, but also as a result of learning, which is understood as an activity guided by cognitive motives and goals. Classically, in pedagogical psychology, learning is considered as a process of educational actions undertaken by the student, aimed at developing abilities, acquiring new knowledge, skills and abilities. In turn, the learning process involves the joint learning activities of students and teachers and characterizes the process of transferring knowledge, skills and abilities. Here the emphasis is on what the teacher does. Learning activity is a process in which a person consciously and purposefully acquires new knowledge or improves his existing knowledge. All three concepts refer to the content of the educational process. The success of learning depends on many factors, including psychological ones. These factors fall into three areas: the student, the teacher, and the learning material. Of the psychological factors that determine the success of learning, the student includes: his motivation for learning, the arbitrariness of cognitive processes, the development of volitional qualities of the personality (perseverance, purposefulness, responsibility, discipline, consciousness, accuracy), etc. An important role is played by the development of communicative qualities and skills of the student : the ability to interact with people, especially with teachers and classmates, the ability to ask for help if necessary and to help others in case of difficulties. Teachers are concerned with such circumstances that determine the success of learning as the presence of the psychological qualities necessary for the implementation of pedagogical activities: enthusiasm for the subject being taught, the ability to convey this enthusiasm to students, the use of teaching methods appropriate for the age and intellectual development of students. 17. TYPES OF LEARNING, PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF LEARNING SUCCESS The process of development of the organism and the psyche is not in all cases associated with learning: for example, it does not include the processes and results that characterize the biological maturation of the organism, unfold and proceed according to biological, including genetic, laws. Man has five kinds of learning. Three of them are also characteristic of animals and unite man with all other living beings with a developed central nervous system. 1. Learning by mechanism imprinting. The word "imprinting" in translation from English literally means "imprinting". Both in humans and in animals, this mechanism is leading in the first time after birth and is a rapid automatic adaptation of the body to living conditions using innate forms of behavior - unconditioned reflexes. Through imprinting, instincts are formed that are genetically programmed and hardly amenable to change. 2. Conditioned reflex learning. The name of this type of learning speaks for itself: within its framework, life experience is acquired through the formation of conditioned reflexes. The beginning of his research was laid by the works of the outstanding Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlova. As a result of the formation of a conditioned reflex, the body develops a reaction to a biologically indifferent stimulus that did not cause such a reaction before. 3. Operant learning. In this case, individual experience is acquired by "trial and error". The task or situation faced by the individual gives rise to a variety of behavioral reactions in him, with the help of which he tries to solve this problem. Each of the solution options is consistently tested in practice and the result achieved is automatically evaluated. 4. Vicarious learning is carried out by direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is especially significant in infancy and early childhood, when, not yet mastering the symbolic function of speech, the child gains experience mainly through imitation. 5. Verbal learning gives a person the opportunity to gain new experience through language and verbal communication. Thanks to him, a person can transfer to other people who speak speech and receive from them the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. To do this, they must be expressed in words understandable to the student, and the meaning of incomprehensible words needs to be clarified. Speaking more broadly, not only verbal speech, but also other sign systems, one of which is language, serve as a means of verbal learning. Sign systems also include symbols used in mathematics, physics, chemistry, graphic symbols used in technology, art and other fields of activity. The assimilation of language and other symbolic systems, the acquisition of the ability to operate with them, frees a person from the need for a real collision with the object of study and its knowledge with the help of the senses. The learning process is implemented through the following intellectual mechanisms: association formation (establishing links between individual knowledge or parts of experience), imitation (mainly in the field of skills formation), distinction and generalization (in the field of concept formation), insight ("guesses", i.e., the direct perception of any new information in what is already known from past experience), creativity (the basis for creating new knowledge, objects, skills and abilities). 18. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTOR OF SUCCESSFUL LEARNING The measure of the effectiveness of learning can only be activity. The effectiveness of learning depends on many factors related to the perceptual, motivational, affective spheres, as well as states of consciousness. Thus, the effectiveness of this process is affected by: the development of cognitive processes; the ability to interact with others; the optimal level of difficulty and accessibility of the material; the very situation in which learning takes place: its thoughtfulness and preparation; encouraging success and preventing failure; stress, unusual conditions (for example, alcohol intoxication); experience and knowledge that can both make learning difficult and easy; memory, emotional and motivational activity for processing external information. Learning and maturation. No learning will be effective if the organism has not reached a certain level of development. Development occurs in the process of maturation of musculoskeletal structures, nervous structures and sensorimotor connections. The stage of maturity is different for each organ, property and function. Such heterochrony determines the presence of so-called critical periods. Critical, or sensitive, periods are periods during which the organism is most sensitive to certain environmental influences (or rather, certain environmental stimuli). Learning during these periods is more effective than before and after them. Habituation, sensitization, and even classical conditioning are already possible in the fetus. In a newborn, the first minutes of life are critical for the emergence of attachment to the parent and the further normal development of the personality. Operant forms of learning appear in the first days of life. Vicarious learning develops by the age of two or three, when there is self-awareness. According to J. Piaget, cognitive forms of learning are formed very slowly when the nervous system matures and it becomes possible to establish connections between individual elements of the world. This happens around the age of five. The ability to reason is formed only by the age of 12. Not everything related to development can be called learning. For example, biological maturation proceeds according to biological, genetic laws. But learning is based on the level of biological maturity. Learning is more dependent on maturation than maturation on learning, since the possibility of external influence on the genotypic conditionality of the processes and structures of the body is very limited. Learning can be viewed not only as a process, but also as a result of learning, which is understood as an activity guided by cognitive motives and goals. Classically, in pedagogical psychology, learning is considered as a process of educational actions undertaken by the student, aimed at developing abilities, acquiring new knowledge, skills and abilities. In turn, the learning process involves the joint learning activities of students and teachers and characterizes the process of transferring knowledge, skills and abilities. Here the emphasis is on what the teacher does. Learning activity is a process in which a person consciously and purposefully acquires new knowledge or improves his existing knowledge. All three concepts refer to the content of the educational process. 19. THE ESSENCE OF THE DOCTRINE Teachings - one of the main forms of activity of the body. In essence, the teaching is one, but evolutionarily fragmented and qualitatively different at different evolutionary stages. There are many aspects in teaching (psychological, pedagogical, social, anthropological, cybernetic, etc.). Psychology, considering teaching from an evolutionary point of view, proceeds from the biological and physiological foundations of teaching. Teaching is a general phenomenon in the life of organisms. It can be defined as such changes in behavior that arise on the basis of an individual's adaptation to changing living conditions. In relation to a person, it is necessary to take into account the active nature of the teaching. In this sense, teaching is a form of activity in the course of which an individual changes his mental properties and behavior not only under the influence of external conditions, but also depending on the results of his own actions. In the process of learning, various complex changes in cognitive and motivational structures take place, on the basis of which the individual's behavior takes on a target character and becomes organized. These systems of change are probabilistic in nature. In the theory of learning, as it is considered by the theory of general systems, the points of view of behavioristic psychology and the methodological approach of cognitive psychology and systems theory are combined. The specificity of teaching in psychology is due to the fact that it is considered primarily as the activity of the subject. Here the structural and functional method and the idea of development are linked together. Qualitative transformations take place in the course of the learning process. Depending on the innate characteristics in the process of learning, the individual develops structures of abilities and characterological features, which, together with consciousness, are the highest regulatory instances of human behavior. The evolutionary point of view takes into account the place of learning in ontogenesis and defines learning as the main factor in mental development: on its basis, the human personality develops. Development itself is a complex multifaceted process, and not a simple sum of what has been learned. The process of learning depends on many conditions, including social ones: the influence of the group on learning, ethnic influences, the social conditioning of mental changes, etc. Teaching plays a huge role in the socialization of the child, which is carried out through contacts with other people and cultural products on the basis of the assimilation of cultural and historical experience invested in objects, language, and cognitive systems (A.N. Leontiev). Social control in this case is carried out through the use of specific relationships and social feedback. In the life of society, teaching performs the following functions: 1)) transfers social experience to subsequent generations, who develop and enrich it; 2) contributes to the development of human speech, which is used to store, process and transmit information. Since any management cannot do without information, it is impossible to manage society and its development without teaching. The transfer of information necessary for society occurs either spontaneously (involuntary learning and learning), or purposefully (educational system). Within this new system, new social ties also emerge. 20. CONCEPT OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES Learning concept - this is a set of generalized provisions, a system of views aimed at understanding the essence, content, methodology and organization of the educational process and the characteristics of the activities of students and educators in the course of its implementation. The process of teaching the younger generation has been eternal and burning at all times, therefore, having answered the question "what to teach?", you should immediately look for the answer to the question "how to teach?" in order to achieve the desired result in the most effective way. To date, quite a lot of experience has been accumulated in solving this problem, although none of the concepts is absolutely complete and "sinless". The theory of gradual formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperin. D.B. Elkonin, N.F. Talyzina and a number of other specialists. They found that knowledge, skills and abilities can neither be acquired nor retained outside of activity. This theory assumes such a construction of educational activity, in which knowledge, skills and abilities are formed on the basis of external objective actions organized according to certain rules. The theory of formation in children of a system of scientific concepts V.V. Davydov. This theory is based on the idea that elementary school students are quite capable of assimilating abstract scientific concepts, which means that training can be based not on the principle from the particular to the general, but on the principle of the general to the particular. Problem-Based Learning Concept is a set of interrelated methods and means that ensure the creative participation of students in the process of assimilation of new knowledge, the formation of creative thinking and cognitive interests of the individual. The central concepts of this theory are "problem", "problem situation" and "problem task". In the 1960s actively developed programmed learning concept. Its essence lies in the division of educational material into certain interrelated "doses" and their consistent presentation to students. Moreover, the transition to the study of subsequent "doses" of the material is carried out only after the development of the previous ones. Currently, in line with the theory of programmed learning, there is an active development of computer technologies. Learning activity, like any other, is motivated by a hierarchy of motives, which can be dominated by either internal motives due to the content of this activity and its implementation, or external motives related to the student's need to take a certain place in the system of social relations (successfully graduate from school, earn a positive attitude). those around you to receive some kind of reward). With age, the development and interaction of the student's needs and motives occur, which leads to changes in their hierarchy. The formation of learning motivation is not just a strengthening of a positive or negative attitude towards learning, but the complication of the structure of the motivational sphere behind this phenomenon: the emergence of new, more mature motives, the emergence of other, sometimes contradictory, relationships between them. Accordingly, when analyzing the motivation of educational activity, it is necessary not only to determine the dominant motive, but also to take into account the entire structure of the motivational sphere of the individual. 21. FEATURES OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES Earlier it was noted that learning can occur spontaneously, unconsciously, non-purposefully, and learning involves the activity of the subject. When it comes to activity, we can talk about activity. In a broad sense, activity is a dynamic system of human interaction with the world or a specific activity aimed at satisfying a need. Human activity includes: need as an unconscious state of need for something, acting as a source of activity; motive as a perceived reason underlying the choice of actions and deeds; the goal as a conscious image of the anticipated result, to which the human action is directed; a task as a goal of activity given under certain conditions, which must be achieved by transforming these conditions. Educational is such an activity in which the cognitive interest or mental development of the individual acts as the leading motive. Learning activities consists of the following main links: educational goal, method of execution, control and evaluation. The structure of learning activity can be represented as follows: cognitive motive - cognitive goal - cognitive task - cognitive actions - control - evaluation. Learning activity is a process as a result of which a person purposefully acquires new or changes his knowledge, skills, abilities, improves and develops his abilities. Learning activity involves two interrelated processes: teaching and learning. traininge is a conscious process that involves the joint activity of the student and teacher. When talking about learning, traditionally focus on the activities of the teacher. Teaching as an aspect of educational activity is more connected with the activity of the student, his educational activities aimed at developing abilities and acquiring the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. Sides of educational activity: The external side of educational activity is made up of practical actions of students with subjects that are included in the educational process (teaching aids, aids, etc.). The internal side of educational activity is represented by internal mental actions and operations that the student performs (perception, memorization, mental processing of information, reproduction of material). The orienting side of educational activity is external and internal actions aimed at familiarizing oneself with the composition of acquired knowledge, skills, and learning criteria. The performing side of educational activity characterizes the very process of mastering and using the relevant knowledge, skills and abilities. All aspects of learning activities are associated with a variety of learning activities and operations. The success of educational activity largely depends on the predominance of a certain motivational orientation. In pedagogical psychology, four types of motivational orientations of educational activity are distinguished: 1) on the process (the student enjoys the very process of solving educational problems, he likes to look for different ways to solve them); 2) on the result (the most important thing for the student is the acquired and acquired knowledge and skills); 3) to be assessed by the teacher (the main thing is to receive a high or at least a positive assessment at the moment, which is not at all a direct reflection of the actual level of knowledge); 4) to avoid trouble (teaching is carried out mainly formally, only in order not to receive low marks, not to be expelled, not to conflict with the teacher and the administration of the educational institution). 22. FORMATION OF LEARNING MOTIVATION, ITS TYPES Learning motivation - a private type of motivation included in the educational activity and determining the student's need for knowledge. What kind of motivation will be formed in a student depends on a number of factors, among which are the following: - building an educational system (existing levels of education, opportunities and prospects for the transition from one level to another, the possibility of obtaining education in a particular specialty); - functioning of a specific educational institution (school, lyceum or gymnasium), teaching staff; psychological atmosphere for teachers and students; - organization of the educational process (building a schedule of classes, dividing the academic year into segments - quarters or semesters, forms of intermediate and final control of students' knowledge); - subjective characteristics of the student (age, gender, intellectual development, self-esteem, abilities, features of interaction with other students); - subjective features of the teacher (primarily the attitude towards the student and teaching, as well as other features); - the specifics of the subject (the areas of knowledge reflected by it, the subjective difficulty for the student, the features of teaching methods). Learning motivation is characterized by direction, stability and dynamism. Educational activity, like any other, is motivated by a hierarchy of motives, which can be dominated by either internal motives due to the content of this activity and its implementation, or external motives related to the student's need to take a certain place in the system of social relations (successfully graduate from school, earn a positive attitude). those around you to receive some kind of reward). With age, the development and interaction of the student's needs and motives occur, which leads to changes in their hierarchy. The formation of learning motivation is not just a strengthening of a positive or negative attitude towards learning, but the complication of the structure of the motivational sphere behind this phenomenon: the emergence of new, more mature motives, the emergence of other, sometimes contradictory, relationships between them. Accordingly, when analyzing the motivation of educational activity, it is necessary not only to determine the dominant motive, but also to take into account the entire structure of the motivational sphere of the individual. Educational motivation begins to take shape in early school age. It is based on interest to new knowledge. The most important prerequisites for the formation of a student's interest in learning. 1. Understanding the meaning of learning activities awareness of its importance to you personally. Interest in the content of educational material and in the educational activity itself can be formed only on the condition that the student has the opportunity to show mental independence and initiative in learning. 2. Novelty of educational material and its diversity, as well as the variety of teaching methods. The means of ensuring these properties of the educational material and the educational process are not only the introduction of new information into them, the acquaintance of students with ever new objects of study, but also the discovery of new sides in objects already known to students, showing them the new and unexpected in the usual and everyday. 3. Emotional coloring of teaching, the living word of the teacher. If the teacher demonstrates his own interest in the subject, finds vivid, convincing examples, skillfully uses the intonational coloring of the material, the subjective difficulty in mastering even the most difficult subject decreases, and interest in it increases. 23. SUBJECTS OF LEARNING ACTIVITY The child becomes the subject of educational activity from the moment of entering the school. Junior schoolboy as a subject of educational activity, he himself develops and forms within its framework, mastering new ways of mental actions and operations: analysis, synthesis, generalization, classification, etc. It is in educational activity that the main relations of the younger student with society are carried out and the main qualities of his personality are formed in it. (self-awareness and self-esteem, motivation to achieve success, diligence, independence, ideas about morality, creative and other abilities) and cognitive processes (arbitrariness, productivity), as well as his attitude towards himself, the world, society, people around him. This general attitude is manifested through the child's attitude to learning, the teacher, comrades, and the school as a whole. The hierarchy of authorities changes in the junior schoolchild: along with the parents, the teacher becomes a significant figure, and in most cases his authority is even higher, since he organizes the leading educational activity for junior schoolchildren, is the source of the knowledge gained. A teenager as a subject of educational activity is characterized by the fact that for him it ceases to be the leading one, although it remains the main one, occupying most of his time. For a teenager, social activity becomes the leading one, carried out within the framework of other types of activity: organizational, cultural, sports, labor, informal communication. In all these activities, a teenager seeks to establish himself as a person, to become a socially significant person. He assumes different social roles, learns to build communication in different teams, taking into account the norms of relationships adopted in them. Educational activity becomes for a teenager one of the types of ongoing activity that can ensure his self-affirmation and individualization. A teenager manifests himself in studies, chooses some means and methods of its implementation and rejects others, prefers some subjects and ignores others, behaves in a certain way at school, trying to attract the attention of his peers in the first place, achieves a more equal position in relations with teachers . Thus, he asserts himself, his subjective exclusivity and individuality, striving to stand out in some way. A high school student as a subject of educational activity is specific in that he has already made a certain choice to continue his studies. Its social situation of development is characterized not only by a new team that arises during the transition to high school or a secondary specialized educational institution, but also mainly by a focus on the future: the choice of a profession, a further way of life. Accordingly, in the upper grades, the most important activity for the student is the search for value orientations, associated with the desire for autonomy, the right to be oneself, a person who is different from those around him, even those closest to him. A high school student consciously thinks about the choice of a profession and, as a rule, tends to make a decision about it himself. This life circumstance to the greatest extent determines the nature of his educational activity: it becomes educational and professional. 24. FEATURES OF LEARNING DURING PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD In the preschool period, the child's perception, memory and thinking are improved. During this period, the child easily learns to read and write and prepares for admission to school. At this age, opportunities open up for the development of cognitive processes, in particular perceptions through the assimilation of sensory standards - the sensory properties of objects distinguished by adults when they are perceived by a child and fixed in the language with the help of concepts. Sensory standards have developed historically and do not present difficulties for adults, but this is a problem for a child who must be taught to compare the properties of specific objects through the senses. The child must be taught to use sensory standards: geometric shapes (line, angle, triangle, rectangle, circle, square, etc.), color (spectrum and various shades, saturation, brightness, magnitude and difference in magnitude), etc. Development Memory goes in several directions: giving arbitrariness to the processes of memorization; transition from direct to indirect memorization; development of means and techniques of memorization. From the age of 4, a child can memorize some things with the help of others. By the age of 5-6, there is a desire to purposefully remember something, to move from direct reproduction to delayed, from repetition "out loud" to repetition "to oneself". If the child has an internal mindset, that is, the acceptance of a mnemonic goal, then this marks the transition from involuntary to voluntary memorization. But this transition occurs only when the child is interested in the use of appropriate means. Therefore, the educator needs to take care of the formation of the necessary motivation in the child. Improving memory occurs simultaneously with the improvement of mental activity and in direct proportion to it. An important feature of the preschool period is the formation and development of an internal plan of action, in the mind the action is reproduced, implemented according to the plan, a decision is formulated and followed. A special role at this age stage is played by the imagination, which is actively developed in the game and in other various types of creativity. Therefore, it is very important to give preschoolers imagination exercises (for example, tell the story of the life of a matchbox, pencil, etc., "biography by portrait", "what clouds look like"; "justify the pose"; come up with a symbol for the game or use magic " if"). At this age, close attention to children's speech is necessary. The main task here is to enrich the child's vocabulary. An important role in this is played by the reading of fairy tales and stories and their retelling, the joint activity of peers and adults, which occurs with active verbal contact. If the period from 1 to 3 years is considered sensitive for the acquisition of speech, then the period from 4 to 5 years is sensitive for the development of the language as a system. Five years is a "why" period that adults should answer as fully as possible. At the same time, the child learns to understand the ambiguity of the words used and their semantic shades. It is important to develop all types of speech: dialogical, monologue, reproductive, intonationally different, to teach the child to reason "out loud". The development of speech during the period of the second childhood goes along the line of connection with thinking, i.e., its intellectualization takes place. At the same time, speech itself becomes an instrument of thought. 25. PSYCHOLOGICAL READINESS OF THE CHILD FOR SCHOOL At the senior preschool age there is fast growth и child's physical development development of coordination of movements, large and small motor skills of hands. The child is getting better at handling pencils, plasticine, scissors, his movements become more clear, precise and accurate. By the end of preschool age, the child's hand is almost ready to learn to write. In the transition from preschool to school age, obvious changes in the character occur and the child’s behavior appears deliberate, the child begins to be frivolous, capricious, etc. This period is called crisis of seven years, which is also called the crisis of spontaneity L.S. Vygotsky pointed out that the most significant feature of the crisis of seven years could be called the beginning of differentiation of the inner and outer sides of the child's personality, i.e., the child begins to navigate in his feelings and experiences, to understand himself. The very nature of experiences is rebuilt, they begin to acquire meaning for the child. Thus, in the period of preschool childhood, the child goes from realizing himself as "I myself", as a physically independent individual to realizing his inner life, his feelings and experiences. Learning to read and write. When teaching six-year-olds to read and write, the main problem is motivation: the child must have a need to develop written language and use it as a means of communication. The nature of the preschooler's teaching as a whole is determined by his attitude to the requirements of an adult: he learns to master these requirements and translate them into his own goals and objectives. Success depends on the conditions and on the nature of the distribution of functions between the participants in the process. Preschoolers definitely need developing didactic games, which should: develop cognitive interests; generate immediate interest; provide an opportunity to express yourself; engage in competition with others; ensure independence in the search for knowledge and the formation of skills and abilities; provide in the game the availability of sources of new knowledge; give the opportunity to receive well-deserved rewards for success (and not so much for the win itself, but for demonstrating new knowledge). Senior preschool age immediately precedes the child's transition to the next, very important stage of his life - entering school. Problem readiness child to schooling is considered today primarily as a psychological one: priority is given to the level of development of the motivational-required sphere, the arbitrariness of mental processes, operational skills, and the development of fine motor skills of the hands. Intellectual readiness for school alone does not ensure the child's successful entry into learning activities. These are the general mental and personal characteristics of a preschool child, which should be taken into account in pedagogical activity. 26. LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE Organization of educational activities. First of all, it should be noted that the main difficulties for children entering school are the regime, new relationships and requirements. During the adaptation period, it is important to use additional moral incentives for learning (praise, encouragement, etc.) and, if possible, minimize punishment. A feature of teaching younger students is the need to include games (didactic, subject, sports, etc.) in the educational activities. In elementary school, the child masters purely performing elements of educational activity. Then the student may be offered to master the next element of educational activity, namely control. At this age, it is better to use external control from an adult (teacher) and self-control. Mutual control can also be used, but not between peers, but between a student and a teacher or parent. Parent's function: to make sure that the child does not miss mistakes, not prompting, but expressing doubt and uncertainty. After correcting all the mistakes, the child rewrites the homework in his notebook. The motivation for such a game remains in the child for 1-2 months, which is quite enough to move the situation with homework off the ground and transfer elementary control skills to the child. Sometimes in elementary school, children may have problems learning to read and write, especially for six-year-olds. On the one hand, this can be explained by the fact that their peripheral nervous system is not prepared to perform such intellectual tasks as reading and writing. This happens when the child's body lacks myelin, from which a sheath is formed that covers the nerve endings and facilitates the passage of nerve impulses, on which the implementation of muscle movements depends. Since myelination extends from the head down and from the central nervous system to the peripheral, control of the long muscles of the hand and coordination of the small muscles of the fingers is not immediately available. The possibility of carrying out such an operation as writing depends on the coordination of finger movements. Last of all, the visual apparatus undergoes myelination, which is also of paramount importance in the development of reading and writing skills. Another aspect of the psychological difficulties associated with learning to read is that it is difficult for a child to immediately start reading aloud, and this is precisely the practice that exists at school. Note that in this case the child will have to: 1) read correctly, with expression, and preferably quickly; 2) to have time to realize the meaning of what is read; 3) understand and worry that his reading is completely controlled from the outside and that every mistake will be noticed and appreciated. With such an attitude, it is difficult for a child to enjoy reading, and he may unconsciously conclude that adults need reading, and not him. The difficulty and tension of the reading process can be partially removed by another setting: "You first read" to yourself "and for yourself, and then repeat aloud for me. "Then the child reads twice, and the internal action, having "ripened" inside, manifests itself in a finished form " outside" for another. One of the causes of learning problems can be poor memory. Such children need to form and develop mnemonic activity, that is, they should be taught special memorization techniques. Other learning problems are clarified in the analysis of the child's play and design activities. In this case, it is important to determine the "proximal zone of development" of the child, that is, to find out what he is able to understand and assimilate on his own with minimal help from an adult. 27. A TEENAGER AS A SUBJECT OF LEARNING ACTIVITY In adolescence, intellectual development can be accelerated in the following areas. 1. Develop the conceptual structure of thinking and speech intelligence. This is facilitated by the study of rhetoric, which forms the ability to plan and compose public speeches, conduct a discussion and answer questions. 2. To improve the internal plan of action, the formation of which is helped by special exercises aimed at ensuring that the same real actions are performed as often as possible not with objects, but in the mind. For example, count "to yourself", and not on paper; find ways to solve the problem "in the mind." You can introduce such a rule: until the decision is thought out “in the mind”, until the plan of actions included in it is drawn up and until it is verified for logic, one should not proceed to a practical solution. If this rule is used in relation to all subjects, then the internal plan of action will be formed much faster. In middle and high school, students should not be required to memorize "frozen" definitions of scientific concepts. Let the guys themselves find a definition for them, or at least convey the meaning of the concept in their own words. How much a student can deviate from the definition given by the teacher is a good method for diagnosing his intellectual development. Adolescence and early adolescence is a favorable period for the formation and development of "practical intelligence", the attributes of which are considered to be common sense, ingenuity, intuition and "golden hands". The Structure of Practical Intelligence includes (according to R.S. Nemov): - Entrepreneurship as a person's ability to find several options for solving a problem in difficult life situations; - frugality (a person is able to find a way of action that in the current situation at the lowest cost will lead to the desired result); - prudence as the ability to look ahead, foreseeing the consequences of certain actions, accurately determine the result and evaluate what it can cost; - the ability to quickly and efficiently solve problems (this is a dynamic characteristic of practical intelligence, manifested in the amount of time that passes from the moment a problem arises to its practical solution). The ability to solve practical problems is largely determined by the temperament of the child, the characteristics of his nervous system and already acquired life experience. It is important to teach the child one rule: as soon as a problem arises, you must immediately begin to solve it. Opportunities for the formation of practical intelligence in children at school: student self-government, participation in public organizations and commercial work, as well as providing independence in household chores. When organizing the educational process in the middle classes, it is important to remember that the main thing for the child during this period is communication with peers. Therefore, for example, homework can be given in groups of 2-3 people, which makes it possible to take into account and use this leading need. The ban on "collective" homework leads to total cheating during breaks. During this period, of course, group forms of work in the classroom are preferable. 28. HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT AS A SUBJECT OF LEARNING ACTIVITY Period senior school age can be described as the initial stage of physical maturity. The period of puberty is coming to an end, and older students are already ready for fairly large physical and mental stress. The inclusion of young people in adult life with its norms and rules is actively taking place. In general, this period in a person's life is characterized by self-confidence, cheerfulness and the ability to high self-esteem. The social orientation of the individual is increasing. There are own assessments of certain phenomena of reality, views and opinions. The growth of self-consciousness is going on very rapidly. Youth is self-critical and critical of others. Leading activity - educational and professional. Major innovations. All new formations of cognitive processes ended in adolescence, and in youth there is a strengthening and improvement of what has already developed. Among personal neoplasms, the most important are the feeling of adulthood, the need for self-determination (the choice of a profession and life path), the formation of a worldview and independence of judgment, the desire for self-education. The main needs of this age: to get rid of the control and evaluations of adults; communicate with "chosen" adults and peers of the opposite sex. Leading motives are the motives of the future. At senior school age, the systematization of the acquired knowledge, the assimilation of the theoretical foundations of various disciplines, the generalization of knowledge into a single picture of the world, and the knowledge of the philosophical meaning of phenomena take place. Teaching motives. At senior school age, as a rule, interest in learning (in its content and process) increases, as the motives for self-determination and preparation for independent life are included. There is a combination and interpenetration of broad social and cognitive motives. Arbitrary motivation is clearly expressed, because the reasons for the attitude to learning are well understood. High school students are already ready for self-education. By the senior school age, a research attitude to academic subjects and the ability to find and pose a problem are formed. Therefore, in the educational process, high school students are attracted by the very course of task analysis, comparison of different points of view, discussions and explanations that make them think. High school students already have a fairly well-developed abstract thinking. At this age, an "individual style of activity" is formed, which, according to E.A. Klimov, an individually peculiar system of mental properties, to which a person consciously or spontaneously resorts in balancing his individuality with the objective external conditions of activity. A special role in the senior school age is played by the attitude to one's abilities. The latter are actively compared with the requirements of the chosen profession. But in order to identify the presence of certain abilities in high school students, it is necessary to first identify the sphere of primary interests, since the abilities are realized precisely there. This should be remembered by educators, teachers, parents and psychologists. At this age, the role of the teacher in the life of the child also changes: he acts more like a consultant on the subject. 29. LEARNING MOTIVATION The word "motive" (from the French "motif") means "I move" and is understood as a person's motivation for activity. On the other hand, motive is a conscious need. Need, in turn, is the source of human activity. Therefore, the motive expresses the direction of its activity. Motives are related to the goals that a person sets. In psychology research motive is defined as an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the subject. The totality of such motives that cause the activity of the subject is motivation. Motives are an essential component of any activity. A typical sign of a motive is a set of actions around one object. A motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions; on the other hand, action can be motivated by various motives. Needs, interests, feelings, knowledge, etc. can act as motives. Motives are not always realized, therefore, two large classes are distinguished: conscious motives and unconscious motives. As part of the motivational sphere, the composition of needs, motives and goals is distinguished. Human needs are the desire to act, the need requires the performance of actions, as a result of which it is satisfied. The most significant of these needs is intellectual. By actions, one can judge the needs of a person. The need, as a rule, has two sides - procedural (action) and content (need). Some needs may be unnecessary. For example, the need to communicate, think, sleep, etc. A person not only desires something, but also designates his needs with a word. Thus, needs are characterized by the following features: meaning (ideological content), content (need), procedural (activity) side. The motives of learning activity are the driving force that directs the student to the active acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. They can be created by different sources: external (learning situations), internal (social needs, the need for activity, in obtaining information), personal (success, pleasure, self-affirmation). The sources of motives will create a positive attitude towards learning activity if they are "included" in it, that is, if they are its goal and result. Among the motives of learning, one can single out, for example: foreseeing the results of learning (I will get a test, pass an exam, master a foreign language, get a diploma), foreseeable experiences that are associated with the results of educational activities. In the structure of motives, it is important to find the dominant, acting really, and highlight it. The greatest force among the motives of educational activity has a cognitive interest. e. interest in knowledge. The motivation of cognitive interest is connected with the unity of its three sides: cognitive, emotional and volitional, which make up its structure. With age, cognitive interest turns from an unstable interest into a dominant one. The motivational basis of the student's activity organizes (unites) learning activity into a single whole. The system of the motivational basis of the student's learning activity consists of the following elements: focusing on the learning situation - understanding the meaning of the upcoming activity - conscious choice of motive - goal setting - striving for the goal - striving to achieve success - self-assessment of the process and results of activities. 30. CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING MOTIVES Success in the education and upbringing of children directly depends on motivation, that is, the presence of significant and effective incentives for the assimilation of knowledge and the acquisition of certain personal qualities. Numerous difficulties in the field of educational motivation are explained by a number of circumstances: 1) all motives are not completely known, due to which children of different ages and with different individual characteristics are included in learning, communication, are interested in acquiring new personal qualities, knowledge and skills; 2) Adults think about the motives for teaching children, who no longer remember the true state of affairs in childhood and can only guess about the true motives of children's behavior; 3) among the children themselves there are huge individual differences: what is significant for one is not of interest to another; 4) motivation itself turns out to be situationally variable, and what is suitable for stimulating educational and educational interests in some situations may be inadequate in others. Thus, one of the main tasks in training and education is to learn how to practically influence the child's motivation and minimize the factors that reduce it. Motivation in learning can be understood as the personal interest of the student in obtaining knowledge and skills. Learning motives are a psychological characteristic of a student's interest in learning and their own development. Motivation can be situational (due to external factors) and personal (determined by internal aspirations). They also distinguish between relevant motivation that is directly related to the acquisition of knowledge and skills (for example, the child's curiosity), and irrelevant motivation that is not directly related to learning and development (for example, the child learns a lesson to avoid punishment). When we talk about the motivation of a child, we cannot do without such a thing as children's interest. L.S. Vygotsky defines interest as a form of manifestation of instinct, as the focus of the child's mental apparatus on a certain object. Interests are of universal importance in a child's life. An extremely difficult psychological task is to find the right interest and make sure that you do not evade it and do not replace it with another. There is a psychological rule for the transition of natural interests to those that are grafted, the education of which is the main goal. In order for a subject to interest us, it must be connected with something that attracts us, already familiar, but it must also contain new forms of activity. The completely new and the completely old cannot interest us. In addition, in order to compare the new subject and the student's personal attitude towards it, it is necessary to make its study a personal matter of the student. In other words, a new child's interest must be approached through an already existing child's interest. For example, Thorndike suggested using children's natural interest in the kitchen to study chemistry, but in such a way that later the interest in chemistry would suppress the interest in the kitchen. 31. THE PROBLEM OF MOTIVATION TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS Of great importance is the study of such broad forms of motivation, which, manifesting themselves in various fields of activity (professional, scientific, educational), determine a creative, proactive attitude to business and affect both the nature and quality of work performance. One of the main types of such motivation is the achievement motivation, which determines the desire of a person to perform a task at a high level of quality wherever there is an opportunity to show their skills and abilities. It is of fundamental importance that achievement motivation is closely related to such personality traits as initiative, responsibility, conscientious attitude to work, realism in assessing one’s capabilities when setting goals, etc. Achievement-oriented behavior implies that each person has motives achieving success and avoiding failure. The predominance of one or another motivational tendency is always accompanied by a choice of the difficulty of the goal. People who are motivated to succeed tend to prefer medium-difficulty or slightly inflated goals that are only marginally better than what they have already achieved. They prefer to take calculated risks. Those motivated to fail are prone to extreme choices, some of them unrealistically underestimate, while others unrealistically overestimate the goals they set for themselves. Those motivated to fail, in the case of simple and well-practiced skills (like those used in adding pairs of single digits), act faster, and their results decline more slowly than those motivated to succeed. When tasks of a problematic nature that require productive thinking, these same people worsen their work in conditions of time pressure, while those motivated for success improve it. A person's knowledge of his abilities affects his expectations of success. When there is a full range of ability in a class, only students of average ability will be highly motivated to achieve and/or avoid failure. Neither high-smart nor low-achieving students will have strong achievement motivation, as the competitive situation will either seem "too easy" or "too difficult." The desire to achieve success according to F. Hoppe (1930), or "achievement motive" according to D. McClelland, is a steadily manifested need of an individual to achieve success in various activities. For the first time this disposition (motivational property) was singled out in G. Murray's classification. Quite widely known was his motivational concept, in which, along with the list of organic, or primary, needs identified by W. MacDougall, identical to the main instincts Murray proposed a list of secondary (psychogenic) needs that arise on the basis of instinctual drives as a result of education and training. These are the needs for success. affiliations, aggression, independence, opposition, respect, humiliation, protection, dominance, attracting attention, avoiding harmful influences, avoiding failure, patronage, order, play, rejection, understanding, sexual relations, help, mutual understanding. Later, six more needs were added to these twenty: acquisition, rejection of accusations, knowledge, creation, explanation, recognition, and thrift. 32. FEATURES OF LEARNING TASKS Learning task - a definitely formulated information system in which there is information inconsistency between its parts, which causes the need for its transformation and coordination. In the learning task, the main components that carry a certain information load are distinguished. In various subject areas, tasks may contain specific qualities that affect their component composition. So, for example, a pedagogical task (problem) is somewhat different from a mathematical one. However, it is possible to single out the most general components of the problem. These are: form, structure and content. The task form expresses the internal organization and interaction of the task elements both with each other and with external conditions. So, in mathematics, they are distinguished by the form of a problem (theorem): - to find (internal organization is aimed at finding information about the object in question in the form of its area, length, etc.); - on evidence (internal organization is aimed at establishing the truth and falsity of a certain statement); - existence (they establish under what conditions there is a solution and under what conditions this or that mathematical object exists). Form - the mode of existence of the task, however, it is characterized by relativity, since it is possible to transform one form into another. This fact is especially significant in heuristic search, since it is necessary to make changes to the problem being solved that are characteristic of its internal organization. Structure - a set of rather elementary objects with a specifically described relationship between them, which represents an unambiguous organization of the set. As you can see, the structure serves to fix the totality of different objects and the structural relationships between them in the problem. The structure of the problem allows you to control its complexity, which is partly determined by the number of structural elements and the types of connections between them. This allows the teacher to adjust the degree of difficulty of the task based on the intellectual capabilities of the student. We can single out one more potential possibility of this component - based on various combinations of elements, combining them with previously known ones, restructuring the task, you can create a wide array of tasks that takes into account almost all structural situations. All this will make it possible to organize a heuristic search on any educational material of any complexity. If structural elements are defined in a given form, links between them, data and unknown elements of structural objects are established, then this information system determines the content of the task. Content - the leading component of the problem, on the basis of which the solution process begins. It has a certain mobility and relative independence from form and structure. Data is of particular importance in the content of the task. Data may be excessive, i.e. contain redundant information, may be inconsistent. Learning tasks, as a rule, contain the necessary and sufficient amount of data to find unknowns for a given structural relationship. 33. PSYCHOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LEARNING TASKS An important component and basic unit of learning activity is a learning task, which is solved as an act of performing an activity and "can be considered solved only when there have been predetermined changes in the subject." The concept of "learning task" should not be confused with a specific task solved in a lesson in any subject, such as doing exercises in the Russian language when studying spelling or solving math examples for raising to a power, extracting a root or logarithm. Learning task - a definitely formulated information system in which there is information inconsistency between its parts, which causes the need for its transformation and coordination. Learning task as a psychological concept means such a task, the solution of which does not come down to getting a specific answer after the transformation of the educational object (lexical or mathematical material, as in these examples), and leads to the assimilation by the student of some general way perform actions with a given class of objects, makes it capable take a logarithm, take a root, or raise any mathematical expression to a power, or write correctly in Russian. Learning activity differs from any practical activity in that it is aimed for conversion not an external object, but the subject of activity itself - student. The content of educational activity is the foundations of knowledge in the field of various sciences, i.e. theory. Theory in the form of scientific concepts as a generalized knowledge that reflects the essence of objects and phenomena, abstracted from their specific sensually perceived properties (particular external features), is present in the educational material of any level of schoolchildren, starting from the 1st grade. For example, such elementary linguistic concepts: "sound", "letter", "word", "sentence", etc. - when studying the native language or mathematical concepts: "value", "number", "addition", "subtraction ", etc., when studying arithmetic - are nothing more than theoretical concepts, and their assimilation by a child forms his theoretical knowledge. Theoretical knowledge becomes more and more as the child moves from the lower grades to the older ones, and the child, acquiring not only this scientific knowledge as such, masters the ability to think theoretically and thereby develops mentally (intellectually). The educational task implies the need for a conscious search aimed at achieving a result. To solve the problem, you need to find a well-thought-out scheme that will allow you to effectively reach the goal. In the literature, D. Poya's technique is given, which allows you to regulate heuristic (search) activity in the process of solving a problem. The table contains the most typical leading questions designed to help the student in solving problems. Depending on the specifics of the task, questions can be modified, changed, varied. 34. LEARNING ACTIONS AS A MEANS OF SOLVING LEARNING PROBLEMS The generalization of the action characterizes the degree of selection of the properties of the object that are essential for the performance of the action from others that are not essential. Studies have shown that generalization is not simply based on the selection of common things in subjects - this is a necessary, but still insufficient condition. Generalization always goes only on those properties of objects that are part of the indicative basis of actions aimed at analyzing these objects. This means that the management of the generalization of cognitive actions and the knowledge included in them should go through the construction of the students' activities by controlling the content of the orienting basis of the corresponding actions, and not only by ensuring the generality of properties in the presented objects. The cases when the generalization proceeds according to general but insignificant features are explained as follows. In school teaching, at best, a student is given a set of features to be guided by (through a definition), but orientation to them in the process of activity is not always ensured. Therefore, these signs are not always included in the indicative basis. Students construct their own orienting basis, including in it, first of all, those characteristics of the object that lie on the surface. As a result of this, generalization proceeds not according to the signs of the definition, but according to random, inessential ones. On the contrary, as soon as the system of necessary and sufficient attributes is introduced into the composition of the orienting basis of action and a systematic orientation to them and only to them is ensured in the performance of all proposed tasks, generalization proceeds according to this system of properties. The expansion of an action shows whether all the operations that were originally part of the action are performed by a person. As the action is formed, the composition of the operations performed decreases, the action becomes reduced, abbreviated. clotting occurs mental actions. At a certain stage in the development of mental activity, part of knowledge and mental operations acquire a special form of existence: they are "meaning", taken into account in the process of thinking, but are not updated, do not become the subject of awareness. The peculiarity of the process of reducing the operational composition of the formed actions means that the training program must ensure the assimilation of the action in an expanded form. Reduction of an action is a genetically later state of it, and, most importantly, in an abbreviated form, the action fully functions only when a person has the opportunity to restore it in an expanded form. In addition to these main characteristics, the action has a number of secondary properties: reasonableness, consciousness, abstractness, strength. Preservation in the mind of the student of the objective logic of the shortened action, the possibility of reproducing the missing elements is the consciousness of the action. Understanding curtailment not as a process of irretrievable loss of elements of mental activity, but as a process of their transition to a special form of existence, makes it possible to explain the inefficiency of forming actions immediately in a collapsed form. In this case, the logic of action turns out to be unrevealed, not realized by the subject, and does not exist for him either on the plane of the actually conscious or on the plane of the actually unconscious. 35. CLASSIFICATION OF LEARNING ACTIONS Learning activities can be classified in different ways. For example, in the process of solving each educational task, the following sequence of actions can be distinguished. 1. Goal-setting actions. Before starting to solve a problem, the student must accept it as a task to be completed. At the same time, it is important to correctly understand what exactly should be the result of solving the problem, to realize why and for what purpose it is being solved. 