Fundamentals of sociology and political science. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Fundamentals of sociology and political science. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Sociology as a science: the subject and object of its research
Structure and functions of sociological knowledge
Methods of sociological knowledge
Classical social theories
The development of sociology in Russia
Contemporary sociological theories
Personality and individual
The social status of the individual and its types
Social roles of the individual as mechanisms of interaction between the individual and society
Socialization of the individual, its agents and institutions
Social behavior and social control
Social activities and activity
Social action, its criteria and motivations
social connection
Social interaction as a system of exchanges and its forms
social conflict
Classification of social conflicts
The concept of a social institution
Institutes of family and education
Institute of Culture, its meaning and functions
Religious social institution
State and economy as social institutions
Society as a sociocultural phenomenon, its concept and features
Social process and its main forms
Typology of societies
Information society concept
Social structure of society
Social communities, their distinctive features and types
Social groups, signs and types
Social relations
Social movements, their signs and types
Ethnoses and ethno-national relations
Theories of stratification
Modern classification of stratification
The main approaches to the definition of the subject of political science
Methods and functions of political science as a science
The history of the formation and development of political thought
Russian political science: history and modernity
Politics as a social phenomenon
Policy structure
Policy structure (continued)
Policy Features
The nature of power
The legitimacy of power, its types and signs of the fall of its legitimacy
The concept of the political system of society
The functioning of the political system
Political regime
Types of political regimes
Electoral systems, their meaning and typology
The concept of a political institution
The state as a fundamental institution of the political system
Signs of the State
Functions of the state
State types
Forms of government and devices
The rule of law and its distinctive features
Civil society and its relationship with the rule of law
Political party as the main institution of the political system, its functions
Typology of political parties

1. SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE: SUBJECT AND OBJECT OF ITS RESEARCH

The term "sociology" comes from fr. companies - Society and Greek. Logos - teaching. Sociology - the science of society. Society - a complex set of people occupying a certain social position and acting in accordance with their interests. Based on their interests, people constantly enter into various relationships, organize social groups and social institutions. Sociology - a science that studies society as a whole, certain social processes, institutions, social groups that are part of various social interactions. The fundamental category of sociology is the concept of "social".

The social - a category that expresses the specifics of society as a whole, and not of its individual sphere. Social as the interaction of people in all spheres of life is the basis of economics, politics and culture. In sociological science there is no clear distinction between "social" and "social". This is due to the fact that in the development of the scientific theory of society, attention was paid to the interaction of all aspects of life. A phenomenon or process acquires a social character if the individual's behavior changes under the influence of other individuals or their groups. In domestic sociology, the concepts of "public" and "social" are considered as synonyms.

The problem of the subject of science is the question of what is studied in a given field of knowledge and what are its boundaries. To understand the subject of science, it is important to understand its difference from the object of scientific knowledge. An object - everything that the process of research is aimed at. Subject area of science - all parties, connections and relationships to be studied. The object of sociology, like other social sciences, is social reality. Subject of sociology - social communities, as they occupy a decisive place in the development of society.

Social community - the relationship of individuals, due to the commonality of their interests due to the similarity of living conditions and activities of people (family groups, settlements, groups: social-class, socio-professional, socio-demographic, ethno-national and territorial, state and humanity as a whole). The term "social community" expresses discrepancies and clashes of interests of classes and social groups. It makes it possible to explain the state of stability of social systems, organizations and institutions by virtue of their conformity to common interests.

The difference in the interests of social communities creates a variety of opportunities for the development of society.

In this way, sociology - this is the science of formation, development, changes and transformations, the action of social communities and forms of their self-organization: social systems, social structures and institutions. In this sense, sociology studies social changes caused by the activities of social communities. It studies the relationships and interactions between diverse social communities, between the individual and communities. Sociology studies mass social processes and collective behavior, the joint life of people.

2. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

Sociology as a science contains a variety of applied and theoretical material that requires a specific approach to its study. The diversity of sociological data is reflected in the structure of sociological knowledge. Structure of sociological knowledge - this is a set of empirical and theoretical material obtained as a result of collecting practical information, conducting research, sociological experiments, surveys, studying public opinion. It is formed in the course of logical generalization and interpretation of the obtained experimental data. Its structure includes empirical data, middle-level theories and general theories.