2. Planning activities. Taking for himself the goal of solving a learning problem, the student is faced with the need to select appropriate actions to solve it, to establish their sequence. 3. Performing actions. They represent external actions (subject and auxiliary, verbal and non-verbal), as well as internal (mental) actions to implement the plan for solving the problem. These activities are also classified by various signs. 1. Transformative and exploratory action. This difference is based on what kind of transformations the studied objects undergo and what is the scale of these objects. Transformative actions are understood as direct manipulations on a specific object in order to identify its properties, while the student may already know the general patterns and principles of the functioning of objects of this class (for example, solving a mathematical problem based on previously studied rules, laws and formulas). Research actions are aimed at revealing general patterns that were not previously known to the student, and this disclosure can occur purely theoretically, on the basis of an explanation or on specific examples, the analysis of which is subject to the goal of understanding a new generalized method of action. 2. In correlation with cognitive processes, among educational actions, perceptual, mnemonic and mental actions are distinguished. Perceptual actions embody the process of perception and include identification, identification, highlighting the figure against the background, separating the main from the secondary. Mnemic actions are carried out on the basis of the memory process, among them one can single out memorization, information filtering, its structuring, preservation, reproduction. Mental actions include, first of all, logical operations - comparison, analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, classification, etc. All these operations are different ways of revealing the existing connections and relationships between objects and within them. Each complex intellectual learning action includes a large number of often non-differentiable perceptual, mnemonic and mental operations. Due to the fact that they are not specifically singled out in the general group of learning activities, the teacher sometimes cannot accurately diagnose the nature of the student's difficulty in solving the learning task. 3. Reproductive and productive activities. Reproductive actions include reproducing actions carried out according to specified criteria, in a template way. The actions of goal-setting, transformation, creation of a new one, performed according to independently formed criteria, are considered as productive. There are also actions that, depending on the conditions, can be both. 4. Actions of self-control and self-assessment of the student. When solving a problem, each intermediate result obtained, and even more so the final one, is compared with the goal. Thus, it is estimated how close the decision process has come to achieving the goal. The actions of control and evaluation of the student are the internalized actions of the teacher, therefore the psychological mechanism of their formation is special. 36. CONCEPT, FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE Знания form the core of the learning content. On the basis of knowledge, students form skills и skills, mental and practical actions; knowledge is the basis of moral convictions, aesthetic views, worldview. The concept of "knowledge" is ambiguous and has several definitions. It is defined either as a part of consciousness, or as something common in reflecting subject diversity, or as a way of ordering reality, or as a certain product and result of cognition, or as a way of reproducing a cognizable object in the mind. Knowledge, due to biological laws, is also characteristic of animals, in which they serve as a necessary condition for their life, the implementation of behavioral acts. Knowledge is an organic unity of the sensual and the rational. Based on knowledge, skills and abilities are developed. The ambiguity in the definition of the concept of "knowledge" is due to the set of functions that is realized by knowledge. So, for example, in didactics knowledge can act both as something that should be learned, i.e. as learning goals, and as a result of the implementation of the didactic plan, and as content, and as a means of pedagogical influence. Knowledge acts as a means of pedagogical influence because, entering the structure of the student's past individual experience, it changes and transforms this structure and thereby raises the student to a new level of mental development. Knowledge not only forms a new view of the world, but also changes the attitude towards it. From this follows the educational value of any knowledge. Знания and the correctly chosen path of their assimilation is a prerequisite for the mental development of students. By itself, knowledge does not yet ensure the completeness of mental development, but without them the latter is impossible. Being an integral part of a person’s worldview, knowledge to a large extent determines his attitude to reality, moral views and beliefs, volitional personality traits and serves as one of the sources of a person’s inclinations and interests, a necessary condition for his development. abilities. Taking into account the didactic functions of knowledge listed above, the teacher faces several tasks: a) to transfer knowledge from its frozen fixed forms into the process of students' cognitive activity; b) transform knowledge from the plan of its expression into the content of students' mental activity; c) to make knowledge a means of forming a person as a person and a subject of activity. Types of knowledge: pre-scientific; worldly; artistic (as a specific way of aesthetic assimilation of reality); scientific (empirical and theoretical). The knowledge acquired in the learning process is characterized by a different depth of penetration of students into their essence, which, in turn, is due to: - the achieved level of knowledge of this field of phenomena; - learning objectives; - individual characteristics of students; - the stock of knowledge already available to them; - the level of their mental development; - the adequacy of the acquired knowledge to the age of the students. 37. MASTERING AS THE MAIN PRODUCT OF LEARNING ACTIVITY Basis assimilation knowledge is the active mental activity of students, directed by the teacher. The learning process consists of several stages. The first of these is perception object, which is associated with the selection of this object from the background and the definition of its essential properties. The stage of perception replaces the stage of comprehension, at which the most significant extra- and intra-subject connections and relations are perceived. The next stage of knowledge formation involves the process of capturing and remembering the selected properties and relationships as a result of their repeated perception and fixation. Then the process moves to the stage of active reproduction by the subject of perceived and understood essential properties and relationships. The process of assimilation of knowledge completes the stage of their transformation, which is associated either with the inclusion of newly acquired knowledge in the structure of past experience, or with its use as a means of constructing or highlighting another new knowledge. Knowledge can be acquired at different levels: - reproductive level - reproduction according to the model, according to the instructions; - productive level - the search and finding of new knowledge, non-standard way of action. Setting levels assimilation knowledge in diagnostics is important because these levels affect the quality of thinking, its stereotyped or non-stereotypical, originality. AND I. Confederates and V.P. Simonov distinguishes the following levels of knowledge assimilation, correlated with the corresponding stages of their assimilation: the level of discrimination (or recognition) of an object; the level of his memorization; level of understanding; application level. The result of a strong assimilation of knowledge is the formation of stable knowledge structures in students that reflect objective reality, when students are able to update and use the acquired knowledge. In the practice of teaching, it is not uncommon for a teacher to present a large amount of material and repeat it many times by students as a means of forming skills and abilities. However, overloading the memory with various theoretical and practical knowledge and lengthy exercises to memorize them do not always lead to solid knowledge. Reliance mainly on rote memorization, without a deep awareness of patterns and consistency in the system of acquired knowledge, is one of the reasons for formalism in teaching. Memorization and reproduction depend not only on the objective connections of the material, but also on the attitude of the individual to it. This attitude is influenced, in particular, by the interest of the student and the significance that the material being studied has for him. In certain cases, involuntary memorization may be more productive than voluntary. The educational process should be organized in such a way that students have a need for a long-term retention of acquired knowledge and skills and abilities, as well as methods of their application in practice. The need to acquire knowledge, awareness of its importance and vital necessity is achieved as a result of deep penetration into the system of concepts and patterns of each discipline, understanding the logic of science and ways of using knowledge. 38. ESSENCE OF SKILLS AND SKILLS The immediate goals of any academic subject are the assimilation by students of the system Knowledge and mastering certain skills and abilities. At the same time, mastery skills и skills occurs on the basis of the assimilation of effective knowledge, which determine the appropriate skills and abilities, i.e., indicate how one or another skill or skill should be performed. Skill and skill is the ability to perform one or another action. They differ in the degree (level) of mastery of this action. Skill - this is the ability to act, which has not reached the highest level of formation, performed completely consciously. Emboldening Salvo - this is the ability to act, which has reached the highest level of formation, performed automatically, without awareness of the intermediate steps. Skill is an intermediate stage in mastering a new way of acting, based on some rule (knowledge) and corresponding to the correct use of knowledge in the process of solving a certain class of problems, but not yet at the level of skill. Skill is usually correlated with the level expressed at the initial stage in the form of acquired knowledge (rules, theorems, definitions, etc.), which is understood by students and can be arbitrarily reproduced. In the subsequent process of practical use of this knowledge, it acquires some operational characteristics, acting in the form of a correctly performed action, regulated by this rule. In case of any difficulties that arise, the student turns to the rule in order to control the action being performed or to work on the mistakes made. Skills are automated components of a person's conscious action, which are developed in the process of its implementation. A skill emerges as a consciously automated action and then functions as an automated way of doing it. The fact that this action has become a habit means that the individual, as a result of the exercise, has acquired the ability to carry out this operation without making its implementation his conscious goal. The process of formation of educational skills и skills (general and narrow) is long and, as a rule, takes more than one year, and many of these skills (especially general ones) are formed and improved throughout a person’s life. You can set the following levels of student mastery of actions that correspond to both learning skills and skills: - 0-th level - students do not own this action at all (no skill); - 1st level - students are familiar with the nature of this action, they can perform it only with sufficient help from the teacher (adult); - 2nd level - students are able to perform this action on their own, but only according to the model, imitating the actions of a teacher or peers; - 3rd level - students are able to perform actions quite freely, being aware of each step; - 4th level - students automatically, minimized and accurately perform actions (skill). We emphasize that not all learning skills should reach the level of automation and become skills. Some learning skills are usually formed at school up to the 3rd level, others, mainly general, up to the 4th level, after which they are improved in subsequent training. 39. APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND SKILLS Application knowledge, skills и skills - the most important condition for preparing students for life, the way to establish a connection between theory and practice in educational work. Their use stimulates educational activity, inspires students' confidence in their abilities. Knowledge becomes a means of influencing objects and phenomena of reality, and skills and abilities become an instrument of practical activity only in the process of their application. The most important function of the application is to obtain new knowledge with its help, i.e., turning them into a tool of knowledge. In this capacity, the application of knowledge can often mean only a mental transformation of some initial models of reality in order to obtain new ones that more fully and perfectly reflect the real world. A typical example of such an application is mental experimentation. The ability to use acquired knowledge to obtain new ones is called intellectual skills and abilities. In practical activities, in addition to intellectual, it is necessary to use specific skills and abilities, which together ensure the success of work. The application of knowledge, skills and abilities - one of the stages of assimilation - is carried out in a wide variety of activities and largely depends on the nature of the subject, the specifics of the content being studied. It can be pedagogically organized by performing exercises, laboratory work, and practical activities. Particularly profound in its impact is the application of knowledge to solving educational and research problems. The application of knowledge enhances the motivation of learning, revealing the practical significance of what is being studied, makes knowledge more solid, really meaningful. The application of knowledge in each subject is unique. When studying physics, chemistry, natural science, physical geography, knowledge, skills and abilities are used in such types of student activities as observation, measurement, recording the data obtained in written and graphic forms, solving problems, etc. When studying humanitarian subjects, knowledge, skills and skills are realized when students independently explain certain phenomena, when applying spelling rules, etc. The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is associated primarily with the recognition in a particular situation of cases where such an application is appropriate. Special training appropriate recognition is associated with the establishment of a fundamental similarity and, consequently, with the ability to abstract (abstract) from factors and features that, under given circumstances, can be considered insignificant. Unity generalizations and concretization makes it possible to avoid solving problems only based on memory, and not on a comprehensive analysis of the proposed conditions, that is, to avoid the formalism of knowledge. Another necessary condition is mastery of the sequence of application operations. Learning such actions is usually given more attention, but even here there are errors - most often attempts to reduce it to purely algorithmic procedures in a once and for all given sequence. The application of knowledge, skills and abilities is successful when it acquires a heuristic and creative character. 40. THE ESSENCE OF P.Ya. GALPERINA This theory assumes such a construction of educational activity, in which knowledge, skills and abilities are formed on the basis of external objective actions organized according to certain rules. In the course of practical activity, a person develops an indicative basis of action (OOA) - a system of ideas about the goal, plan and means of implementing the upcoming action being performed. In order to accurately perform any action, a person must know what will happen and on what aspects of what is happening his attention will be focused - this will allow him not to release the desired changes out of control. These provisions formed the basis of the theory under consideration, according to which training is built in accordance with the OOD, assimilated by the trainee. Orientation types: 1) OOD - a specific sample (demonstration or description of an action without any indication of the methodology for its implementation); 2) OOD contains full and detailed instructions on the correct performance of the action; 3) The trainee creates the OOD independently on the basis of the received task. Orientation types: 1) actions by trial and error; 2) it is assumed that the task is set and a reasonable study of the sides of the action before it is performed; 3) there is an opportunity to draw up and implement an indicative basis for a new action. According to the concept of P.Ya. Galperin, the objective action and the thought expressing it are links in a single process of gradual transformation of a material action into an ideal one. The action is functionally related to the subject to which it is directed, and includes the product (the goal of transforming the action and the means of transforming). This is the performing part of the formative action. The action assimilation cycle consists of a number of stages (the basis of the cycle is the formation of a motivational basis - attracting attention, awakening interest, the result is the desire to obtain relevant knowledge). 1st stage. Preliminary acquaintance with the action (according to the instructions, description, visually). As a result, OOD is formed in the mind, i.e., a system of instructions on how to perform the action being learned. 2nd stage. material action. Students on simulators, models perform real actions in an external, material, expanded form. The execution of each operation is monitored. As a result, after solving several tasks of the same type (for example, preparing a computer for operation), the appeal to the OOD disappears. 3rd stage. External speech. The student speaks out loud the actions that are being mastered. The result is a generalization, reduction and automation of the action. 4th stage. Inner speech. The action is said "to oneself". As a result, the generalization of the action and its curtailment occur most intensively. 5th stage. Learned action. It is performed automatically, mentally without controlling the correctness of its implementation. As a result, the action passes into the internal plan and does not require external support. Strengths of the theory: 1) the time for the formation of skills and abilities is reduced by showing an exemplary performance of an action; 2) high automation of the performed actions is achieved in connection with their algorithmization; 3) accessible quality control of the performance of both the action as a whole and its specific operations is provided; 4) it is possible to quickly correct training methods in order to optimize them. Weaknesses of the theory: 1) the possibilities of assimilation of theoretical knowledge are significantly limited; 2) the development of methodological support for a (full) algorithm of operations is difficult); 3) students develop stereotypical mental and motor actions to the detriment of the development of creative potential. 41. STAGES OF FORMATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF MENTAL ACTIONS This concept approaches the very subject of psychology radically differently than in classical psychology. And mental development is also considered somewhat differently, especially with regard to the course or course of the development process itself. This concept is based on the following provisions. Development is a complex multifaceted changes a person associated with the formation of new actions, images and concepts. These changes, which are the essence of the development of thinking and other mental processes and human abilities associated with it, can be controlled in the course of their course, giving them the desired direction and quality. The peculiarity of this approach lies in the fact that if all other progressive theories, including the one discussed above, approach the solution of development problems from the outside foreign conditions (content, methodology, etc.) that need to be created in training and which in the end will ensure the successful development of the psyche, then this theory proceeds from the possibility of creating internal, psychological, conditions that ensure, for any content, its effective assimilation by the subject and the ability to control the process of assimilation from beginning to end, without waiting until "ultimately" something is formed. The theory of the gradual formation of mental actions is practical and highly effective. P.Ya. Galperin abandoned the traditional study of thinking, which prompted him to go "another way." In the 50s. he put forward a hypothesis, which, in a somewhat free presentation, can be presented as follows: 1) in order to find out, How thinking is being formed trace the whole process of this formation from beginning to end, 2) and in order to trace, it is necessary to abandon the method of "slices" (periodic measurements of the results of the development of thinking, which still do not give anything to trace the course of the process), and choose construction method the process itself to manage it from start to finish. What does it mean to "build" a thought process? It means teaching a person to think through guided learning and learning how it happens. Since at each level of development the possibilities of thinking essentially depend on the quality of previously acquired mental actions and concepts, the task is to ensure their acquisition with the desired psychological qualities - reasonableness, generalization, consciousness, etc. The experience of all types of education indicates that that post factum it is impossible to establish how the quality of existing actions depends on the conditions of their upbringing. Therefore, we have set ourselves the inverse problem - to determine the conditions necessary for the cultivation of certain, predetermined qualities of mental actions. And the traditional learning process turned to the opposite - instead of recording what would happen under conditions that are theoretically considered sufficient, we made these conditions the subject of a search: we selected, and if necessary, created such conditions that ensured the formation of mental actions with predetermined properties ". The elements of this concept can be considered: goal - to achieve strictly defined qualitative results in the form of predetermined qualities of assimilation; conditions, ensuring the achievement of this goal. These conditions turned out to be means of orientation in activity. 42. TYPES OF LEARNING The first type of teaching - he received the name "by trial and error" - is characterized by the incompleteness of the orienting basis of the action. assimilation Knowledge и skills when using the first type of DTE, it is very slow, with a lot of errors. An action that is performed on the basis of a skill formed in this way turns out to be very sensitive to the most insignificant changes in the conditions for its performance. The expediency of such an action is relative, since it also contains useless operations. It is not reasonable, although within certain limits it can be performed correctly. The transfer to new assignments is negligible. This type of teaching is not typical for the assimilation of social experience, since it relies on the agent's own discovery of the necessary guidelines. The second type is distinguished by the construction of the action on a complete indicative basis, offered in finished form and for individual objects. Training goes on without trial and error, systematic education of the desired properties allows you to achieve the intended results without a significant spread in academic performance. In comparison with the traditional, the second type of teaching is its cardinal improvement. However, it has significant limitations if one goes beyond its practical assessments. Aimed at the assimilation of ready-made knowledge, it does not educate students in theoretical cognitive interest, learning is reduced to mastering the ways of subsuming concepts. Opens up fundamentally new possibilities third type teachings. With the third type of OOD, assimilation also occurs without significant errors. The rationality of the action, the ability to perform which is formed using such a DTE, is even higher, since the student not only takes into account the conditions necessary to achieve the desired result, but also understands well their content, their relationship to the future product. This is the main reason for increasing the stability of the action. The transfer to new tasks is complete (within the boundaries of the intended area). The assimilation process is easy, although at first the student may need some time to master the new method of work - the latter is compensated by the rapid pace of assimilation during subsequent tasks. With this type of OOD, the basis is built by the students independently, although it is directed by the teacher, and not for each object separately, not for each individual concept, but for a whole system of them. Thus, the method of constructing the content of new knowledge and the method of its presentation are radically restructured. The indicative basis is aimed at cognition, at the study of the basic structure of the studied objects - the main units of the given area and ways of combining them into specific formations. The third type requires a radical reworking of educational subjects. Learning task from empirical is transformed into a theoretical research process, which causes the emergence of a proper cognitive interest. The latter represents a significant result. The third type differs from the first and second types of teaching in motivation, according to the developing effect, "the first and most important thing in the third type of teaching is the excitation of cognitive activity, the ever-increasing strengthening and development of cognitive interest proper. And this requires exclusion of other types of motivation. And failures should be considered in such a way as not to discourage the child, but encourage him to search for new solutions. "It is the third type that allows you to realize the developmental effect of learning. 43. GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SKILLS General educational skills and abilities - these are skills that correspond to actions that are formed in the process of teaching many subjects, and which become operations for performing actions used in many subjects and in everyday life. For the assimilation of individual subjects, the so-called narrow-minded skills and abilities. They correspond to such actions formed in any educational subject, which can become operations for performing only other specific actions of this subject or related subjects. A clear boundary between narrow subject and general educational skills and abilities quite difficult to carry out. At the same time, all educational skills and abilities formed in some academic subject can be divided into two categories: 1) general, which are formed in students not only when studying this subject, but also in the process of teaching many other subjects, and having application in many subjects and in everyday life practice, for example, writing and reading skills, working with a book, etc. .; 2) specific (narrow-subject), which are formed in students only in the process of teaching a given academic subject and are used mainly in this subject and partly in related subjects, for example, determining the total resistance of a circuit of conductors in physics or calculating the valence of a complex chemical substance, etc. e. In order to set a clear goal for the students, he must first himself have an appropriate program for the formation of skills. With a planned-thematic system for organizing the educational process, this program is provided in each educational minimum - a list of basic knowledge, skills и skills, which must be learned by all students in the study of the educational topic. The training minimum includes only the most important, essential issues, without the knowledge of which the subsequent study of the curriculum is impossible. It also includes the development of educational skills, both provided for by the curriculum and not provided for by it, without mastering which the activities of students will not be sufficiently rational and effective. After the motivational formation of skills, one should the stage of organizing joint activities with the teacher. In this joint activity, the student must first of all receive a model or a rule, an algorithm of work. This can be achieved by comparing the task being performed with a given sample. After students understand the rules by which they need to act, exercises are needed to use the acquired skill. It is not enough for a student to know the rational rules of academic work; he must also learn to apply them in his own practice. The training required to develop a skill should not be one-sided or excessive. A skill that a child has sufficiently mastered on simple material is then often difficult to incorporate into a complex one. activity, involving the use of different skills. Performing a special exercise, the student focuses on the correct application of one new skill. When a more difficult task requires him to distribute his attention, to include this skill in the system of previously established ones, it begins to “fall out”. Thus, all this complex work is aimed at ensuring that the external practical activity of the student becomes his internal property and can be performed mentally. 