The empirical basis of sociological knowledge includes grouped and generalized social facts. These include the characteristics of mass consciousness - opinions, assessments, judgments, beliefs; properties of mass behavior; individual events, states of social interaction Theory provides a model for explaining empirical data. In choosing a theoretical model, the general theoretical goal of the study is decisive - theoretical-cognitive or practical-applied.

Special sociological theories reveal two main types of social ties: between the social system as a whole and a given sphere of public life. Their subject area is limited to individual elements of society - social structure, social interaction.

culture, social organization, mass communications. Special theories formulate only probabilistic statements, and their confirmation must be proved logically or factually.

General sociological theories - the result of combining special sociological theories and their conclusions. They are a way of describing new knowledge and a methodological basis for constructing theories of a lower order - special and sectoral. Depending on this division of sociological knowledge, main functions of sociology:

- the theoretical-cognitive function consists in summarizing and explaining the collected sociological data;

- descriptive function is to collect and process practical information;

- the practical-transformative function is used by sociologists to solve practical problems, especially in the sphere of production and management.

- the prognostic function is used only in the case when sociologists develop forecasts for the upcoming development of social processes:

- the critical function is the assessment of the conditions of social reality from the point of view of the interests of the individual. It allows you to report deviations in the development of society, which can lead to negative social consequences.

3. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

Methods of sociological research - a system of rules for collecting, processing and analyzing available information. It is necessary to identify acceptable techniques, united by a single method of sociological research. Method is a concept denoting a set of techniques associated with a given method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship. Methods Depending on the type of sociological research, they are divided into qualitative and quantitative, and depending on the stage of the study, they are divided into methods of collecting data, analyzing sociological information, and processing sociological data.

Methods of quantitative sociological research - a set of techniques that differ in their focus on highlighting the most typical and stable features in the subject. Advantage: the ability to cover a large number of objects, highlight the most essential and necessary for the purposes of the study. Three principal classes of primary empirical data collection methods: direct observation, document analysis, and surveys. Observation - direct registration of events, direct perception of reality or the use of observations of other people.

Document Analysis - the study of written, oral or photographic documentary data conveying social information. There are two types of document analysis: traditional analysis and content analysis. Traditional Analysis is a common way of understanding the content of documents by reading, listening, viewing. Content analysis - a formalized method for studying documents, which involves assessing their content by counting the features that are essential for the study. Its specificity is the allocation of units of analysis: word, name, fact; definition of the unit of reference: characters, paragraphs.

Poll - a method of collecting information in the interaction of a sociologist with the interviewed individuals; designed to collect information about the public opinion of social groups. Social survey involves the existence of a questionnaire or action plan, is divided into four types: 1) interviewing - data collection by direct generalization; 2) sociometric survey - collection of data on interpersonal relationships in a small social group. This method allows you to optimally form a group and improve the climate in it; 3) testing - a system of tasks used to establish the personal characteristics of the interviewed individuals; 4) questioning - data collection using a special survey form. Its subject is personal opinions and assessments of individuals.

Data processing - study and classification of the obtained data for the purpose of their further analysis. It is compiled in accordance with the methodological requirements, i.e. with the subject, goals and objectives of the study. Анализ данных -comparison of the processed data with hypotheses and establishing the truth or falsity of sentences. Methods of data analysis are the method of typology and classification of data, the method of hypotheses, analogy and formalization of data. Methods of qualitative sociological research - a set of techniques and principles that pay attention to the particular, the special in describing the whole picture of social practices.

4. CLASSICAL SOCIAL THEORIES

From the middle of the XIX century. there is a need to create a science of society that would investigate social processes. This necessity was justified by the formation of the bourgeois class, the development of production and the growth of the working class. This period includes the work of such thinkers as Claude-Henri Saint-Simon, Alexis de Tocqueville, Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx. The founder of sociology is O. Comte, who introduced the term "sociology" into science. There are two main directions in the development of sociology: scientism and anti-scientism. Representatives of scientism are O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim. The founder of "understanding sociology", M. Weber, adheres to the opposite view.

The central link in the social views of O. conta is "the law of the intellectual evolution of mankind", or "the law of the three stages of development of the intellect and society". O. Comte distinguishes three stages of social development: traditional society, determined by theology; pre-industrial society defined by metaphysics; an industrial society based on scientific arguments. The main law of the development of human intellect says that each idea or branch of knowledge goes through three theoretical states: 1) theological, in which the human spirit is directed to the inner nature of things and understands phenomena as the result of the action of supernatural forces; 2) metaphysical, in which supernatural forces are replaced by abstract concepts; 3) the positive, in which the human spirit recognizes the impossibility of achieving absolute knowledge, it strives from the knowledge of the internal causes of phenomena to the knowledge of the actual laws of phenomena.