44. ESSENCE, PLUSES AND MINUSES OF TRADITIONAL LEARNING In pedagogy, it is customary to distinguish three main types of learning: traditional (or explanatory-illustrative), problem-based and programmed. Each of these types has both positive and negative sides. However, there are clear supporters of both types of training. Often they absolutize the merits of their preferred training and do not fully take into account its shortcomings. As practice shows, the best results can be achieved only with the optimal combination of different types of training. An analogy can be drawn with the so-called technologies of intensive teaching of foreign languages. Their proponents often absolutize the benefits suggestive (associated with suggestion) ways of memorizing foreign words on a subconscious level, and, as a rule, are dismissive of the traditional ways of teaching foreign languages. But the rules of grammar are not mastered by suggestion. They are mastered by long-established and now traditional teaching methods. Today, the most common is the traditional version of training. The foundations of this type of education were laid almost four centuries ago by Ya.A. Comenius. The term "traditional education" means, first of all, the class-lesson organization of education that developed in the XNUMXth century. on the principles didactics, formulated by Ya.A. Comenius, and still prevailing in the schools of the world. Distinctive features of traditional classroom technology are as follows: - students of approximately the same age and level of training make up a class that retains a basically constant composition for the entire period of schooling; - the class works according to a single annual plan and program according to the schedule. As a result, children must come to school at the same time of the year and at predetermined hours of the day; - the main unit of the lesson is the lesson; - the lesson, as a rule, is devoted to one subject, topic, due to which the students of the class work on the same material; - the work of students in the lesson is supervised by the teacher: he evaluates the results of study in his subject, the level of learning of each student individually, and at the end of the school year makes a decision to transfer students to the next class; - educational books (textbooks) are used mainly for homework. School year, school day, lesson schedule, school holidays, breaks, or, more precisely, breaks between lessons - attributes classroom system. The undoubted advantage of traditional education is the ability to transfer a large amount of information in a short time. With such training, students acquire knowledge in finished form without disclosing ways to prove their truth. Among the significant shortcomings of this type of learning is its focus on memory rather than on thinking. This training also contributes little to the development of creative abilities, independence, and activity. The educational and cognitive process is more of a reproductive (reproducing) nature, as a result of which a reproductive style of cognitive activity is formed in students. In addition, there is no way to adapt the pace of learning to the various individual psychological characteristics of students (a contradiction between frontal learning and the individual nature of learning). 45. SELF-CONTROL AND SELF-ASSESSMENT OF THE STUDENT In the general structure of educational activity, a significant place is given to the actions of control (self-control) and evaluation (self-assessment) of the student. Performing an action, the subject receives information about the achieved result through his sensations and perception - feedback. PC. Anokhin distinguished between two types of feedback, depending on whether information about what result it carries: intermediate or final. The first type of feedback is called phased, the second - sanctioning. Contact Us allows you to compare the mental image of the desired result of an action with what actually happens when you carry out this action. The result of such a comparison - what was supposed to be received, and what is obtained - becomes the basis for making one of three possible decisions: 1) on the continuation of the action, if this is information about the intermediate result and it matches what was expected to be received on this stage of the action; 2) about the end of the action, if this is information about the final result and it matches the expected or is close enough to the expected to consider the execution of the action successful; 3) about the correction of the action, if the information about the result obtained (intermediate or final) does not agree with the expected. The process of monitoring the implementation of an action includes three mandatory components: 1) the image of the desired result of the action; 2) the process of comparing this image with the actual result; 3) making a decision to continue, correct or terminate the action. These three components represent the structure of the subject's internal control over its implementation. In educational activity, the function of control is initially completely entrusted to the teacher, and as the student masters each type of educational action, the student himself forms his standard results in his mind, and this process is based on the assimilation of the standards set by the teacher. The process of external control passes into the process of internal control, i.e., self-control, by means of internalization by the student of the teacher's ideas about the criteria for the success of the implementation of educational actions. Allocate four stages of manifestation of self-control in the assimilation of educational material. 1. Lack of any self-control. The student goes through this stage during the initial familiarization with the material. He hasn't mastered the material yet. He has not yet figured out which questions in the material are the main ones, which ones are secondary, what are the logical connections between its parts. The desired image of the result of the action to master this material has not yet been formed, self-control is impossible. 2. Complete self-control. This stage unfolds during the preparation by the student of homework on this material. He forms ideas about what are the criteria for the reference mastery of the material, the manifestation of the knowledge gained and the skills that have been formed. Following these criteria, the student checks the completeness and correctness of his reproduction and understanding of the material being assimilated, but is not always sure of this completeness and correctness to the end. 3. Selective self-control. Usually, after considering several topics that make up a single section of the course, students' knowledge is monitored: independent work, a repetitive and generalizing lesson, tests, etc. When preparing for this type of work, the student does not restore the learned material in memory in full, but checks only his understanding of the main issues, the orientation in which serves as a criterion for his assimilation of this section. 4. Lack of visible self-control. If the studied material is used to further gain knowledge, then possession of it is implied, as it were, by itself. The student must be fully confident that he knows this material, and must not make a conscious effort to control it. 46. ESSENCE, PLUSES AND MINUSES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING Programmed learning - this is training according to a pre-developed program, which provides for the actions of both students and the teacher (or the learning machine that replaces him). The idea of programmed learning was proposed in the 50s. XNUMXth century by the American psychologist B. Skinner to improve the efficiency of managing the learning process using the achievements of experimental psychology and technology. Objectively programmed learning reflects, in relation to the field of education, a close connection between science and practice, the transfer of certain human actions to machines, and the growing role of managerial functions in all spheres of social activity. The general theory of programmed learning is based on the programming of the process of mastering the material. This approach to learning involves the study of cognitive information in certain doses, which are logically complete, convenient and accessible for holistic perception. Today under programmed learning refers to the controlled assimilation of programmed educational material with the help of a teaching device (computer, programmed textbook, movie simulator, etc.). The programmed material is a series of relatively small portions of educational information ("frames", files, "steps"), presented in a certain logical sequence. In programmed learning, learning is carried out as a well-controlled process, as the material being studied is broken down into small, easily digestible doses. They are sequentially presented to the student for assimilation. After studying each dose, an assimilation check should be made. Dose learned - move on to the next. This is the "step" of learning: presentation, assimilation, verification. Usually, when compiling training programs, only the need for systematic feedback was taken into account from cybernetic requirements, while from psychological requirements, individualization of the learning process was taken into account. There was no sequence of implementation of a certain model of the assimilation process. Programming training has a number of advantages: small doses are easily absorbed, the pace of assimilation is chosen by the student, a high result is provided, rational methods of mental actions are developed, and the ability to think logically is brought up. However, it also has a number of disadvantages, for example: - does not fully contribute to the development of independence in learning; - requires a lot of time; - applicable only for algorithmically solvable cognitive tasks; - ensures the acquisition of knowledge inherent in the algorithm and does not contribute to the acquisition of new ones. At the same time, excessive algorithmization of learning hinders the formation of productive cognitive activity. Interest in programmed learning in the 70s and 80s. XNUMXth century began to fall and its revival has occurred in recent years based on the use of new generations of computer technology. They began to use only individual elements of programmed learning, mainly for knowledge control, consultations and skills training. The new technical base makes it possible to almost completely automate the learning process, to build it as a fairly free dialogue between the student and the learning system. The role of the teacher in this case is mainly to develop, adjust, correct and improve the training program, as well as to conduct individual elements of machine-free learning. 47. ESSENCE OF INNOVATIVE LEARNING Innovation (from lat. in - in, novus - new) means innovation, innovation. The main indicator of innovation is a progressive beginning in the development of a school or university in comparison with established traditions and mass practice. Therefore, innovations in the education system are associated with changes: in the goals, content, methods and technologies, forms of organization and management system; in the system of control and evaluation of the level of education; in the financing system; in educational and methodological support; in the system of educational work; in the curriculum and curricula; in the activities of teachers and students. In the process of developing a school or university, the following are taken into account: absolute novelty (absence of analogues and prototypes); relative novelty; pseudo-novelty (originality), inventive trifles. Types of innovations at school and university are grouped on different grounds. The first classification of innovations is based on the correlation of the new to the pedagogical process taking place at school or university. Based on the understanding of this process, the following types of innovations are distinguished: in the purposes and content of education; in methods, means, techniques, technologies of the pedagogical process; in the forms and methods of organizing training and education; in the activities of the administration, teachers and students. Innovative learning has two characteristic features. The first is learning to foresee, that is, the orientation of a person not so much in past experience and the present, but in the distant future. Such training should prepare a person to use the methods of forecasting, modeling and design in life and professional activities. Hence, it is so important to develop the imagination, focusing on the problems and difficulties that await a person in the future, on alternative ways to resolve them. The second feature of innovative learning is the involvement of the student in cooperation and participation in the process of making important decisions at different levels (from local and private to global, taking into account the development of the world, culture and civilization). Some of the most famous "new schools" of the XNUMXth century in the world are: "Free school communities" (founded in Germany by G. Litz, P. Geheeb) are boarding schools, the organization of life of which was based on the principles of the free development of the child and the cooperation of citizens of a small society. "Labor School" (first appeared in Germany, Switzerland, Austria; in Russia they included the Dzerzhinsky colony and the Gorky commune under the leadership of A.S. Makarenko, the school of S.T. Shatsky, P.P. Blonsky; in France - school de Roche) provided vocational training for schoolchildren, focused on work as an inherent value and as an element of culture, relied on the independence of the student and the organization of self-government. The school of "free education" (in Leipzig, LN Tolstoy in Yasnaya Polyana, etc.) considered it inappropriate to teach a student any subject or craft. "School for life, through life" (O. Decroly, Belgium) is teaching and education in close connection with nature, relying on the activity and freedom of the child, close contact with the families of students. The "School of Doing" (D. Dewey, USA) sought to bring learning closer to the life and experience of children, stimulating their natural development. The Waldorf School (R. Steiner, Germany) solved the problems of the comprehensive development of the child's personality through intensive spiritual activity. 48. ESSENCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATION To date, within the framework of the concept of developmental education, a number of developmental education technologies have been developed that differ in target orientations, features of content and methodology. In 1996, the Ministry of Education of Russia officially recognized the existence of the system of L.V. Zankov and D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydov. Other developing technologies have the status of copyright, alternative. Under developmental education a new active-activity method (type) of learning is understood, replacing the explanatory-illustrative method (type). Progressive Personality Development - the process of physical and mental change of an individual in time, involving improvement, the transition in any of its properties and parameters from smaller to larger, from simple to complex, from lower to higher. Developmental learning takes into account and uses the patterns of development, the level and characteristics of the individual. In developing education, the pedagogical influence is ahead, stimulates, directs and accelerates the development of the learners' hereditary data. With this form of training, the trainee is a full-fledged subject of activity at all its stages. Each stage makes a specific contribution to the development of personality. In the activity of goal-setting, freedom, purposefulness, dignity, honor, pride, independence are brought up; when planning - initiative, creativity, organization, independence, will; in the implementation of goals - diligence, discipline, activity, skill; at the stage of analysis, relations, responsibility, evaluation criteria are formed. In modern pedagogy, all groups of personality traits: ZUN - knowledge, skills, skills; COURT - ways of mental actions; SUM - self-governing mechanisms of personality; SEN - emotional and moral sphere; SDP - activity-practical environment - are interconnected and represent the most complex dynamically developing integral structure. Individual differences determine the level of development of a particular group of qualities. Developing education (DE) is aimed at the holistic harmonious development of the personality, where the whole set of its qualities is manifested: RO \uXNUMXd ZUN + COURT + SUM + SEN + SDP. Developing learning takes place in the zone of proximal development (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Of all the developmental learning technologies, the system of L.V. Zankov, D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova, self-developing learning technology G.K. Selevko and the system of developing education with a focus on the development of the creative qualities of the individual G.S. Altshuller. These innovative technologies, except for the last one, are the technologies of school pedagogy, but their didactic principles are applicable to the pedagogy of higher education and can serve as the basis for the development of their university modification. 49. SYSTEM OF DEVELOPING EDUCATION OF ELKONIN - DAVYDOVA D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov, developing the theoretical ideas of L.N. Vygotsky, developed a wide range of problems in child and educational psychology. The center, the problem of Elkonin's research is the nature of childhood and the deep laws of the child's mental development. According to Elkonin-Davydov, a child from the moment of birth is a social being, since all types of children's activities are social in origin, content and form. The child's appropriation of the achievements of material and spiritual human culture is always active in nature - the child is not passive in this process, not only adapts to the conditions of life, but also acts as an active subject of their transformation, reproducing and creating human abilities in himself. In the experimental study of this problem, Elkonin-Davydov relied on Vygotsky's idea that learning goes ahead of development, that development in the form of learning is the main fact of pedagogical activity. Proceeding from the concept of creativity and the initial community of the child's life forms, Elkonin-Davydov believed that it was not the child who needed to be adapted to the existing system of educational institutions, but, on the contrary, to transform these institutions in the direction of achieving mutual community of children and adults, opening up their creative possibilities in relationships with each other. Technology D.B. Elkonina - V.V. Davydova is built on "meaningful enrichments", which may include the most general concepts of science, expressing deep cause-and-effect relationships and patterns, fundamental genetically initial ideas (number, word, energy, material), concepts in which internal connections are highlighted, theoretical images, obtained by abstraction. Emphasis of the goals of the authors of this technology: - to form theoretical consciousness and thinking; - to form not so much ZUNs as ways of mental activity - COURTS; - reproduce the logic of scientific thinking in educational activities. A feature of this methodology is purposeful learning activity, CUD, the signs of which are cognitive-motivating motives, the goal of conscious development, the subject-subject relationship of the teacher and the student, the focus on the methodology of the formation of ZUN and SUD, creative reflection. This technique can be considered as a purposeful learning activity in which the student sets goals and objectives of self-change and solves them creatively. The method includes a problem presentation of the material, modeling of educational tasks. The problem statement encourages collective mental activity, the formation of interpersonal relationships in educational activities. The purpose of developmental education is to form in children the foundations of theoretical thinking (or, more broadly, the foundations of theoretical consciousness, the main forms of which, along with science, include art, morality, law, religion and politics). Theoretical thinking is the ability of a person to understand the essence of phenomena and act in accordance with this essence. One should not think that this ability is inherent only in individual outstanding people. This is a natural, vital, practically necessary form of human consciousness. We always have to think theoretically when it is impossible to act according to a well-known rule based on old experience, when it is necessary to make a decision on the basis of various information, separating the essential from the non-essential. 50. SYSTEM OF DEVELOPING EDUCATION L.V. ZANKOVA Zankov L.V. (1901-1977) developed the problems of the psychology of memory, thinking and speech of normal and abnormal children. Under the leadership of Zankov, fundamental research was carried out in the field of general pedagogy: different forms of combining words and visualization used to solve the same educational problems, their different effectiveness for the development of children were identified; for the first time, in the conditions of a pedagogical experiment, an objective, regular connection between education and the general development of children was studied; the leading role of education in development and the role of internal factors that determine individual options for the development of students in the same, optimal, learning conditions are substantiated; reserves for the development of students that were not used in mass education were discovered; a new didactic system of primary education was created, aimed at the overall development of children and embodied in a practical guide for the school. Didactic principles developed by L.V. Zankov, pose the most difficult tasks for the teacher: to develop theoretical thinking and keep the child's emotional interest in the subject; to provide training at a high level of complexity and the child's awareness of the learning process (understanding his movement in the subject, his achievements and problems), help the child to realize subjectivity. From the point of view of modern pedagogy, the didactic principles of the system of L. V. Zankov: 1) teaching at a high level of difficulty; 2) the inclusion of the studied didactic units in the variety of functional connections (in the previous edition - the study of the material at a fast pace); 3) a combination of sensory and rational knowledge (in the previous edition - the leading role of theoretical knowledge); 4) students' awareness of the learning process; 5) the development of all students, regardless of their level of school maturity. These principles are specified as follows. The principle of teaching at a high level of difficulty is the leading principle of the system, for "only such an educational process, which systematically provides abundant food for intense mental work, can serve for the rapid and intensive development of students." The principle of including the studied didactic units in the variety of functional connections is revealed as follows. The activity of analytical comprehension of educational material by younger students quickly decreases if students are forced to analyze the same unit of educational material for several lessons, perform the same type of mental operations (for example, select test words by changing the form of the word). It is known that children quickly get tired of doing the same thing, their work becomes ineffective, and the development process slows down. The essence of the principle of combining sensory and rational cognition is "in the cognition of the interdependence of phenomena, their internal essential connection." In order for the material to contribute to the development of the child's ability to independently comprehend the phenomena of the life around him, to think productively, it is necessary that work with him be based on an understanding of all terms and concepts. The key to understanding lies in the correct formation of concepts, which is carried out first on the basis of the intuitive and practical experience of students with the help of all the analyzers they have and only then is transferred to the plane of theoretical generalizations. The didactic principles mentioned above are closely related to the typical properties of the methodological system, which are, in fact, a means of implementing the principles. The versatility of learning lies in the fact that the studied material is not only a source of intellectual development, but also a stimulus for moral and emotional development. 51. THE CONCEPT OF EDUCATION Education is a process of organized and purposeful influence on the personality and behavior of the child. Education is one of the aspects of learning, another aspect of the child's socialization. Education and training can be considered as a social order of society, since it is the result of this process that a person is adapted (unadapted in case of unsuccessful education) to life in society. Based on the highest humanistic meaning that mankind has developed in the course of its development and which it is trying to realize and instill in new generations, the main goals of education are the full development of a person’s personality and the assimilation of enduring values: spirituality (priority of high moral ideals over momentary needs and drives) , freedom (a person's desire for external and internal independence and the recognition of that right for another person), responsibility (the reverse side of freedom as awareness of the consequences of one's actions and readiness to be responsible for them). In the course of education, a person should form several aspects of his personality: self-regulation, self-awareness, responsibility, activity and creativity. In addition, there are specific goals of education, determined, for example, by the specific conditions for the development of society (today this may be a priority in the education of such qualities as entrepreneurship, initiative, striving for success, etc.). The physical, mental and social development of the individual is carried out under the influence of external and internal, social and natural, controlled and uncontrolled factors. It's in progress socialization - the assimilation by a person of values, norms, attitudes, patterns of behavior inherent in a given society, social community, group, and the reproduction of social ties and social experience by him. Socialization occurs both under conditions of spontaneous influence on the developing person of the factors of societies, being (essentially very contradictory), and under the influence of socially controlled circumstances and conditions specially created in the process of upbringing. The process and result of human development under the influence of heredity, environment and upbringing in pedagogy is usually called personality formation. From a content point of view, education is classified in different ways. The most generalized classification includes mental, labor and physical education. Often, taking into account aspects of the educational process, they call (in various combinations) ideological-political, military-patriotic, patriotic, moral, international, aesthetic, labor, physical, legal, sexual, environmental, economic education. There are concepts of pragmatic, civic, value, collectivist, communicative education, etc. On an institutional basis, family education, school, out-of-school, confessional (religious), as well as education in children's and youth organizations, at the place of residence (community in American pedagogy), in closed and special educational institutions. According to the dominant principles and style of relations between educators and students, authoritarian, free, democratic education is distinguished. 52. BASIC THEORIES OF EDUCATION They can be divided into several groups: biogenic - claiming that the personal qualities of a person are mainly inherited and change little; sociogenic - they are based on the idea of the exclusive social determination of a person's personal qualities; behavioral - understanding habits and skills of a behavioral nature as personality structures. Other theories of education are intermediate and compromise versions of these. The problem of the interaction between the biological and the social has given rise to various theories of mental development in the history of psychology. One of them - theory of biological maturation - argued that the mental functions of a person are hereditarily determined, that they do not depend on the external environment, develop as the biological maturation of the organism. Moreover, the development of the individual repeats the development of the entire human race (biogenetic law). Another theory - theory of the leading role of the environment - argued that the environment is a decisive factor in the mental development of a person. The followers of this theory did not see qualitative age-related changes in mental development and reduced it to the accumulation of knowledge, skills and abilities. Modern scientific data indicate that certain biological factors can act as conditions that make it difficult or easier to form certain mental qualities of a person. As is known, the nucleus of the human germ cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes with the same distribution of X and Y chromosomes. But there are people with chromosomal abnormalities (with a frequency of 1:500), which have not 46, but 47 chromosomes in the cell nucleus. The field of psychology bordering on genetics - psychogenetics - explores the relationship between the genotype and environmental conditions, manifested in the behavior of the individual. In this case, the twin method is used (proposed by F. Galton back in 1876), which makes it possible to equalize the hereditary factor and identify the specific role of the environment and heredity. The genotype of monozygotic (identical) twins is identical. For each individual there are hereditary-environmental restrictions. The environment can either stimulate the expression (manifestation) of the genetic potential or suppress it. The typology of an individual as a representative of a biological species can be carried out on three different grounds: genetic, neurohumoral, and innate features of the type of higher nervous activity (neurotype). According to neurohumoral characteristics, according to the characteristics of the response of the sympathetic-adrenal system (SAS) to various environmental influences, three types are distinguished: 1) A-type (adrenal); 2) HA-type (noradrenal); 3) A + HA-type (mixed). Representatives of the A-type are characterized by anxiety, increased responsibility, self-criticism, they are difficult to tolerate nervous overload, and are prone to cardiovascular disease. (Among men, the proportion of A-type is more than 30%, among women - 30%.) Representatives of the HA-type are characterized by constant increased tension. These are serious, closed, laconic, hidden and powerful people. They are purposeful and active, capable of overcoming difficulties, but they are hard at failure, prone to nervous breakdowns. (HA-type among men is 17%, among women - 26%). Representatives of the A + HA type (mixed) are characterized by increased emotionality, a sharp change in mood, and emotional instability. 53. THE ESSENCE OF EDUCATION Education is a two-pronged process. The state sets tasks for education, determines its infrastructure, program, content. At the same time, it is realized by specific group and individual subjects who have their own value orientations, stereotypes, prejudices, etc. and make significant adjustments to the requirements of society, norms and attitudes. As a result, on the one hand, new, progressive phenomena are born in the practice of education, on the other hand, educators and educators show conservatism, which has deep historical, ethnic and socio-psychological roots. Therefore, within the framework of one system of education, different styles of leadership and interaction are formed. Interaction in the process of education is an exchange between its subjects of information, types and methods of activity and communication, value orientations, social attitudes, the selection and assimilation of which is voluntary and selective. Such interaction is largely socially differentiated, individualized and variable, since the specific participants in the interaction, being members of certain ethnic, social and socio-psychological groups, more or less consciously and purposefully implement in their relationship with each other the type of social behavior that is approved in these groups and has its own characteristics. Ethnic characteristics influence the style of interaction between elders and younger ones. Within the same region, in socio-professional groups or institutions of education, there can be significant differences in the interaction between educators and pupils: in some, the style of interaction is more democratic, in others - authoritarian. In general, interaction is a dialogue between educators and pupils, and its effectiveness is determined by which individuals participate in it, to what extent they themselves feel themselves to be individuals and see a personality in everyone with whom they communicate. The results and effectiveness of education in the conditions of social renewal of society are determined not so much by how it ensures the assimilation and reproduction of cultural values and social experience by a person, but by the success of preparing young members of society for conscious activity and creative activity, which allows them to set and solve problems that have no analogues. in the experience of past generations. The most important result of education is readiness and ability for self-education. Education is aimed at the formation of a person, on the one hand, moral and ideological stability, on the other hand, flexibility. In a rapidly changing world, a person can live and function effectively with high psychological flexibility. He needs the ability to receive and assimilate new information, adapt to changes both in society and the state, and in the immediate social environment and in his own destiny. At the same time, a person needs to have a certain inner core, worldview, beliefs, otherwise, with every change in the development of society, an individual life path, a person may manifest a neurotic reaction, disadaptation, disintegration of the personality, up to its collapse. 54. MEANS AND METHODS OF EDUCATION In a complex and dynamic pedagogical process, the teacher has to solve countless typical and original tasks of education, which are always the tasks of social management, since they are addressed to the harmonious development of the individual. As a rule, these problems are with many unknowns, with a complex and variable composition of initial data and possible solutions. In order to confidently predict the desired result, to make unmistakable scientifically based decisions, the teacher must professionally master the methods of education. Under methods of education one should understand the ways of professional interaction between the teacher and students in order to solve educational problems. Reflecting the dual nature of the pedagogical process, methods are one of those mechanisms that ensure the interaction of the educator and pupils. This interaction is not built on an equal footing, but under the sign of the leading and guiding role of the teacher, who acts as the leader and organizer of the pedagogically expedient life and activities of students. The method of education is divided into its constituent elements (parts, details), which are called methodological techniques. In relation to the method, the techniques are private, subordinate. They do not have an independent pedagogical task, but are subordinate to the task pursued by this method. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. The process of education is characterized by versatility of content, exceptional richness and mobility of organizational forms. There are methods that reflect the content and specifics of education; there are methods that are directly focused on working with younger or older students; there are methods of work in some specific conditions. But there are also general methods of education in the education system. They are called general because the scope of their application extends to the entire educational process. Based on the foregoing, we offer a system of general methods of education: methods of forming the consciousness of the individual (story, conversation, lecture); methods of organizing activities and forming the experience of social behavior of the individual (training, the method of creating educational situations, pedagogical requirement); methods of stimulating and motivating the activity and behavior of the individual (competition, cognitive game, discussion, emotional impact, encouragement, punishment, etc.); methods of control, self-control and self-esteem in education. Under means of education understands the ways of organized and unorganized influence, with the help of which some people influence others in order to develop certain psychological qualities and forms of behavior in them, that is, these are actions aimed at changing the personality of the educated person. Means of education can be: direct - direct personal impact on a person; indirect - impacts organized with the help of either means (books, opinions of others, etc.); conscious - the educator consciously sets certain goals, and the pupils accept them; unconscious - carried out without deliberate impact; emotional - using certain affective states; cognitive - aimed at the human knowledge system and its transformation; behavioral - aimed directly at human actions. 55. METHOD OF FORMING THE SOCIAL EXPERIENCE OF CHILDREN A person as a subject of labor, cognition and communication is formed in the process of activity that provides scientific exploration of reality, arouses interest, feelings, generates new needs, activates will, energy - all that serves as building material for the development and formation of personality. Pedagogical science has discovered a number of general patterns that determine the methods of pedagogical management of activities and the formation experience of social behavior: - all types of activities that have public goals, potentially have certain developing and educational opportunities. Each such activity contains all the necessary components for the assimilation of the relevant knowledge and experiences only for it. However, one activity cannot replace all others. Therefore, in the process of education, it is advisable to use a set of activities; - even an activity that is objectively valuable to society may not have a positive effect on the pupil if it does not have "personal meaning" for him (A.N. Leontiev). A social relation is revealed to a person only then, becomes his personal relation, when the meaning-forming motive of activity is adequate to this relation; - as a result of pedagogical influences, schoolchildren form a readiness to choose the goal and methods of activity. Being an ideal anticipation of the expected result (P.K. Anokhin), the goal of a person is the force that determines the method and nature of his actions. In relation to the formation of the student's personality, activity remains a neutral process if the appropriate methods of its pedagogical instrumentation are not found and implemented. In this instrumentation, various methods and techniques must be combined in a certain way, providing motivation, accustoming and exercising students, shaping their experience of social behavior. Teaching reveals the greatest effectiveness in the early stages of the upbringing and development of children. The application of this method requires compliance with certain pedagogical conditions. Teaching is impossible without a clear idea of what is to be learned. When prescribing a particular course of action to students, it is necessary to express it in the shortest and clearest possible rule. The forms of social behavior that have become habitual for pupils are flexible and generalized, they easily manifest themselves in different circumstances, adopting specific methods of action appropriate to these circumstances. One of the proven means of accustoming to given forms of behavior is the mode of life and activity of students. The teaching method is closely related to the exercise method. The basis of accustoming is the child's mastery of the predominantly procedural side of activity, and the exercise makes it personally significant. The activity performed by the schoolchild appears here in the unity of its purpose and operational structure as an exercise in the right deed. pedagogical requirement. In the requirement as the initial method of organizing activity, the effect of such a regularity of the pedagogical process as the dialectic of external and internal is most clearly revealed. The pedagogical requirement should not only outstrip the development of the personality, but also turn into the requirements of the pupil to himself. 56. INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION The main institution of education is family. The attitude of parents to children, the relationship of parents, the general family atmosphere - all this is of great importance for the formation of the personality of the child, the formation of the characteristics of her behavior, attitude towards herself, other people and the world around her as a whole. It is in the family that the first steps are taken to educate the future person, to instill in him certain qualities, ideas and views. A person receives his first life lessons in the family, it is in the family, under the influence of the prevailing environment, that the formation of his future character begins to take place. Already by the prevailing family structures, by the distribution of roles, by the atmosphere prevailing in them, one can in many ways judge both society and the state as a whole. The family is that magical mirror in which, as in a fairy tale, all the vicissitudes of the personal and social life of its members, the level of moral development and the cultural level of a given people and nationality are reflected. Among other educational institutions are the school, reference groups (environment), mass media (television, press, radio, etc.). The school, of course, plays a leading role, since it is entrusted with the main functions and responsibilities in the upbringing of the younger generations. Through the system of state and public institutions of education, the state and society strive, on the one hand, to provide equal opportunities for the education of all their citizens, on the other hand, to create conditions for each of them to realize their potential and develop their abilities and interests. The process of education can be represented as a diagram: the inclusion of a person in the system of relations of educational institutions, the acquisition and accumulation of knowledge and other elements of social experience, their internalization, i.e., the transformation of the internal structures of the human psyche due to the assimilation of the structures of social activity, and exteriorization, i.e., the transformation of the structures of the psyche into a certain behavior (actions, statements, etc.). The content and nature of the interaction of society, groups and individuals in the process of education are determined by social values, ideology, and psychology. Ideas, representations of a given society determine the vital activity of various types and types of social communities, groups and collectives, and ultimately the relationship of people to the world and to themselves. The interaction of the state with the institutions of education is determined by the characteristics of a particular socio-political system and state policy in the field of education. The socio-economic policy of the state objectively determines the prestige of education, which is reflected both in the activities of individual educational institutions and in the social behavior of specific people. At the same time, the activities of educational institutions have a reverse effect on state policy in the field of education. The interaction between the institutions of education is determined by their functions and is objectively expressed in complementarity in the process of education of various age and socio-professional groups of people. 57. PRINCIPLES AND REGULARITIES OF EDUCATION The principles of upbringing in their diversity can cover the whole life of children and teachers along with pedagogical influence and interaction with expedient influence. In life, there is an interaction between children and teachers, and opposition, and resistance to them, and resistance to authorities, and alienation from them. The child's consciousness is formed gradually, in the process of life, and above all by the means of life itself. Therefore, in order to achieve a positive result in education, a teacher needs not only the principles of direct impact, but also indirect, mediated, long-term effects on consciousness and habitual behavior through purposeful and spiritual saturation of all areas of children's life. The teacher should take into account the assistance of the children themselves to his efforts, when pupils overcome resistance and conscious opposition to educational measures, strive for active assimilation and acquisition of spiritual values. Principles of the educational process (principles of education) - these are general initial provisions that express the basic requirements for the content, methods, and organization of the educational process. They reflect the specifics of the upbringing process, and, in contrast to the general principles of the pedagogical process discussed above, these are the general provisions that guide teachers in solving educational problems. The specifics of the principles of education Let's characterize requirements, applied to the principles of education. 1. Obligation. The principles of education are not advice, not recommendations; they require mandatory and complete implementation in practice. Gross and systematic violation of the principles, ignoring their requirements not only reduce the effectiveness of the educational process, but undermine its foundations. An educator who violates the requirements of the principles is removed from the leadership of this process, and for a gross and deliberate violation of some of them, such as the principles of humanism, respect for the individual, he can even be prosecuted, 2. Complexity. The principles carry the requirement of complexity, which implies their simultaneous, and not sequential, isolated application at all stages of the educational process. The principles are not used in a chain, but frontally and all at once. 3. Equivalence. The principles of education as general fundamental provisions are equivalent, among them there are no main and secondary ones, such that require implementation in the first place, and those whose implementation can be postponed until tomorrow. Equal attention to all principles prevents possible violations of the course of the educational process. At the same time, the principles of upbringing are not ready-made recipes, and even more so, they are not universal rules, guided by which educators could automatically achieve high results. They do not replace any special knowledge, experience, or skill of the educator. Although the requirements of the principles are the same for everyone, their practical implementation is personally conditioned. The principles on which the educational process is based constitute a system. There are and have been many systems of education. And naturally, the character, the individual requirements of the principles, and sometimes the principles themselves cannot remain unchanged in them. 58. MODELS AND STYLES OF EDUCATION In the process of theoretical substantiation and explanation of the nature of education, three main paradigms are distinguished that represent a certain attitude to social and biological determinants. Social education paradigm (P. Bourdieu, J. Capel, L. Cro, J. Fourastier) focuses on the priority of society in educating a person. Its supporters propose to correct heredity by forming the appropriate socio-cultural world of the educated person. Supporters of the second biopsychological paradigm (R. Gal, A. Medici, G. Mialare, K. Rogers, A. Fabre) recognize the importance of human interaction with the socio-cultural world and at the same time defend the independence of the individual from the influences of the latter. The third paradigm focuses on the dialectical interdependence of social and biological, psychological and hereditary components in the process of education (3.I. Vasilyeva, L.I. Novikova, A.S. Makarenko, V.A. Sukhomlinsky). Types of upbringing are classified according to the principle of meaningful diversity of educational goals and ways to achieve them. On an institutional basis, family, school, out-of-school, confessional (religious), education at the place of residence (community), as well as education in children's, youth organizations and specialized educational institutions (orphanages, boarding schools) are distinguished. Family education is the organization of a child's life in a family environment. It is the family that during the first six or seven years of a child's life forms the foundations of a future personality. Family education is productive if it is carried out in an atmosphere of love, mutual understanding and respect. A significant role here is also played by professional self-realization and the material well-being of parents, which create conditions for the normal development of the child. For example, "strength relations" extend where there are disagreements and quarrels between colleagues, neighbors, wives and husbands, parents and children; where alcohol and drugs are consumed. School education - This is the organization of educational activities and the life of children in a school setting. Under these conditions, the personality of the teacher and the positive nature of communication with students, the educational and psychological atmosphere of classes and recreation are of great importance. As well as extracurricular educational work, which includes the maintenance of school traditions and holidays, the organization of self-government. Out-of-school education assumes that the solution of the above tasks is carried out by out-of-school educational institutions, organizations and societies. These include development centers, children's art houses, schoolchildren's rooms at police stations (where adolescents are placed who have violated public order or violated the law), "green" societies (young naturalists and environmentalists). Confessional education is implemented through religious traditions and rituals, familiarization with the system of religious values and confessional culture, addressed to the "heart", to faith in the divine origin of man. Since believers make up about 90% of humanity, the role of religious or church education is very great. Education at the place of residence is the organization of socially useful activities of children and youth in the microdistrict of residence. This joint activity with adults consists in planting trees, cleaning the territory, collecting waste paper, providing patronage assistance to lonely old people and the disabled. As well as circle work, sports competitions and holidays organized by parents and teachers. 59. INTERRELATION OF EDUCATION AND EDUCATION The main task of the teacher is learn. But to educate - this is also his task. But when to educate if he is busy learning all the time: he conducts lessons in the morning, checks notebooks after lessons and prepares for tomorrow's lessons? Answer: the teacher educates his students in the learning process. To educate, teaching, and to educate, educating - this is the professional credo of a real teacher. The problem of the unity of education and upbringing is the problem education in the learning process. All education has educational potential. However, in psychological studies it has been established that it is best implemented when learning activities are organized as productive educational interaction of a student with a teacher, a student with other students. In a situation of such educational activity, the child learns not only individually, not isolated from other children in the class, but in a situation of collective creativity, interpersonal cooperation in the form of dialogue, discussion and, most importantly, not only interacting in the "student - student" system, but also in the "student-teacher" system, when the latter "on an equal footing" participates in discussions to clarify scientific truth. In other words, the child interacts not just as a subject with an object, as a student with an educational subject, but as a subject with a subject - with a teacher and other children. In an atmosphere of joint intellectual creativity in scientific classes, not only the assimilation of the subject content of the studied educational material takes place, but also active communication, during which, as we know, the child undergoes intensive mental development, the development of precisely his motivational need sphere, when he, assimilating the basics human relationships, tasks and motives of human activity, is gaining personal experience, i.e., is brought up. Thus, learning activities in an environment interpersonal learning interaction ensures the unity of education and upbringing. Thus, in the activities of a teacher, knowledge of child psychology is necessary in order to take into account the age-related characteristics of the development of children in the organization of the process of their educational activities, so that it not only forms their knowledge of the subject being studied, but also contributes to their mental, primarily mental, development. And pedagogical psychology shows the teacher the mechanisms, possibilities and ways to ensure the organic unity of the development, education and upbringing of children, and thereby opens up real prospects for a significant increase in the effectiveness of the educational process. Developmental and pedagogical psychology, being studied by a teacher with a purely practical purpose, forms a psychological, professionally oriented view of his own activity, allows him to exclude the contemptuous nickname "urologist" from the lexicon, legitimize and consolidate in the public mind only respectful "Teacher" and "Educator" . 60. MORAL EDUCATION From a socio-psychological point of view, morality is a well-known form of social behavior developed in the interests of society. The era of crises is the era of moral crisis. Moral behavior arises on the basis of innate and instinctive reactions and is developed under the influence of the environment. Thus, moral behavior is behavior brought up by the social environment. Moral action in its simplest form consists in increasing the attention by which a certain idea is held in the mind. There is a flexible connection between intelligence and moral behavior: mental development is a favorable condition for moral education, but high intelligence is not a guarantee of moral behavior. From a psychological point of view, it is pointless to teach morality, to read sermons on moral topics. Moral education must be completely imperceptibly dissolved in the general methods of behavior established and regulated by the environment. Neither the teacher nor the student should notice that we are talking about the upbringing and teaching of morality and ethics. Moral behavior will be associated with the free choice of its social forms. In the psychological sense, the moral is always free. Chastity, bought at the price of fear, pollutes the soul worse than debauchery, because it causes a struggle in the child's psyche between needs and slavish fear. It is necessary to teach a child to do something not out of fear, but out of the fact that there is a better choice. In L. Kohlberg's concept of the stages of a person's moral development, the levels and stages of the formation of moral assessments are derived, which depended on the age of the subjects. 1st level - premoral (typical for children aged 4 to 10 years). Judgments are made and determined by external circumstances, the points of view of other people are not taken into account: Stage 1 - judgments are made depending on the consequences of the act: what does it deserve - encouragement or punishment; Stage 2 - judgments are made in accordance with the benefits that can be derived from the act. This is where personal interest comes into play. 2nd level - conventional (10-13 years old). At this level, a person, evaluating the actions and deeds of others and himself, adheres to social norms and social roles and takes into account how other people will evaluate the act: 3rd stage - the judgment is based on whether the act will receive approval from other people; 4th stage - the judgment is made on the basis of respect for authority, laws and the existing order. 3rd level - postconventional (from the age of 13). This is the level of "true" morality, when a person judges behavior based on his own criteria, which he develops on his own. For this level of moral development, a sufficiently high level of development of rational thinking is necessary. 4th stage: the act can be justified from the point of view of human rights: some public laws in emergency situations can be violated. 5th stage: an act is regarded as "correct" if dictated by a person's conscience and carried out in the name of the value of life. Laws, rules and opinions of other people fade into the background. 61. THE CONCEPT OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT L. KOLBERG L. Kohlberg, continuing the experiments of J. Piaget, offered children of different ages to evaluate moral judgments and ethical ideas. It was proposed to evaluate the actions of the characters and justify their judgments. As a result of research, L. Kolberg singled out 3 levels of development of moral judgments. 1. Preconventional (premoral). 2. Conventional. 3. Postconventional (autonomous morality). 1. The first level is purely egocentric. The morality or immorality of the child's judgments is based on the principle of benefit: what is good is that which gives pleasure (approval); bad is that which causes displeasure (punishment). Their behavior is determined mainly by the desire to avoid punishment, i.e., according to all data, an immature individual-personal level of identity dominates in them. All preschoolers and the majority of seven-year-olds (about 70%) are at the pre-moral level of development. This lower level of moral consciousness persists even later (at 10 years old in 30%): at 13-16 years old - 10%. 2. Many children by the age of 13 are at the level of group identity, when the reality of an act is assessed depending on the point of view of the reference group of the child. They solve moral problems at level 2 (conventional). This level is unattainable for those children who have not yet begun to develop the ability for hypothetical-deductive thinking, which, according to J. Piaget, is the highest stage in the development of the intellect. 3. The development of the highest level (autonomous morality) is associated with the development of intellect, logical thinking. According to L. Kohlberg, only 10% of adolescents rise to the 3rd level of autonomous morality. This level corresponds to the simultaneous expression of individual-personal and universal levels of identity. Even adults may not have autonomous morality. All preschoolers and the majority of seven-year-olds (about 70%) are at the pre-moral level of development. This lower level of development of moral consciousness persists in some children and later - in 30% at 10 years old and 10% at 13-16 years old. Many children by the age of 13 solve moral problems at the second level, they are inherent in conventional morality. The development of a higher level of moral consciousness is associated with the development of the intellect: conscious moral principles cannot appear before adolescence, when logical thinking is being formed. However, the formation of formal-logical operations is not enough; even intellectually developed adults may not have an autonomous morality. As for adolescents, only 10% of them rise to the highest level of moral consciousness. It should be noted that individual differences are large here, and the age limits are very approximate. In addition, the stages in the development of moral consciousness are set on the basis of moral judgments - what children say, and not their actual behavior. A child may know how to behave correctly, but for some reason act differently. However, a number of psychological studies have shown the relationship between the level of moral judgments and real moral behavior. It is assumed that children, to a greater extent than adults, subordinate their behavior to learned ethical principles. 62. EDUCATION IN PRESCHOOL AGE The need to communicate with peers and adults makes the formation of the child in the preschool period. At this time, a personal form of communication arises, the child seeks to discuss with adults the behavior and actions of other people and his own from the point of view of social (or moral) norms. For the sake of this form of communication, the child refuses "partnership" (which is usually sought from adults in other cases) and takes the position of a student. In communicating with peers for a child, a positive experience of cooperation and joint activities is important. At first, the relationship of children is formed on the basis of joint actions with objects. Then they learn to alternate and coordinate actions: they perform one operation together, control the actions of partners, correct mistakes, help partners, accept comments from partners and correct their mistakes. In the process of such joint activity, which, of course, is realized in the game, children acquire the skills of leadership, subordination, the experience of an emotional attitude to such activities and communication with different children who differ in character and other individual qualities. Children in games evaluate each other, look at each other. There is a personal selectivity in communication, built on a conscious, motivated basis, i.e. children are imbued with their relationship with each other (they can show sympathy or antipathy, covertly or explicitly). In addition, the preschooler has a need for a good attitude towards himself from others, a desire to be accepted and understood. At this age, communication moves to a new level: children begin to understand the motives of the actions of their peers and their own. From about the age of 6, children begin to form informal groups with certain rules. True, these groups are unstable and do not last long. In the period of preschool childhood, the child develops not only cognitive processes, but also behavior, volitional efforts. The preschool period is largely responsible for the formation of the main character traits of the child. This time is favorable for the formation of the moral basis of the individual, as there is an active assimilation of moral norms and behavior is built on the basis of a system of motives, among which social ones begin to dominate. The assimilation of moral norms occurs on the basis of the orientation of the child to adults. Behavior patterns are first embodied in the image of a specific person (mother, father, etc.), and then become more generalized and abstract. It should be remembered that the development of social norms, human relations and the characteristics of human activity in the preschool period is carried out primarily in the process of role-playing. 