Comte also belongs to the doctrine of social statics and social dynamics. social dynamics is a state of progressive development of society. social static - harmonious state of social development. They replace each other and thus provide society with constant growth and development.

G. Spencer in his work "The System of Synthetic Philosophy" formulates the concept of the evolutionary development of society and considers it as a living organism with the same properties.

- interaction with the external environment;

- the ability to reproduce, generating energy:

- development along the path of expansion and complication of its elements;

- evolution, replacement of its constituent elements. Spheres of social life are compared with parts of a living organism. So, trade is compared with blood circulation; the government is identified with the brain; media - with the nervous system. Social evolution - this is the progressive development of society along the path of complication and improvement of the activities of social institutions. Social evolution is driven by the needs of people. In this process, the importance of the collective activity of people, which contributes to many social transformations, increases. Society in its development goes through several stages: decline, disintegration (new movement from outside), balance and stability (harmonious action of all social institutions).

5. DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN RUSSIA

The development of sociology in Russia is conditioned by the requirements of political and social life. In Russian sociological thought, the followers of the subjective method of anti-scientism and the followers of positivism, which adhered to scientistic views, stood out.

Representatives of the sociology of populism P.L. Lavrov и N.K. Mikhailovsky followed the subjective method. subjective method - this is a way of considering any process in history as an event endowed with moral ideals. Sociology must study the recurring manifestations of human solidarity and seek to discover their laws. Solidarity - this is the consciousness that personal interest coincides with the public interest and personal dignity rests on respect for all. It manifests itself in the community of habits, beliefs, interests of people. The social activity of people is determined by the motives, ideals and will of people. N.K. Mikhailovsky considered the problem of interaction between the individual and society. The main issue is the interaction of the leader and the masses or "hero and crowd". It is solved from socio-psychological positions. Hero - a leader endowed with good or bad character traits. Crowd - a mass of people capable of being carried away by the example of a hero. The masses lose their independence in understanding what is happening, being carried away by the ideals of the hero. Therefore, one should turn to the personality of the hero, i.e. to the subjective factor.

The ideas of positivism in Russia were developed by a Russian sociologist Pitirim Sorokin. He believed that sociology should adopt the methods of the natural sciences and become an objective discipline. The subject of sociology should be society - a set of individuals who are in the process of interacting with each other. The basic unit of sociological analysis is the interaction performed in social space.

In the 20s. 50th century Soviet sociology broke with the traditions of pre-revolutionary sociological thought. The revival of Soviet sociology begins in the 60s and XNUMXs. and coincides with the liberation of the country from Stalinism. Sociology was perceived as part of the party-state system. Her activities were reduced to social design, which had no real basis. Active participation in the revival of sociology was taken by A.A. Zworykin, A.G. Zdravomyslov, I.S. Kon, V.N. Shubkin V.A. Poisons. The restoration of sociology, its involvement in the consciousness of the new society required an appeal to the experience of Western researchers. However, on this path, Soviet researchers encountered difficulties in the form of ideology and various prohibitions.

Since 1972 sociology has begun to emerge from the crisis. In the early 80s. extended research on the systematization of sociological concepts begins. In 1984, a decision was made to establish a Center for Public Opinion Polls on the basis of the Institute of Sociology of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Today, sociological research is becoming relevant due to the need for successful social development.

6. MODERN SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

The modern stage in the development of sociology begins in the 20s and 30s. XNUMXth century and continues to this day. Modern trends in sociology are structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism and phenomenological-hermeneutical sociology.

Ideas structural and functional direction developed by an American sociologist Talcott Parsons and his contemporaries: R. Merton. R. Bales, P. Sorokin. The structural method is based on the analysis of social action. T. Parsons believes that society should be considered as a functioning system. It combines its elements on the basis of their functional dependence, which ensures the integrity of the system In the trichotomy "society - group - individual" society is the main element. It consists of individuals acting in a particular environment. Therefore, in order to know society, it is necessary to reduce it to the actions of individuals. social actions - the simplest, indecomposable units of social life, symbolizing the meaning of people's behavior. Having opened the mechanism of social action, they get access to the explanation of any social phenomenon.