63. EDUCATION OF YOUNGER SCHOOLCHILDREN During the period of study in primary school further formation and strengthening of the character of the child takes place. The formation of character traits is associated with overcoming difficulties in objective activity and communication. When choosing an activity for a child, it is necessary to gradually move from simple interesting to less interesting, but more valuable activities; the degree of difficulty should then increase. At first, adults offer activities, and then the child himself must move on to free choice. To strengthen the character of the child in communication, it is desirable to include him in role-playing games, where he will have to adapt to the individual characteristics of other children. It is better if children who are significantly different from each other act as communication partners, since this requires different interpersonal behavior. In addition, it is necessary to complicate the tasks that are solved when interacting with other children. It is very important that at this age children take part in domestic work, where they receive the necessary skills for the future life (taking care of the house and animals, self-care skills, etc.). During the period of primary school age, there is an active formation of an internal position and attitude towards oneself. The self-image is formed in the process of evaluative activity of the child himself and his communication with other people. A younger student can already fully describe himself in social terms: belonging to a certain social group, gender, isolate his individual qualities that distinguish him from others. The general trend at this age is from reassessment of oneself to a more adequate attitude towards oneself, i.e., gradually increasing self-criticism. If in the 1st - 2nd grade the child is not yet able to assess his own personality as a whole, then by the 3rd grade this becomes possible. It is conditionally possible to distinguish several levels of self-image. 1. The child's self-image is adequate and stable (the child can name generalized personality traits, knows how to analyze his actions and activities; focuses more on knowledge than on the assessment of adults; quickly acquires self-control skills). 2. Inadequate and unstable attitude towards oneself (cannot single out his essential qualities; cannot analyze his actions; guidance is required in the formation of self-control skills). 3. The child's ideas about himself contain characteristics given by others (especially adults); there is no desire to look into your inner world; instability of self-image; inability to focus in practical activities on their objective capabilities. Experimentally, the following types of self-assessment were revealed among younger schoolchildren. 1. Stable low. 2. Adequate. 3. High adequate. 4. Inadequate. 5. Inflated self-esteem. Stable self-esteem forms the level of claims (L.S. Slavina). Younger students have a tendency to maintain self-esteem and a level of ambition. A stable, habitual self-esteem, in turn, leaves an imprint on all aspects of a child's life. The teacher's assessment and, of course, the position of the parents have a great influence on the development of the personality of a younger student. First of all, it concerns the formation of motivation to achieve or avoid failure. 64. EDUCATION OF TEENAGERS In the psychological and pedagogical literature, adolescence is presented as the most problematic and controversial. The main contradiction is rooted in the desire of a teenager to be "like an adult", to have complete freedom and initiative, but parents still try to keep him within their control, as in childhood. The problems of a teenager are exacerbated by changes in the hormonal background of his body, body and sensations, which makes an additional contribution to unstable behavior. It is customary to talk about the so-called "difficult" teenagers. It is customary to blame naughty children ("malicious intent", "vicious genes"). From a psychological point of view, not the worst, but especially sensitive and vulnerable children fall into the number of "difficult" ones. Under the influence of life loads, they “go off the rails” faster, and therefore need help, not censure. The cause of persistent trouble must be sought in the depths of the psyche, and it is most often emotional, not rational (Yu.B. Gippenreiter). Psychologically, there are four main causes of behavioral disorders in children: 1) the struggle for attention - disobedience should be seen as a way to get attention to yourself; 2) the struggle for self-affirmation - children are very sensitive to the infringement of their freedoms and to sharp prohibitions; 3) the desire to take revenge - this manifests resentment towards parents; 4) loss of faith in one's own success is a deep experience by the child of his own trouble. At the same time, a shift in this trouble can be observed: the child experiences trouble in one area, and failures occur in another area (for example, relationships with comrades do not add up, and as a result, studies are neglected; or failures at school provoke conflicts at home). The task of an adult (parent) is to understand what is really happening to the child. You can do this by paying attention to your experiences and feelings. If the child is fighting for attention, then the adult, as a rule, is irritated; if a child opposes an adult, then the latter is overwhelmed with anger; if this is the revenge of the child, then the adult feels resentment; if the child experiences trouble, then the adult is seized by hopelessness and despair. The most important psychological advice for parents and caregivers: do not react in the usual way and thereby create a vicious circle. In practice, this is quite difficult to implement, since our emotions turn on automatically. If your child needs attention, then give it to him in quiet moments when no one annoys anyone (during play, joint activities, etc.). Leprosy at this time is best left unattended. If the child is fighting for independence, then get involved in his affairs less. If a child has lost faith in himself, then reduce to zero all your expectations and claims against him. Find the level of tasks available to him and organize joint activities if he himself cannot get out of the impasse. Try not to criticize the child and look for any reason to praise him. Parents and educators should remember that in the first attempts to improve relationships with a child, he may increase his bad behavior, as he will not immediately believe in the sincerity of their intentions and will constantly check them. The path of normalization of relations with a maturing child is long and difficult. Adults in a sense will have to change themselves, but this is the only way to raise a "difficult" child. 65. METHODS OF SELF-EDUCATION AND SELF-EDUCATION Self-education - acquisition of knowledge through self-study outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person. self-education - the conscious activity of the subject, aimed at the fullest possible realization of himself as a person, changing his personality in accordance with clearly conscious goals, ideals, personal meanings. Self-education is a relatively late acquisition of ontogenesis, associated with a certain level of development of self-consciousness, critical thinking, ability and readiness for self-determination, self-expression, self-improvement. Self-education is based on adequate self-esteem, which corresponds to the real abilities of a person, the ability to critically assess their individual characteristics and potential. As the degree of awareness increases, self-education becomes an increasingly significant force in the self-development of the individual. The necessary components of self-education are self-analysis of personal development, self-report and self-control. We judge a person by the following features. 1. Certain formed social qualities. For example: responsibility, dignity, individuality, social activity, firmness of views and beliefs. 2. A person is characterized by such a level of mental development that allows her to control her own behavior and activities. The ability to think about one's actions and be responsible for them is an essential and main feature of a person. A.I. Kochetov in his book "Organization of self-education of schoolchildren" says that, like any developing phenomenon, a personality is contradictory, collisions, conflicts, periods of decline and intensification of development are inevitable in its inner world. Scientists are unanimous that the driving forces in the self-education of the individual are certain contradictions. At present, sufficient factual material has been accumulated in science, which allows one to penetrate into the essence of the process of self-education. The mechanism of self-education has the following features: the pupil chooses the goals of life, ideals in accordance with social criteria, prepares himself for life in society, improves in collective activities to improve the world around him. There are complex interrelations and contradictions between the indicated factors of self-education: the goal of life can be one, and enthusiasm in another area, as a result of which a discrepancy arises between the desire to improve oneself and real self-education, etc. and not always contradictions can be resolved by the efforts of the pupil himself . In his work, A.I. Kochetov defines the parameters of self-education: a) orientation, i.e., motives for working on oneself; b) content (mental, physical, moral, labor, aesthetic, volitional, professional, complex); c) stability (accidental, episodic, permanent). d) efficiency in the formation of personality (performs the main and auxiliary functions). The main educational task in the guidance of self-education lies in the fact that it is necessary to form those positive qualities on which the resolution of these contradictions depends, and to put into action such factors as self-consciousness, enthusiasm, orientation, the ability to manage oneself, etc. 66. SELF-EDUCATION OF ADOLESCENTS The pedagogical organization of self-education is one of the strongest educational means of the versatile development of the personality of adolescents and young men, due to the natural reliance on their aspirations and interests. A student who puts himself in a particular case (or in a communication situation) as a self-task for the development of certain aspects of the personality becomes more interested in the effective implementation of this case. Work to activate self-education - the area of pedagogical creativity, in-depth knowledge and development of the aspirations and skills of each teenager. Self-education gradually leads the student to the activation and internal acceptance of a wider range of aspirations, and primarily cultural aspirations, develops a taste for creating one's own personality. Such pedagogical work requires from the leader delicacy, high respect for the children, and gaining their trust. For example, the contents of diaries of self-education of children cannot be disclosed. In the diaries, the guys give a sincere self-assessment of their qualities, which they would not want to notify others about. Here, pedagogical secrecy is the law for the teacher, otherwise he will quickly lose confidence and all work will go down the drain. Activation of self-education of volitional qualities, communication style, emotional expressiveness is included as an integral part of the work of a teacher in psychiatry and the correction of negative states and aspirations. In the course of organizing self-education, the teacher, using methods of studying personality, observations, determines the individual psychological characteristics of his wards, enters into the course of the life situation of a teenager that has developed at home and at school. Adolescents tend to do many things on the fly, irregularly. It is difficult for them to systematically fix the results of work on themselves. In this, the teacher can help the use of various forms of fixing the results. Pedagogical conditions and actions of the teacher to enhance self-education: - establishing relations of trust and cooperation between the teacher and the student - through joint creative activity; - orientation of students to the nomination of one or two specific and feasible self-tasks; - at the next stage, the teacher offers for self-education to each student that area of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbbehavior in which he found the weakest points in the manifestation of his personality; - observance of stages in the activation of self-education: from the organization of ordinary short-term self-tasks in free areas - to a longer correction of weaknesses in the personality, to self-tasks for a week with keeping a diary; - no marks for the results of self-education!; - the teacher can determine only a fairly general sphere of self-education - the teenager formulates specific tasks for himself; - the teacher regularly, but unobtrusively encourages the children to set self-tasks (without sanctions in case of refusal), ensuring the systematic self-education; - the teacher links the self-tasks of the children with the task of successfully completing activities that are highly significant for them; - interest in self-education is supported by varying the scope of self-setting goals, success, encouragement for the slightest progress, discussion of the results of self-tasks, the introduction of interesting forms of keeping a diary, and timely assistance in the implementation of self-tasks. 67. PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING Assimilation is the basic concept of all theories of learning (learning activity), regardless of whether it is singled out as an independent process or is identified with learning. In general, assimilation can be defined as the process of receiving, comprehending and storing the acquired knowledge and applying it to solve practical and theoretical problems. The main criteria for assimilation are the ability to use knowledge in the form of the ability to solve new problems on its basis, the possibility of exteriorizing knowledge, that is, their embodiment in external, practical, objective actions. assimilation - a process that includes several components, steps or phases. 1. Positive attitude of students. It is expressed in their attention, interest in the content of the lesson. The positive emotional state experienced in the lesson contributes to the unloading of voluntary attention, which reduces the fatigue of students. If they do not have a positive attitude towards the content of the lesson, their emotional state will not facilitate the assimilation of the material and may even significantly complicate it. 2. The process of direct sensory familiarization with the material. In this component of assimilation, an important role is played by the visibility of the material itself and the observation of students. Much depends on how the teacher will present the material, how he will present it, emphasize the most important issues with his voice, indicate to students what needs to be written down, drawn, drawn. It is in the power of the teacher to make any educational material visual, taking care of the connection between subject, visual (including symbolic) and verbal visibility. 3. Thinking as a process of active processing of the received material. With the logical analysis of the studied material, there is a comprehension and understanding of all connections and relationships, new material is included in the student's already existing experience. Interdisciplinary connections are established, the student sees how to apply the studied material in practice. 4. The process of storing and storing the received and processed information. Numerous studies in this area show that the effectiveness of these processes depends on the setting for the conditions of memorization (time, purpose, nature of use in practice) and the student's involvement in his own active activity. So, in terms of setting the importance, significance of the educational material, focusing on the fact that it can be used in life, and at the same time, when comparing it with other previously learned information, it will be retained in memory longer and stronger than if memorization relied only on the understanding of the need to learn the given in order to answer the questions posed by the teacher. All these psychological components of assimilation are interdependent and are themselves formed in the course of educational activity. Stages, stages of assimilation are correlated with them. S.L. Rubinstein singled out the following stages of assimilation: 1) initial acquaintance with the material, or its perception in the broad sense of the word; 2) its comprehension; 3) special work to consolidate it; 4) mastery of the material in the sense of the ability to operate with it in various conditions, applying it in practice. 68. FEATURES AND STRUCTURE OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY Pedagogical activity - this is a special type of social (professional) activity, which is aimed at realizing the goals of education. Traditionally, the main types of pedagogical activity carried out in a holistic pedagogical process are training and education. Training carried out within the framework of any organizational form usually has strict time limits, a strictly defined goal and options for achieving it. The most important criterion for the effectiveness of training is the achievement of the learning goal. Educational work, also carried out within the framework of any organizational form, does not pursue the direct achievement of the goal, since it is unattainable within the time limits of the organizational form. In educational work, one can only provide for the consistent solution of specific tasks oriented towards a goal. The most important criterion for the effective solution of educational problems is positive changes in the minds of pupils, manifested in emotional reactions, behavior and activities. It is also difficult to single out the result of the activity of the teacher-educator in a developing personality. The identification of the specifics of the main types of pedagogical activity shows that teaching and education in their dialectical unity take place in the activities of a teacher of any specialty. The goals of training and education are an external component in relation to the system of training and education: they are set by society, which determines the effectiveness of the functioning of this system. The structure of pedagogical activity. For the effective performance of pedagogical functions, it is important for a modern teacher to be aware of the structure of pedagogical activity, the relationship of its main components, with the help of which it is carried out, pedagogical actions, professionally important skills and psychological qualities (PSP and C) necessary for its implementation. In contrast to the understanding of activity accepted in psychology as a multi-level system, the components of which are the goal, motives, actions and results, in relation to pedagogical activity, the approach of identifying its components as relatively independent functional activities of the teacher prevails. Let's consider both approaches. 1. In the structure of pedagogical activity, the following components are distinguished (with the corresponding abilities that are manifested in skills): - constructive activity - constructive and meaningful (selection and composition of educational material, planning and construction of the pedagogical process), constructive and operational (planning one's own actions and the actions of students) and constructive and material (designing the educational and material base of the pedagogical process); - organizational activity - the implementation of a system of actions aimed at the active inclusion of students in various activities, the organization of joint activities, self-organization of the teacher's own activities at the university; - communicative activity - the establishment of pedagogically expedient relations between the teacher and pupils, other teachers, parents, members of the public; - gnostic component - a system of knowledge and skills of a teacher, as well as certain properties of cognitive activity that affect its effectiveness; - control and evaluation (reflexive) component. 69. TEACHER AS A SUBJECT OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY One of the most important requirements that the teaching profession makes is the clarity of the social and professional positions of its representatives. It is in it that the teacher expresses himself as the subject of pedagogical activity. The position of the teacher - this is a system of those intellectual, volitional and emotional-evaluative attitudes towards the world, pedagogical reality and pedagogical activity in particular, which are the source of its activity. It is determined, on the one hand, by the requirements, expectations and opportunities that society makes and provides to him, and on the other hand, there are internal, personal sources of activity - the desires, experiences, motives and goals of the teacher, his value orientations, worldview, ideals. The position of the teacher reveals his personality, the nature of social orientation, the type of civic behavior and activity. The social position of the teacher grows out of the system of views, beliefs and value orientations that were formed back in the general education school. In the process of professional training, on their basis, a motivational-value attitude to the teaching profession, goals and means of pedagogical activity is formed. The motivational-value attitude to pedagogical activity in its broadest sense is ultimately expressed in the direction that constitutes the core of the teacher's personality. The social position of the teacher largely determines his professional position. However, there is no direct dependence here, since education is always built on the basis of personal interaction. That is why the teacher, clearly realizing what he is doing, is far from always able to give a detailed answer, why he acts this way and not otherwise, often contrary to common sense and logic. No analysis will help to reveal which sources of activity prevailed when the teacher chose one position or another in the current situation, if he himself explains his decision by intuition. The choice of a professional position of a teacher is influenced by many factors. However, decisive among them are his professional attitudes, individual typological personality traits, temperament and character. L.B. Itelson gave a description of typical role-playing pedagogical positions. The teacher can act as: - an informer, if he is limited to communicating requirements, norms, views, etc. (for example, one must be honest); - a friend, if he seeks to penetrate the soul of a child; - a dictator, if he forcibly introduces norms and value orientations into the minds of pupils; - an adviser, if he uses careful persuasion; - the petitioner, if he begs the pupil to be such, "as it should be", sometimes descending to self-humiliation, flattery; - an inspirer, if he seeks to captivate (ignite) pupils with interesting goals, prospects. Each of these positions can have a positive and negative effect depending on the personality of the educator. However, they always give negative results: injustice and arbitrariness; playing along with the child, turning him into a little idol and dictator; bribery, disrespect for the personality of the child, suppression of his initiative, etc. 70. PROFESSIONAL ABILITIES OF THE TEACHER The set of professionally conditioned requirements for a teacher is defined as professional readiness for pedagogical activity. In its composition, it is legitimate to single out, on the one hand, psychological, psychophysiological and physical readiness, and on the other hand, scientific, theoretical and practical competence as the basis of professionalism. The content of professional readiness as a reflection of the goal of pedagogical education is accumulated in a professiogram reflecting invariant, idealized parameters of a teacher's personality and professional activity. A.I. Shcherbakov among the most important pedagogical abilities refers to didactic, constructive, perceptual, expressive, communicative and organizational. He also believes that in the psychological structure of the teacher's personality, general civil qualities, moral and psychological, social and perceptual, individual psychological characteristics, practical skills and abilities should be distinguished: general pedagogical (information, mobilization, developmental, orientation), general labor (constructive, organizational , research), communicative (communication with people of different age categories), self-educational (systematization and generalization of knowledge and their application in solving pedagogical problems and obtaining new information). A teacher is not only a profession, the essence of which is to transmit knowledge, but a high mission of creating a personality, affirming a person in a person. In this regard, the goal of teacher education can be represented as a continuous general and professional development of a new type of teacher, which is characterized by: high civic responsibility and social activity; love for children, the need and ability to give them your heart; genuine intelligence, spiritual culture, desire and ability to work together with others; high professionalism, innovative style of scientific and pedagogical thinking, readiness to create new values and make creative decisions; the need for constant self-education and readiness for it; physical and mental health, professional performance. Pedagogical tact largely depends on the personal qualities of the teacher, his outlook, culture, will, citizenship and professional skills. It is the basis on which trusting relationships between teachers and students grow. The pedagogical tact is especially clearly manifested in the control and evaluation activities of the teacher, where special care and fairness are extremely important. Personal qualities that characterize the professional and pedagogical orientation of a teacher are a prerequisite and a concentrated expression of his authority. If in the framework of other professions the expressions "scientific authority", "recognized authority in their field", etc., are habitually heard, then the teacher can have a single and indivisible authority of the individual. The basis of the cognitive orientation of the individual is spiritual needs and interests. One of the manifestations of the spiritual forces and cultural needs of the individual is the need for knowledge. Continuity of pedagogical self-education is a necessary condition for professional development and improvement. One of the main factors of cognitive interest is love for the subject being taught. 71. CHARACTERISTICS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY Pedagogical activityb - this is the professional activity of the teacher, in which, with the help of various means of influencing the student, the tasks of training and education are realized (A.K. Markova). In general, pedagogical activity is a special, multifaceted and multifaceted type of activity associated with training and education. Types of pedagogical activity: teaching, educational, organizational, propaganda, managerial, advisory and self-education. The psychological structure of pedagogical activity includes the following. 1. Motivational and indicative link: readiness for activity and setting goals and objectives by the teacher. 2. Performing link: selection and application of means of influencing students. 3. Control and evaluation link: control and evaluation of their own pedagogical influences, i.e. pedagogical introspection. Note that pedagogical activity actually begins not with a goal, but with an analysis of the initial pedagogical situation. A pedagogical situation is a set of conditions in which the teacher sets pedagogical goals and objectives, makes and implements pedagogical decisions. In principle, any situation becomes pedagogical if pedagogical goals and objectives are realized in it. The pedagogical task (in this case, the task is understood as a system consisting of the subject of the task and the model of the required state of the subject) should: 1) include a description of mental development before exposure and desired changes in mental development after exposure; 2) take the student into account as an active participant in the process (in this case, there is a "finishing" of the task by the student depending on his personal motivation, level of aspirations, etc., or "redefining" - replacing the task of the teacher with his own). "Additional definition" and "redefinition" are real processes of change, active acceptance and processing of pedagogical tasks in the mind of the student, depending on his capabilities. The solution of pedagogical problems includes several stages: analytical, goal setting and constructive, at which the planning of methods for solving problems takes place. A feature of pedagogical tasks is that their solution requires immediate action, and the result is delayed in time, which makes it difficult to control. In the pedagogical process, there is always a hierarchy of tasks: global, strategic, phased and tactical. Appropriate skills are required for the implementation of pedagogical activity. The first group of skills includes: the ability to see a problem in a pedagogical situation and formulate it in the form of a pedagogical task; the ability to see and study the pedagogical situation. The second group of skills are: the skills "what to teach" (work with the content of the material) and "how to teach" (an effective combination of techniques and teaching aids). The third group of skills is associated with the use of psychological and pedagogical knowledge: the ability to time the labor process and analyze one's activities. 72. MOTIVATIONS OF PEDAGOGICAL ACTIVITY The problem of motivation of pedagogical activity, as well as the problem of motivation of human behavior and activity in general, is one of the most complex and underdeveloped. There are practically no special studies that would trace the relationship between the motives for choosing a teaching profession and the motivation for pedagogical activity. An analysis of the factors influencing the choice of a teaching profession by applicants makes it possible to determine their significance and build a ranked series: interest in a subject - 27,2%; desire to teach this subject - 16,2%; the desire to devote oneself to raising children - 19,2%; awareness of pedagogical abilities - 6%; desire to have a higher education - 13%; idea of social importance, prestige of the teaching profession - 12,2%; striving for material security - 2,2%; so there were circumstances - 4 %. If we combine those who have chosen the teaching profession in accordance with their inclinations towards teaching and upbringing, their interest in children, then only a little more than half of future teachers choose the profession, guided by motives that testify to the pedagogical orientation of their personality. The choice of the teaching profession in accordance with one or another motive largely determines the motives of teaching. If we take into account that a motive is nothing more than an object of need, or a materialized need, then for future teachers such subjects can be purely cognitive interest, the desire to better prepare for independent professional activity, a sense of duty and responsibility, or the desire through learning stand out among classmates, take a prestigious position in the team, avoid criticism from teachers and parents, the desire to earn praise, receive an increased scholarship, etc. The division of motives into leading (dominant) and situational (stimulus motives), external and internal allows us to assume with a high degree of probability that both for future teachers, teaching and for working teachers, their activities proceed as a chain of situations, some of which act as purposeful attraction. The purpose of the activity and the motive here coincide. Other situations are perceived as purposeful coercion, when the goal and motive do not match. In this case, the teacher may treat the goal of pedagogical activity indifferently and even negatively. In situations of the first type, teachers work with attraction, inspiration, and, consequently, productively. In the second case, it is painful, with inevitable nervous tension and usually does not have good results. But complex activity, which is pedagogical, is usually caused by several motives, differing in strength, personal and social significance. The polymotivation of pedagogical activity is a common phenomenon: a teacher can work well in order to achieve high results, but at the same time satisfy his other needs (recognition of colleagues, moral and material encouragement, etc.). The socially valuable motives of pedagogical activity include a sense of professional and civic duty, responsibility for raising children, honest and conscientious performance of professional functions (professional honor), passion for the subject and satisfaction from communicating with children; awareness of the high mission of the teacher; love for children etc. 73. THE CONCEPT OF I-CONCEPT I-concept - this is a generalized idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXboneself, a system of attitudes regarding one's own personality. In psychology, self-consciousness, or "I", is understood as either the process of accumulating ideas about oneself, or the result of this process. In the first case, the researcher is interested in the dynamic aspects self-awareness: the emergence and formation of self-consciousness, its development throughout a person’s life, the emergence and development of human self-consciousness and the history of mankind, etc. In the second case, the following are considered to a greater extent: the form of this experience, its structure and organization, its functions in human life. In the question of classifying the various aspects of self-consciousness, or the "I"-phenomenon, two criteria are important. Self-consciousness of a person reflects the position of a person in various social groups: "I" as a representative of a certain professional group; "I" as a family member; "I" as a member of certain social organizations, etc. An essential criterion for the classification of the "I"-phenomena is the point of view from which the analysis and evaluation of oneself is carried out. Temporary point of view on oneself: "past I" - what I was before; "real me" - what I am now; "future self" - how I see myself in the future. In terms of different values: what I would like to be myself - personal values; how my friends would like to see me - the values of the reference group. There are the following functions of self-consciousness in human life. 1. "I" is the point, the perspective from which a person perceives and comprehends the world. Moreover, any individual knowledge and experience has a subjective coloring in the sense that a person correlates this knowledge with his own personality, with his own "I", that is, this is my knowledge, my experience. 2. Self-consciousness, "I", performs a regulatory role in human life. Human behavior, unlike the behavior of an animal, is determined not only by the situation, but also by how a person perceives and evaluates himself. It is important to note that I-concept is not a static, but a dynamic psychological formation. The formation, development and change of the self-concept are due to factors of an internal and external order. The social environment has a strong influence on the formation of self-concept. The professional self-concept of a person can be real and ideal. The term "real" does not at all imply that this concept is realistic. The main thing here is the idea of the individual about himself, about "what I am." The ideal self-concept (ideal "I") is a person's idea of himself in accordance with desires ("what I would like to be"). Of course, the real and ideal self-concepts not only may not coincide: in most cases they are necessarily different. The discrepancy between the real and ideal self-concept can lead to various negative and positive consequences. On the one hand, the mismatch between the real and the ideal "I" can become a source of serious intrapersonal conflicts. On the other hand, the discrepancy between the real and ideal professional self-concept is the source of professional self-improvement of the individual and the desire for its development. We can say that much is determined by the degree of this mismatch, as well as its intrapersonal interpretation. 74. TEACHER'S PROFESSIONAL SELF-CONCEPT By its origin teaching profession owes the isolation of education into a special social function, when a specific type of activity was formed in the structure of the social division of labor, the purpose of which is to prepare the younger generations for life on the basis of familiarizing them with the values of human culture. Professional activity is one of the main forms of human life. How a person perceives and evaluates his work, his achievements in certain activities and himself in a professional situation, depends on his general well-being and the effectiveness of his activities. Professional identity personality is both the main source and mechanism of professional development and improvement. For pedagogical activity the problem of professional self-awareness is of particular relevance because the results of the teacher's activity are expressed primarily as a result of the educational activity of students, and the teacher's ability to analyze and evaluate his activities and its results, their professionally significant qualities are directly related to the effectiveness of pedagogical influence. In addition, professional self-awareness is a personal regulator of professional self-development and self-education of a teacher. The structure of the teacher's professional self-awareness: "actual self" - how the teacher sees and evaluates himself at the present time; "retrospective self" - how the teacher sees and evaluates himself in relation to the initial stages of work; "perfect me" What would a teacher want to be or become? "reflexive self" - how, from the point of view of the teacher, he is viewed and evaluated by others in his professional field. "Actual I" is the central element of the teacher's professional self-awareness, which is based on three others, where "I-retrospective" in relation to the "I-actual" gives the teacher a scale of his own achievements or criteria for evaluating his own professional experience; "I-ideal- noe" is a holistic perspective of the individual on himself, which determines the self-development of the individual in the professional sphere; "I-reflexive" - a social perspective in the self-consciousness of the teacher or the school professional environment in the personality of the teacher. The professionally conditioned properties and characteristics of a teacher include the general orientation of his personality (social maturity and civic responsibility, professional ideals, humanism, highly developed, primarily cognitive, interests, selfless attitude towards the chosen profession), as well as some specific qualities: - organizational (organization, efficiency, initiative, exactingness, self-criticism); - communicative (fairness, attentiveness, friendliness, openness, goodwill, modesty, sensitivity, tact); - perceptual-gnostic (observation, intellectual activity, research style, flexibility, originality and critical thinking, ability for non-standard solutions, a sense of the new, intuition, objectivity and impartiality, careful and attentive attitude to the experience of senior colleagues, the need for constant updating and enrichment of knowledge) ; - expressive (high emotional-volitional tone, optimism, emotional susceptibility and responsiveness, self-control, tolerance, endurance, sense of humor); - professional performance; - physical and mental health. 75. INDIVIDUAL STYLE OF ACTIVITY OF THE TEACHER The most important factor determining the effectiveness of pedagogical communication is the type of teacher's attitude. Installation refers to the readiness to respond in a certain way in the same type of situation. To the carrier himself, his own attitudes in most cases seem absolutely correct, and therefore they are extremely stable and difficult to change through external influences. Conservatism and rigidity of attitudes increase with age. Researchers identify two types of dominant attitudes of teachers towards students: positive and negative. Availability negative attitude a teacher for one or another student can be identified by the following features: a teacher gives a "bad" student less time to answer than a "good" one; does not use leading questions and hints; if the answer is wrong, he hurries to forward the question to another student or answers himself; more often blames and less encourages; does not react to the successful action of the student and does not notice his success; sometimes he doesn't work with him in class at all. Accordingly, the presence positive attitude can be judged by such details: waits longer for an answer to a question; in case of difficulty, asks leading questions, encourages with a smile, a look; in case of an incorrect answer, he does not rush to evaluate, but tries to correct it; more often looks at the student during the lesson, etc. Special studies show that "bad" students are four times less likely to turn to the teacher than "good" ones; they acutely feel the bias of the teacher and painfully experience it. Each person communicates by means and methods typical for him. The set of relatively stable and characteristic for a given personality techniques and methods of organizing communication is called an individual style of communication, which, in turn, is determined by personality and character traits. Traditionally, there are three main styles of pedagogical communication: authoritarian, liberal and democratic. The authoritarian style is characterized by a functional-business approach to the student, when the teacher proceeds from an average idea of the student and abstract requirements for him. In his assessments, he is stereotypical and subjective. Often underestimates the positive value of such qualities as independence, initiative, prefers to characterize his students as undisciplined, lazy, irresponsible. Although in general this style of pedagogical communication deserves a negative assessment, some tasks (especially at the initial stages of the formation of a student group) can be solved with the help of an authoritarian style. The liberal style of communication is characterized by connivance, familiarity and anarchy. Special studies and pedagogical practice convincingly show that this is the most harmful and destructive style for business. It gives rise to the uncertainty of students' expectations, causes tension and anxiety in them. 76. THE CONCEPT OF PEDAGOGICAL ORIENTATION One of the main professionally significant qualities of a teacher's personality is his "personal orientation". Psychological research on the problems of pedagogical orientation is carried out in several directions: the definition of its essence and structure; study of the features of its origin; study of the stages and conditions for the formation of the direction; analysis of the state and means of forming a pedagogical orientation. There are three areas that determine the essence of pedagogical orientation: emotional value attitude to the profession of a teacher, the tendency to engage in activities that embody the specifics of this profession; professionally significant personality trait teacher or pedagogical ability component; reflective control student development. Pedagogical orientation is the motivation for the teaching profession, the main thing in which is an effective orientation towards the development of the student's personality. A sustainable pedagogical orientation is the desire to become, be and remain a teacher, helping him to overcome obstacles and difficulties in his work. The orientation of the teacher's personality is manifested in all his professional life and in individual pedagogical situations, determines his perception and logic of behavior, the whole appearance of a person. The development of pedagogical orientation is facilitated by a shift motivation teachers from the subject side of his work to the psychological sphere, interest in the personality of the student. The main motive of a truly pedagogical orientation is the interest in the content of pedagogical activity. The pedagogical orientation as its highest level includes a vocation that correlates in its development with the need for the chosen activity. At this highest stage of development - vocation - "a teacher cannot imagine himself without a school, without the life and work of his students." The results of empirical observations in Russia and abroad confirm the existence of differences in the strategies and tactics of teachers focused on the "development" and "performance" of schoolchildren. Teachers oriented toward "development" are relatively more likely to pay attention to the changeable factors of educational achievement (for them, diligence or diligence of schoolchildren is of paramount importance); teachers focused on "performance" pay more attention to stable factors of achievement in studies (the abilities or inclinations of schoolchildren are significant for them). In accordance with this, "performance-oriented" teachers consider it possible to make long-term forecasts of school performance and the future professional career of schoolchildren. In foreign studies, approaches to understanding the essence and structure of pedagogical orientation are grouped in line with three directions: behavioral; cognitive; humanistic. Of particular interest are studies of a pedagogical orientation in line with humanistic psychology (A. Maslow, K. Rogers, D. Dewey and others). The orientation of the individual is seen as an indestructible desire of the individual for self-actualization. K. Rogers analyzes the problem of the teacher's values as a constitutive formation of his personality, coinciding in this sense with the pedagogical orientation. Analyzing the contradictory nature of the human value system, K. Rogers comes to several serious conclusions: common value aspirations for people are humanistic in nature and consist in improving the development of the person himself; the whole system of positive values lies not outside the student, but in him. Therefore, the teacher, according to K. Rogers, cannot set, but can only create the conditions for its manifestation. 77. STRUCTURE AND TYPES OF PEDAGOGICAL ORIENTATION N.D. Levitov defined pedagogical orientation as a personality property (some general mental state of the teacher), which occupies an important place in the character structure and acts as a manifestation of the individual and typical identity of the personality. V.A. Slastenin in the nomenclature of the personal and professional-pedagogical qualities of a teacher includes a professional-pedagogical orientation, representing: interest and love for the child as a reflection of the need for pedagogical activity; psychological and pedagogical vigilance and observation (predictive abilities); pedagogical tact; organizational skills; exactingness, perseverance, purposefulness, sociability, justice, restraint, self-esteem, professional performance. Types of pedagogical orientation: - business orientation (motives for disclosing the content of the subject); - humanistic orientation (motives of communication); - individualistic orientation (motives for improvement). The main motive of a truly pedagogical orientation is the interest in the content of pedagogical activity. L. Festinger classifies teachers based on their conclusions about student performance. In his opinion, there are two types of conclusions about performance: 1) a conclusion about achievements based on a comparison of the results of someone with previous achievements (individual relative norm); b) a conclusion about achievements based on a comparison of the achieved result of someone with the corresponding results of other people (social relative norm, criterion of differences). Teachers oriented toward "development" are relatively more likely to pay attention to the changeable factors of educational achievement (for them, diligence or diligence of schoolchildren is of paramount importance); "Performance-oriented" teachers speak highly of students who perform better than average, even when their performance declines. Educators oriented towards "development" in this case condemn such students. In contrast, performance-oriented teachers are praised or blamed when a learning outcome (correct or incorrect) has already been achieved. The existence in any sample of working teachers of two extreme types of teachers (focused on "development" and "performance") was confirmed by the data of empirical research by D. Reines, who respectively designated these types as type X and type Y. A type X seeks above all to develop the personality of the child, relying on emotional and social factors. Adheres to a flexible program, does not close on the content of the subject being studied. He is characterized by a relaxed manner of teaching, an individual approach, a sincere, friendly tone of communication. A type Y is only interested in the mental development of students. Strictly adheres to the content of the studied program. Works according to a detailed program, makes high demands on students, strictly checks the learned material. Keeps aloof, the approach to the students is purely professional. 78. THE ESSENCE OF PEDAGOGICAL ABILITIES Pedagogical abilities called a set of individual psychological characteristics of a teacher's personality that meet the requirements of pedagogical activity and determine success in mastering this activity. The difference between pedagogical abilities and pedagogical skills lies in the fact that pedagogical abilities are personality traits, and pedagogical skills are separate acts of pedagogical activity carried out by a person at a high level. each ability has its own structure, it distinguishes between leading and auxiliary properties. The leading properties in pedagogical abilities are: pedagogical tact; observation; love for children; need for knowledge transfer. Pedagogical tact - this is the observance by the teacher of the principle of measure in communicating with children in a wide variety of fields of activity, the ability to choose the right approach to students. Pedagogical tact involves: respect for the student and exactingness to him; development of independence of students in all types of activities and firm pedagogical guidance of their work; attentiveness to the mental state of the student and reasonableness and consistency of requirements for him, etc. Pedagogical observation - this is the ability of the teacher, manifested in the ability to notice the essential, characteristic, even subtle properties of students. Didactic ability - the ability to convey educational material to students, making it accessible to children, to present material or a problem to them clearly and understandably, to arouse interest in the subject, to arouse active independent thought in students. Academic Ability - ability in the relevant field of science (mathematics, physics, biology, literature, etc.). Perceptual abilities - the ability to penetrate into the inner world of the student, pupil, psychological observation associated with a subtle understanding of the personality of the student and his temporary mental states. Speech abilities - the ability to clearly and clearly express their thoughts, feelings through speech, as well as facial expressions and pantomime. Organizational skills - this is, firstly, the ability to organize a student team, rally it, inspire it to solve important problems and, secondly, the ability to properly organize one's own work. Authoritarian abilities - the ability to direct emotional and volitional influence on students and the ability on this basis to achieve their authority. Communication skills - the ability to communicate with children, the ability to find the right approach to students, to establish with them appropriate relationships from a pedagogical point of view, the presence of pedagogical tact. Pedagogical imagination (or predictive ability) - this is a special ability, expressed in anticipation of the consequences of one's actions, in the educational design of the student's personality, associated with the idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbwhat the student will become in the future, in the ability to predict the development of certain qualities of the student. The ability to distribute attention simultaneously between several types of activity; is of particular importance for the work of the teacher. 79. STRUCTURE OF PEDAGOGICAL ABILITIES The concept is currently pedagogical abilities, developed by N.V. Kuzmina, is the most complete systemic interpretation. In this concept all pedagogical abilities are correlated with the main aspects (sides) of the pedagogical system. System It is presented as a set of interrelated elements that form a stable unity and integrity, which has integral properties and patterns. Pedagogical system is defined as a set of interrelated structural and functional components subordinated to the goals of upbringing, education and training of the younger generation and adults. Structural Components - these are the main basic characteristics of pedagogical systems, the totality of which forms the fact of their presence and distinguishes them from all other (non-pedagogical) systems. In the interpretation of N.V. Kuzmina, the pedagogical system includes five structural elements: goals, content of education (educational information), means of pedagogical communication, students and teachers. In addition, the scientist also considers functional components. Functional Components - these are stable basic connections of the main structural components that arise in the course of the activities of managers, teachers, students and thereby determine the movement, development, improvement of the pedagogical system and, as a result, their stability, resilience, survival. There are five main functional components: gnostic, design, constructive, communicative and organizational. These same elements are elements of individual pedagogical activity. In this regard, two sets of features are distinguished in the structure of pedagogical abilities: 1. The specific sensitivity of the teacher as a subject of activity to the object, process and results of his own pedagogical activity, in which the student acts as the subject-object of pedagogical influence. 2. The specific sensitivity of the teacher to the student as a subject of communication, cognition and labor, since the main means of education are the activities of the emerging personality (i.e., the student himself) and the ways of organizing them in order to obtain the desired end result. First level constitute perceptual-reflexive abilities addressed to the object-subject of pedagogical influence, i.e. to the student, in connection with himself (the teacher). They determine the intensity of the formation of the sensory fund of the teacher's personality. Second level constitute design pedagogical abilities, addressed to the methods of influencing the object-subject of the student, in order to form his need for self-development, self-affirmation, civic and professional development. Perceptual-reflexive pedagogical abilities, in turn, according to N.V. Kuzmina, include three types of sensitivity. 1. Feeling the object. 2. A sense of proportion or tact. 3. Feeling of belonging. The level of formation of perceptual-reflexive pedagogical abilities ensures the formation of pedagogical intuition, which, in turn, can be both “good”, i.e. helping to productively solve pedagogical problems, and “bad”, i.e. suggesting wrong decisions. Thus, perceptual-reflexive pedagogical abilities "specialize" in the analysis of the interaction between the subject of professional pedagogical creativity and the student for whom he is responsible. 80. FEATURES AND DIRECTIONS OF PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION Historically, communication between people arose and developed primarily directly in joint labor activity. To unite efforts and organize joint activities, people needed to understand its meaning, their place and their role in it, as well as skillfully cooperate with other participants. And this was possible only through communication with partners using words, gestures, facial expressions and other verbal and non-verbal means. In most cases, interpersonal communication is woven into a particular activity, acts as its essential and integral attribute, an important condition for its success. Outside the communication of people with each other, not only labor processes are unthinkable, but also teaching, playing and many other activities. The type and nature of the activity served by communication have a certain influence on the content, form and features of the flow of the process of communication between its participants. Since any activity involves a specific distribution of roles between the participants, giving them certain rights and obligations, the communication of a particular teacher with his students will differ significantly from the communication of this teacher in a circle of peers in leisure game activities. Along with this, communication can proceed as an independent process that does not serve any activity. Through this communication, the satisfaction of a person's need for contact with other people occurs, as a result of which conditions are created under which the inner world of one person is revealed to another. Activity and communication can be considered as two approximately equivalent categories, reflecting two aspects of a person's social existence. Communication can be represented as a side of activity, acting as its prerequisite, condition, internal or external factor. Therefore, communication can be considered both as a special kind of activity and as one of the attributes of this or that activity. At the same time, along with material communication, which provides that the spiritual activity of the subject is aimed only at managing his practical actions, there is also spiritual communication, the purpose of which is the spiritual unity of partners, the achievement of their spiritual community. Pedagogical communication is a specific form of communication that has its own characteristics and at the same time obeys the general psychological patterns inherent in communication as a form of human interaction with other people, including communicative, interactive and perceptual components. Pedagogical communication is a set of means and methods that ensure the implementation of the goals and objectives of education and training and determine the nature of the interaction between the teacher and students. Research in the field of educational psychology shows that a significant part of pedagogical difficulties are due not so much to shortcomings in the scientific and methodological training of teachers as to the deformation of the sphere of professional and pedagogical communication. An analysis of the very first professional steps of teachers reveals a phenomenon that could be called pedagogical imprinting (instant imprinting): the results of the very first contacts with students determine the choice of the direction in which the further evolution of professional and pedagogical communication will go. 81. SPECIFICITY AND MODELS OF PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION The main goal of pedagogical communication is both the transfer of social and professional experience (knowledge, skills) from the teacher to students, and the exchange of personal meanings associated with the objects being studied and life in general. In communication, the formation (i.e., the emergence of new properties and qualities) of the individuality of both students and teachers takes place. Pedagogical communication creates conditions for the realization of the potential essential forces of the subjects of the pedagogical process. Pedagogical communication should focus not only on human dignity as the most important value of communication. Of great importance for productive communication are such ethical values as honesty, frankness, unselfishness, confidence, mercy, gratitude, care, loyalty to the word. The specificity of pedagogical communication is primarily manifested in its orientation. It is aimed not only at the interaction itself and at the students for the purpose of their personal development, but also, which is the main thing for the pedagogical system itself, at organizing the development of educational knowledge and the formation of skills on this basis. Because of this, pedagogical communication is characterized, as it were, by a triple focus - on the educational interaction itself, on students (their current state, promising lines of development) and on the subject of development (assimilation) At the same time, pedagogical communication is also determined by a triple focus on subjects: personal, social and subject. This happens due to the fact that the teacher, working with one student on mastering any educational material, always orients its result to everyone present in the class, i.e., frontally influences each student. Therefore, we can assume that the originality of pedagogical communication, revealed in the totality of these characteristics, is also expressed in the fact that it organically combines elements of personality-oriented, socially-oriented and subject-oriented communication. If we consider communication as an end-to-end process in learning, then it is necessary to single out two main model communication: 1) educational and disciplinary; 2) personality-oriented. 1. Educational and disciplinary model of communication. It took shape in our country over decades and bears the imprint of the second half of the 70s. of the last century, when the goal of education was to equip students with knowledge, skills and abilities. The slogan during the interaction of an adult with children was "Do as I do." The model of communication under consideration is characterized by authoritarian communication style, where the methods of communication are: instructions, explanations, prohibitions, demands, threats, punishments, notations, shouting. Communication tactics: dictate or guardianship. Personal position: to meet the requirements of management and supervisory authorities. As a result of this model of communication, there is a detrimental effect on the personality of the child. An alternative to this model is the personality-oriented model of communication. 