Symbolic interactionism - a direction in sociology that studies the problem of the integral "I" of a person, his personal self-determination in a small social group. The founders of this approach are J. Mead, J. Moreno, J. Huizinga, M. Kuhn D. Lewis. They saw in human behavior an external manifestation of his inner world in everyday communication. Personality - the result of communication or role-playing action - interaction. Society - a set of self-contained interpersonal interactions "I" and "You", "I" and "Others". Society is a mirror image of the "I". Therefore, a person perceives himself through the opinions of other people about himself. Sociocultural symbols change as a result of individual perception. In the system of symbols, the main thing is the meaning and its interpretation. Its supporters (G. Bloomer, I. Hoffman, M. Kuhn D. Lewis, R. Smith and others) adhered to the main thesis: the object of sociology is the process of symbolic interaction, understood as a system of communications and interpersonal communication. Interaction between people is based on communicative forms of communication - language, information processes, means of communication. Therefore, in order to correctly understand the information received, it is important to be able to empathize with other people.

founder phenomenological-hermeneutical direction is A. Schutz. He put forward the idea of a sociology oriented towards the human world. The subject of sociology is the life world of the individual. Sociology - the science of the laws of the life world, where people's actions have a subjective meaning and are focused on other people. Understanding must become the method of sociology. Understanding - a method of cognition of culture as the embodiment of the ideal content or meanings, acquiring sign-symbolic expression.

7. PERSON AND INDIVIDUAL

The concept of "personality" is associated with such words as "man", "individuality", "individual". Human - a generic concept that symbolizes the totality of physiological and psychological characteristics that characterize a human being, unlike other living beings. Individual - a specific representative of the human race, as opposed to other people. Individuality - a set of physical and psychological characteristics that distinguish one individual from others. Individuality implies a difference in those properties that are considered to be common to all people.

Personality - the social essence of a person, the totality of all his social qualities, manifested in social experience. The concept of "personality" unites only psychological characteristics that are significant for society. However, personality is not identical to a set of social roles. A person is a person endowed with independence of thought, originality of feelings, willpower and responsibility.

In public life, the individual is the object and subject of social relations. Personality acts as an object in the process of its formation. She experiences all possible influences of the social environment. Sociology distinguishes in the individual the integrity of social and moral qualities, knowledge, skills, value orientations, social attitudes and positions. In this regard, it is important to understand the mechanisms of formation of the social qualities of the individual. Personality is formed under the influence of both the social environment and internal qualities. AT theories of psychoanalysis, the founder of which was the Austrian scientist 3. Freud, personality is a product of the interaction of the internal components of the human psyche: the unconscious, consciousness and superconsciousness.

Unconscious - an area of the psyche formed by the repression of unwanted memories, ideas, drives. The reason for the formation of the unconscious is the pressure of society.

Consciousness - self-selected values and ideals by the individual, which exercise control over his behavior in accordance with the requirements of rationality. Thanks to the activity of consciousness, a person is able to navigate the world.

The highest authority in the socio-psychological structure of the personality is superconsciousness - the area of the human psyche, which is formed in the process of assimilation by a person of the norms and values of culture. It is guided by the requirements of conscience, duty, responsibility and moral assessment of the activity of the individual. With the coordinated action of these personality subsystems, the individual successfully adapts to the social environment, establishes relationships with other people.

Personality as a subject of social relations is an active producer of cultural values. The condition for the active participation of the individual in public life is the integrity, stability and dynamism of his personality. The active activity of the individual as a subject of social processes is possible due to the mastery of culture, social norms and rules, standards of behavior accepted in society. The active position of the personality characterizes it as a subject of interpersonal and social relations.

8. SOCIAL STATUS OF THE PERSON AND ITS TYPES

Social status - the position occupied by a person in society and associated with certain rights and obligations. The term "status" entered sociology from the Latin language and originally in ancient Rome meant the legal status of a legal entity. At the end of the XIX century. English historian G.D.S. Maine uses this term to denote the social position occupied by an individual in society. In modern sociology, social status - the position occupied by an individual or group in society in accordance with the profession, socio-economic status, political opportunities, gender, origin, marital status. Social status characterizes the place of the individual in the system of social interactions and the assessment of its activities by society.

Since each person is characterized by several status features, R. Merton introduced the concept of "status set" into sociology, which is used to refer to the entire set of statuses of a particular individual. status set - this is the whole set of statuses that characterize this person in the variety of her interactions with other personalities on the issue of fulfilling their rights and obligations. In this totality, the main status of the individual is distinguished. The main status is the one that determines the attitude and orientation of the personality, the content and nature of its activities, lifestyle, behavior, circle of acquaintances.

In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between two statuses - personal and social. Social status This is the position occupied objectively by a person in society. It is determined by the duties and rights that society allocates to the individual, regardless of his individual traits. personal status - this is the position occupied by a person in a small group, determined by his individual qualities. Socio-status characteristics serve to represent people to each other. Personal status is important in the communication of well-known people, since personal characteristics are essential here. Depending on whether a person occupies a certain social position due to inherited characteristics (sex, race, nationality) or due to his own efforts, two types of statuses are distinguished: prescribed and achieved. Prescribed status - the status in society, which the individual occupies regardless of his consciousness, desires, will, aspirations and over which he does not have control. Achievable status - social position, which is acquired by a person through his own efforts. Therefore, the achieved status is a reward for an individual for his talent, work, dedication, or is a consequence of his failures.

The most important dimensions of status are prestige and power. Prestige - a set of qualities subject to high social assessment. Prestige testifies to the belonging of a social object to a limited group, to its high significance in social life. In society, individuals are endowed power from its level and limitations, they occupy a certain position in society. An individual acquires power either by virtue of his involvement in powerful state structures, or because he has gained high authority.

9. SOCIAL ROLES OF THE PERSON AS MECHANISMS OF INTERACTIONS OF THE PERSON AND SOCIETY

Social role - a way of behavior that corresponds to the norms and rules accepted in a given society and depends on the social status of a person. For the first time, the definition of a social role was used by the American sociologist R Linton in 1936. He considered the social role as a dynamic side of social status, as its function, associated with a set of norms that determine the behavior of the individual and her attitude towards other persons. The fulfillment of a social role refers to social interactions when, over a long period of time, a person reproduces established behavioral traits that meet people's expectations.

Social role - a set of expectations and requirements imposed by a social group, society as a whole to a person occupying a certain social status. The social role is associated with the social position occupied by the individual in the social stratification structure of society.

A person performs many social roles corresponding to his social status. R. Merton designated the totality of social roles performed by an individual by the concept of "role set". role set - a set of roles characteristic of this particular individual in certain situations. Social roles arise and are carried out only in a specific situation. According to I Parsons, the social role arises and is realized in social interaction. The totality of such interactions is a dynamically developing social system. People perform social actions that provide the achievement of satisfaction. An individual expects certain actions from other people in specific situations. From these expectations emerge social norms and generally accepted values.

Social interaction is carried out under the condition that people correctly perceive and evaluate each other's social roles. The American psychologist T. Shibutani called this process the acceptance of a role. Taking on a Role - a complex process that includes the perception of gestures, identification with another person and the projection of one's own forms of behavior onto him. The effectiveness of a person's participation in concerted action depends on his ability to become different people in his imagination. The most important mechanism for the formation of social roles is identification - the process of identification by a person of himself with a certain ethnic, political, territorial, linguistic, religious groups. There are two types of personal identification: 1) social identification - awareness and emotional perception by a person of his belonging to a certain social community; 2) role identification - acceptance by a person of socially assigned functions and group requirements as meeting his own interests and needs. The result of identification is identity - social quality, which is the result of a conscious and emotional self-identification of an individual with other people, a social community or an ideal through selective preference. It expresses the consistency between an individual's knowledge of himself and information about other people.

10. SOCIALIZATION OF THE PERSON, ITS AGENTS AND INSTITUTIONS

In the process of social interaction, an individual learns social experience, a certain system of knowledge, norms, values and patterns of behavior. They allow him to successfully connect people and creatively transform social reality. These processes are united by the common name of the socialization of the individual.

Socialization - a two-way process of personality formation, which includes both the assimilation of social experience by an individual by entering the system of social interactions with other people, and the process of active reproduction of social experience through active social activity and modification of social experience. Primary socialization covers the period of childhood. In it, the family plays a decisive role, ensuring the entry of the individual into social communities. Secondary socialization covers the entire life path of a person and is superimposed on the results of primary socialization. The success of secondary socialization ensures the ability of the individual to identify himself with any social group. Resocialization - the process of assimilation of new ways of action, attitudes, skills, rules instead of the previous ones. In this process, the presence of new values is important, since their absence leads to various social and legal violations. Desocialization - a process that takes place from the moment of termination of employment and the acquisition of retirement status. Socialization agents - social groups and social environment that have a significant impact on the entry of a person into society. They are all subjects and groups with which the individual interacts closely in a certain period of his life. In infancy, the main agents of socialization are parents. In the period from three to eight years, friends, educators and other people become agents of socialization in addition to parents. In the period from 13 to 19 years old, attitudes towards the opposite sex begin to form and, as a result, the role of socialization agents changes, the role of parents decreases and the influence of friends increases. In the period from 14 to 18 years old, new agents of socialization appear - the educational and labor collective.