2. Personally oriented model of communication. The purpose of a personality-oriented model of communication is to provide a sense of psychological security of the child, his trust in the world, the joy of existence, the formation of the beginning of personality, the development of the child's individuality. This model of communication is characterized by a dialogic type of communication. This model of communication is characterized by the fact that an adult interacts with a child in the process of communication. It does not force the development of children, but prevents the occurrence of possible deviations in the personal development of children. The formation of knowledge, skills and abilities is not a goal, but a means of the full development of the individual. 82. DIFFICULTIES IN PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION Communication difficulties for a teacher can arise in a variety of areas, but the main ones are the following: ethno-socio-cultural, status-positional-role-playing, age-related, individual-psychological, activity-related. Ethnosociocultural area includes difficulties associated with the peculiarities of ethnic consciousness, stereotypes, values, attitudes, manifested in communication in specific conditions of social and cultural development of a person. Each subject of activity and communication partner, being carriers of a certain mentality, interacts with other people in accordance with the norms, traditions, image of the world and attitude inherent in the people they represent. Status-positional-role the area of difficulties is due to such reasons as the peculiarities of family education, position in the community, attributes of the role, the status of the institution, etc. Such difficulties in communication most often arise in situations of violation of the rights and obligations that make up the role of teacher and student. For example, the teacher's right to ask implies the student's duty to answer, but if the student asks a question that the teacher finds it difficult to answer, the latter can use his higher status and avoid the situation of having to answer the question right away - he has the right to change the course of communication at his own discretion, and the student in such a right is much more limited. The higher status of the teacher implies that he has authority over the students. Age area difficulties is connected with the fact that the student, especially the teenager, believes that his inner world is incomprehensible to adults, and the teacher continues to address him as a child. Difficulties in communication can also arise when the teacher, due to employment or other interests, really does not know what exactly the youth is most passionate about at the moment, has no idea about the values of the current youth subculture. Individual-psychological area Difficulties are often the cause of communication barriers. These difficulties are due to the interrelation of three factors: the individual psychological characteristics of the teacher, similar features of the student and their acceptance by each other. Among the individual psychological characteristics of partners that have the greatest impact on communication, the level of sociability, emotional stability, impulsivity, extra or introversion, locus of control, and cognitive style features are noted. The cognitive style of activity is a system of features of cognitive activity, organization of memory, strategies for choosing means and methods of action and decision-making. Two polar cognitive styles are distinguished: with low and high differentiation. Activity area difficulties include difficulties directly related to the pedagogical activity of the teacher and the educational activity of the student. A teacher who has not fully mastered all the intricacies of his profession may experience difficulties in setting and solving pedagogical problems, which is expressed in insufficiently accurate planning of his activities, failure to take into account past mistakes. This leads to a formalization of the lesson and a decrease in student interest. 83. PROFESSIONAL ABILITIES OF THE TEACHER V.A. Krutetsky singled out nine groups of pedagogical abilities. 1. academic ability, i.e., the ability to teach the relevant subject area of science. They are expressed in the fact that the teacher knows his subject much deeper and wider than the volume of the school curriculum, constantly monitors the development of his science and new discoveries in it, is fluent in the educational material and shows great interest in it, and conducts at least modest research work. 2. didactic ability, i.e., the ability to convey material to students, making it accessible to children, presenting the problem to them in an accessible and understandable way, arousing their interest in the subject, stimulating them to active independent thinking, and orienting them towards independent acquisition of knowledge. A teacher with didactic abilities can, if necessary, appropriately adapt the educational material, make the difficult easy, the complex simple, the obscure understandable. 3. K perceptual pedagogical abilities include the ability to know the inner world of the student, psychological observation associated with a subtle understanding of the student's personality and the temporary mental states he experiences. A teacher with pronounced perceptual abilities, by small external manifestations, and sometimes without them at all, catches the slightest changes in the internal state of the student. 4. speech ability, i.e., the ability to clearly and clearly express one’s thoughts and feelings using verbal speech (verbal formulations, intonations, pauses, volume), facial expressions and pantomimics. The speech of a teacher distinguished by these abilities in the lesson is always addressed to the students. 5. Organizational skills (refer to the organization of work of both students and the teacher himself). A teacher with high organizational skills can rally the student team, motivate him to solve important problems, as well as properly organize his own work, reasonably plan and control it. 6. Authoritarian abilities, i.e., the ability to emotionally and volitionally influence students and the ability to achieve authority from them on this basis. These abilities depend primarily on the volitional qualities of the teacher (decisiveness, endurance, perseverance, exactingness, etc.), as well as on the sense of responsibility for teaching and educating schoolchildren, the teacher's conviction that he is right and the ability to convey this conviction to pupils so that they accept it. consciously, and not under pressure from the authority of the teacher "from above". 7. Communication skills, i.e. the ability to communicate with children, the ability to find the right approach to students, establishing optimal business and personal relationships with them, the presence of pedagogical tact. 8. Prognostic abilities, or pedagogical intuition. This is a special ability, expressed in anticipation of the consequences of one's actions and, based on this idea, how one should behave when communicating with each student, what forms and methods of influencing him should be used to achieve the greatest progress in his intellectual and personal development. 9. Ability to the distribution of their attention simultaneously among several activities. The presence of this ability is especially necessary during the lesson, where the teacher has to simultaneously monitor the content and form of presentation of the material (his own or the answering student), keep the whole class in the field of attention, respond to signs of fatigue, inattention, misunderstanding, violations of discipline, and finally monitor own motor behavior (posture, facial expressions, pantomime, gait, movements around the class). 84. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COOPERATION Academic collaboration represents an extensive network of interactions along at least four lines: 1) "teacher - student (student)"; 2) "student - student" (in pairs and triplets); 3) general group interaction of students in a team; 4) "teacher - teaching staff". These lines do not exist in isolation from each other: the “teacher-student” line, as a rule, is supplemented by a group-wide interaction line if the teacher’s work is with the whole class, or the “student-student” line when performing those types of work in the lesson that require unification students in small groups. The following advantages of joint educational activities are distinguished: - the volume of digestible material and the depth of its understanding increase; - cognitive activity and creative independence of children grow; - less time is spent on the formation of knowledge and skills; - there are fewer problems with discipline due to defects in educational motivation; - students get more pleasure from classes, feel more comfortable at school; - changing the nature of the relationship of students; - the cohesion of the class increases, while self-respect and mutual respect grow simultaneously with criticality, the ability to adequately assess one's own and other people's capabilities; - students acquire the most important social skills - tact, responsibility, the ability to build their behavior taking into account the position of other people, humanistic motives for communication; - the teacher gets the opportunity to individualize learning, taking into account, when dividing into groups, the mutual sympathies of children, their level of preparation, their inherent pace of work; - the educational work of the teacher becomes a necessary condition for group learning, since all groups in their development go through the stage of conflict relations and, as a rule, students cannot overcome it without the intervention of a teacher. There are two phases of the formation of the joint activity of the teacher and students. 1. The phase of involvement in activities includes: 1) actions shared between the teacher and students; 2) imitating the actions of students; 3) imitative actions of students. 2. The phase of coordinating the activities of students and teachers includes: 1) self-regulating actions of students; 2) self-organized actions of students; 3) self-motivated actions of students. These phases stand out in the formation of educational cooperation between schoolchildren and the teacher. Regarding student age, the third phase is expected - partnership in improving the development of activities. Equal partnership in this model of joint activity of students and teacher is the result of its development and formation. The older the students, the faster the path of becoming a truly joint activity will be passed and equal partner, subject-subject interaction in the educational process will be achieved. 85. PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION Under pedagogical communication the form of educational interaction, cooperation of the teacher and students with the help of verbal, visual, symbolic and kinetic means is understood. Pedagogical communication between the teacher and schoolchildren in the learning process creates the best conditions for the development of students' motivation and the creative nature of learning activities, creates a favorable emotional climate for learning, ensures the management of socio-psychological processes in the children's team and allows you to make the most of the teacher's personal characteristics in the learning process. The specificity of pedagogical communication is manifested primarily in its orientation. Pedagogical communication is characterized at least a triple focus: 1) on the educational interaction itself; 2) for students; 3) for learning. At the same time, pedagogical communication is also determined by the triple orientation of its subjects: personal, social and subject. The second specific quality of pedagogical communication is primarily due to its teaching function, which includes the educational function. The learning function is realized in a specially organized process at any level of the educational system - preschool, school, university. Although the teaching function of pedagogical communication is the leading one, it does not supplant its other functions, which ensure the multilateral interaction of the teacher and students, as well as students among themselves. Other main functions of pedagogical communication are educational and facilitative. The function of facilitation (facilitating communication), the teacher helps the student to express himself, to express what is positive in him. The interest of the teacher in the success of the student, a benevolent, supportive atmosphere facilitates pedagogical interaction, contributes to the self-actualization of the student and his further development. When analyzing pedagogical communication, it is necessary to distinguish between its pedagogical and actual communicative tasks. The pedagogical task is associated with the development of certain educational material by students, while the communicative task answers the question of what means of influence of the teacher on students can be done more effectively, what speech means are best used in different pedagogical situations. classify the pedagogical situation. According to the form of the relationship, it can be business or personal, official or informal, formal or informal. According to the stages of the lesson, pedagogical situations of familiarization with the educational material, training of methods of educational actions, control and evaluation of the mastered knowledge of methods of action are distinguished. According to the dynamics of cooperation, it is possible to single out situations of entry into work, work with partners, exit from cooperation, and its completion. By the nature of educational interaction, these can be situations of cooperation, rivalry, conflict, confrontation. By the nature of the educational tasks to be solved, the situation can be neutral or problematic. According to the spatial arrangement of participants in communication, situations can be intimate (15-45 cm distance from each other), personal (up to 75 cm), social (up to 2 m) and public (30-7 m). 86. PSYCHOLOGY OF PEDAGOGICAL ASSESSMENT Pedagogical assessment is a fairly broad concept, including assessments given to the child not only by the teacher, but also by parents or any other persons involved in the upbringing and development of children. According to James evaluation - "this is the return of the reflected impression, a powerful tool in the hands of the teacher." Pedagogical assessment in a broad sense should be distinguished from the school mark, which characterizes the relative and absolute success of the student in points. The mark is a pedagogical stimulus that combines the means of encouragement and punishment. Moreover, the extreme values of the marks do not always have such a stimulating power that the average marks have. Pedagogical assessment is a special kind of incentive. It plays a particularly important role in childhood and during the period of primary school age, as it is directly related to the formation in the child of an appropriate attitude towards himself. With the help of assessments given to the child by significant adults, it is very easy to destroy his correct ideas about himself due to the fact that emotional factors are mixed in here. Restoring an adequate attitude towards oneself is many times more difficult. Pedagogical assessments are of several types: - subject - concern what the child does or has already done, but not his personality; - personal - relate to the subject and note the individual qualities of a person; - material - include material incentives for children for success (money, things, entertainment, etc.); - moral - contain a description of the child's actions in terms of their compliance with accepted moral standards; - effective - refer to the final result of the activity (what happened); - procedural - relate to the process of activity itself (how it is done); - quantitative - correlate with the amount of work performed; - qualitative - relate to the quality, accuracy, accuracy and other indicators of the excellence of the work. In a more general form, three main groups of assessments can be distinguished (according to A.I. Lunkov): - personal - when the progress of the student is assessed in relation to his average level of knowledge, skills, thinking, i.e. the child is compared with himself; - comparative - when students are compared with each other; - normative - when the child's achievements are evaluated relative to some impersonal norm for completing the task. Normative assessments are used 1-2 times per topic in the course of written examinations. Here are the psychological requirements for such control: 1) it is advisable to conduct them in a double lesson in order to provide normal conditions for students with low work rates; 2) the composition of the control work should include questions only on this topic, divided into a sequence of elements (learning units) so that each element corresponds to one or two tasks. In ordinary test papers, as a rule, tasks are offered from different topics, which makes it difficult to assess overall, since it is not clear which topics the student has learned and which not. 87. CORRECTIONAL WORK WITH SCHOOLCHILDREN Correctional work - is a system of special techniques and activities aimed at overcoming or weakening the shortcomings of personality development. The term appeared in the late XIX - early XX century. and for a long time was used in relation to work only with mentally retarded children. In domestic pedagogy, this concept has become broader: correctional work is aimed not only at correcting individual violations, but also at shaping the personality of the student. The content of the correctional work is to assist the student in solving the problems and tasks facing him. The main tasks of corrective work are: - assistance to the student in solving his educational problems; - changing the student's attitude to the social environment and to himself; - successful adaptation and overcoming of arising difficulties. Methods for correcting behavior. Assistance to the student in solving his educational problems consists in diagnosing the formation of the prerequisites for educational activity and is aimed at determining the readiness of a first-year student for a new type of educational activity for him. Unlike school activities, educational activities at the university have a number of specific features. It implies a result orientation; arbitrariness and obligation. Most of the learning tasks faced by the first-year student are aimed at fulfilling a number of conditions, some requirements, focusing on the rule and pattern. It is these skills that are related to the prerequisites of learning activity, i.e., to those that are not yet fully learning actions, but are necessary to start mastering it. One of the effective methods of organizational and educational influence on the individual and the team is the method of criticism. It has long been known that in a healthy atmosphere of comradely criticism, relations between people are built in the most optimal way, students tend to use collegial methods of work. It should be noted that this method most fully corresponds to the collectivist nature of joint learning activities. Its impact is characterized by the following psychological and pedagogical features. 1. Each person perceives certain facts, events in his own way. His judgments are often subjective, one-sided and erroneous. Maturity is manifested in the fact that, having made mistakes, learn to avoid them in the future. 2. A person does not always see his mistakes, shortcomings, weaknesses, which are more clearly visible from the outside. At the same time, he cannot always correctly assess his positive qualities, his merits. Sometimes they are downplayed, revealing such a personality trait as modesty, or, conversely, exaggerated, showing self-confidence, arrogance. And the virtues themselves, not constrained by certain limits, can turn into disadvantages. 3. A person can be most fully judged not only by what he says about himself, but also by what his close circle knows about him. Therefore, constructive criticism, comments addressed to him, an objective analysis of his views and actions organize and educate him, help to correctly assess himself, develop and show the best socially significant qualities of a person. 88. INNOVATIVE TRAINING There are two directions in the development of education - in the spirit of the traditional way of its organization and in the spirit of an innovative strategy based on taking into account real changes in the nature of public demand for the individual. Innovative Learning Strategy involves a conscious systemic organization of the management of the educational process. The first element of this systemic organization is the teacher's personality itself. His position in relation to the student, to himself changes. The teacher acts not only as a preacher of subject-disciplinary knowledge, a carrier of information, a custodian of norms and traditions, but also as an assistant in the formation and development of the student's personality, respecting this personality, regardless of the extent to which it is introduced to knowledge. The second component is a change in the function and structure of knowledge that is mastered at school, as well as in the ways of organizing the process of their assimilation. The process of assimilation of knowledge ceases to have the character of routine memorization, reproduction. It becomes an instrument of knowledge and is organized in different forms. The third essential component of the reorganization is the decisive promotion of the social nature of every student and the development of his personality, which is connected with the orientation not only to individual, but also to group forms of learning, joint activity, to the variety of forms of interaction, interpersonal relationships and communication, to the natural cultivation of individuality from the "collective subject". The fourth component is associated with the rejection of the repressive, overwhelming role of assessments. Developing socially significant qualities of a person, thereby improving her individuality. Proceeding from this, the appeal of the modern school to innovative type of education. It is characterized primarily by stimulating an active response to problem situations that arise before a person. It means: 1) creating opportunities for the student to take an initiative position in the educational process; 2) assimilation of educational material through the knowledge of the world, entering into an active dialogue with it; 3) an independent creative search for answers based on existing experience with its simultaneous enrichment, as well as the subsequent search for truth. All this, of course, will have a huge impact on qualitative changes in the individual development of students, which will be reflected in the way of his activity, in the style of thinking. In addition, innovative education has the ability to shape the attitude of students to the existing culture, ways of accumulating social experience and perception of the social system, which will later manifest itself in the level of social maturity of schoolchildren as a whole. Learning systems in the context of innovation include: differentiated learning, problem-based learning, programmed learning, modular learning. Differentiated education as a system has, first of all, a deeply humane, humane goal - the creation of optimal conditions for the development of the individual. Achieving it is possible if the introduction of this system will involve solving the problem of taking into account the individual differences of students in the most complete way. In this sense, it is appropriate to talk about the implementation of the principle of conformity to nature, the history of which originates in Antiquity. 89. STRUCTURE, OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SERVICE IN THE EDUCATION SYSTEM In Russia, the creation of a psychological service in educational institutions is in its infancy. In the United States, psychological service in universities has become the most widespread - in one form or another, it covers almost all universities and the vast majority of junior colleges. The first independent advisory center also arose there (in 1932 at the University of Minnesota). In its most general form, the function of a psychological service in educational institutions can be defined as the organization of psychological assistance to students and teachers; analysis of the psychological climate in teams and the causes of frequently occurring (typical) difficulties; conducting test surveys; issuing recommendations to the management of educational institutions to overcome the identified shortcomings. Psychological assistance is provided through counseling and vocational guidance. The latter includes, first of all, the problems of choosing a professional career and ways of preparing for it, which, in turn, involves identifying and taking into account the individual characteristics of students. Counseling may relate to learning problems proper (difficulties with mastering the material, developing learning skills, organizing learning activities, etc.) and personal problems (emotional overload, conflicts with teachers and peers, increased anxiety, phobias, love failures, etc.). ). Counselors usually pay attention to other problems that may affect the psychological state of students. Depending on the size of educational institutions, as well as on the nature of the tasks imputed to the psychological service, its staff may include professional consultants and / or social psychologists. In some educational institutions there are quite a lot of students with "borderline conditions" who require psychiatric help. This makes it especially important to coordinate the work of the psychological service with social and medical services. So that "problem students" (who often seek psychological help) do not completely push their more prosperous, but also in some cases in need of psychological help, comrades from consultants, sometimes restrictions are imposed on the number of requests to the psychological service for one student. The effectiveness of the work of a psychologist depends primarily on the level of his professional qualifications, which, in addition to unconditional knowledge of child and educational psychology, presupposes an appropriate level of proficiency in a wide variety of psychological methods for examining a child, a sufficiently high own intellectual and personal development. Only everything taken together allows him to correctly interpret the received diagnostic data, draw conclusions based on the analysis of these data about invisible mental processes, states and signs, about the conditions necessary for the further development of the child, etc. J. Schwan-tsara specifically draws attention to that interpretation is primarily a function of the synthetic faculties of the psychologist and can never emerge from the whole process as some mechanical product of a permanent diagnostic scheme. 90. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF A PSYCHOLOGIST IN AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION In addition to the general ones, there are special requirements related to each field of activity of a psychologist. A specialist in psychodiagnostics must be fluent in the relevant methods and be able to give a qualified assessment of the possibility of their application in practice. Specialization in the field of counseling implies a good knowledge of the technique and technology of conducting conversations, the ability to attract people's attention to oneself, win them over and convince them, the ability to understand people well, inspire confidence in them and be convincing in their psychological influences. To carry out activities for psycho-correction, a psychologist must have a good command of the technique of organizing and conducting socio-psychological trainings, methods of psychoanalysis and other psychotherapeutic techniques. The psychologist is obliged and at the same time has the right: - actively protect the interests of the child if they are violated by one of the persons responsible for his education and upbringing; - make independent professional decisions within their competence; - intervene in the methods of teaching and raising children if they do not contribute to the development of the child, and even more so if they harm him; - seek from the administration of the educational institution, heads of public education bodies, teachers and parents of all kinds of assistance to the child and the timely adoption of positive decisions regarding his fate; - personally participate in the conduct of medical-psychological, defectological and forensic psychological examinations and studies of children and persons related to their education and upbringing. The rights of a practical psychologist can be protected legally, socially and morally. Legal protection implies the existence of laws and other regulatory legal acts, in accordance with which the psychologist builds his work and relationships with other participants in the educational process. The main such normative act in the Russian Federation is the Regulation on the Service of Practical Psychology in the system of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, approved by order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation dated October 22.10.1999, 636 No. XNUMX. moral defense The activity of practical psychologists in the field of education consists in their support by public opinion. The moral rules of behavior of a practical psychologist of education constitute an ethical code that prescribes a certain ethical position to him. Ethical position of a practical psychologist is based on philosophy, religion, culture, customs, traditions, ideology and politics that set moral principles for all mankind. The ethical position of a psychologist in an educational institution is primarily as follows: he is obliged to protect the rights and interests of the child, always remaining on his side, even in front of his parents, no matter what the child is accused of. The Code of Ethics prescribes to the psychologist of an educational institution certain norms of behavior. The psychologist is obliged to control his emotional manifestations and not allow himself such manifestations that can be ambiguously interpreted by the client. When working with a child, do not make sudden movements and speak very loudly. The situation of communication with a psychologist should not cause additional emotional stress in a child, resemble an exam or an educational conversation. The psychologist should have a good idea of the experiences of children of a particular age, have the most complete picture of the emotional and spiritual life of the child. The younger the child, the more playful moments should be in the psychologist's communication with him, no forms of coercion are allowed. Author: Bogachkina N.A.
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