Institutes of socialization - social groups contributing to the assimilation of social norms and rules of behavior by the individual. These include family, school, work collective, culture. Family - the primary group, characterized by close, direct ties and cooperation. It is the experience of empathy and mutual identification. School - an institution of socialization that transfers knowledge, skills and abilities beyond the initial contact between parents and children. The agents of socialization are teachers, through whose efforts the training of students is carried out. The education system contains common values and norms of behavior for all, necessary for the independent and creative life of the individual in society. Labor collective - an institution of socialization that specializes and makes the professional socialization of the individual. culture - an institution of socialization that contributes to the creative development of the individual and is a product of its activity in the form of norms, values, rules and patterns of behavior. Culture makes an individual a personality with its own, unique "I".

11. SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL CONTROL

Social behavior - a set of actions and actions of individuals and their groups, their specific direction and sequence, affecting the interests of other individuals and communities. The behavior manifests the social qualities of a person, the features of his upbringing, cultural level, temperament, his needs, beliefs. It forms and implements its attitude to the surrounding natural and social reality, to other people and to itself. In sociology, it is customary to distinguish two forms of behavior - normative and non-normative.

Normative Behavior - the whole set of actions and interactions regulated by generally accepted norms. This type of behavior is designed to maintain traditions, customs and forms of interaction between people that have been established in society.

Deviant behavior - a type of behavior that deviates from the rules and norms prevailing in society and is not consistent with the expectations of society. Depending on the degree of harm caused to the interests of the individual, social group and society, the following are distinguished: 1) destructive behavior - behavior that harms only the personality itself and does not correspond to generally accepted social and moral standards - hoarding, conformism, masochism; 2) antisocial behavior - behavior that harms the individual and social communities and manifests itself in drug addiction, suicide: 3) illegal behavior - behavior that is a violation of moral and legal norms and is expressed in robberies, murders and other crimes.

Conformal behavior is often formed in the social environment. Conformal behavior - a set of actions based on the uncritical acceptance by a person of someone else's wrong opinion, accompanied by a sincere rejection of one's own opinion, the correctness of which the person does not doubt. Conformal behavior distinguishes people who do not have a contradiction with the social environment. They are the bearers of the values and interests of the team.

Social behavior is regulated by a system of rules, norms and sanctions, united by the process of social control. Social control - a system of prescriptions, prohibitions, persuasions and coercive measures, which ensures that the actions of the individual comply with the accepted patterns. It regulates the interaction between individuals.

Categorization - an element of social control that performs the function of highlighting a typical individual in social actions. It influences the formation of social consciousness and the self-determination of the individual in society.

Public Consciousness - an element of social control that determines the social position and choice of the individual. It regulates his behavior in accordance with the norms existing in society and with the help of social sanctions.

Social sanctions - an element of social control applied to individuals in case of deviation of their behavior from the norms. Social sanctions can be positive and negative.

Social norms - prescriptions that are general indications of social action. The norm implies the expectation of correct behavior and cannot exist without consent and coercion.

12. SOCIAL ACTIVITIES AND ACTIVITIES

Activity is a specific human form of the relationship of an individual to the surrounding world. In it, a person asserts himself as a social being, therefore it is socially conditioned. Social activity - a dynamic system of active interaction of an individual, a social group with the outside world, in the process of which the production and reproduction of a person as a social being takes place, a purposeful change in the natural and social world is carried out. In social activity, the activity of the individual and the community, their creative qualities, is manifested.

Activity - the ability of individuals to change social reality as a result of activities and external or internal incentives. Activity is a condition for the integration of all elements of the social system of society. Personal activities include four main components: 1) the attitude of a person to an object - to the totality of the things surrounding him, created and consumed by him; 2) the relation of a person to another person - people, their groups, society; 3) the attitude of a person to natural processes and phenomena; 4) the attitude of a person to himself.

All components of social activity are interconnected. In social reality, it is not individual individuals that act, but communities of people. They are connected by joint activities. Only through various types of activities and the interaction of individuals and communities in them is it possible to develop society as an integral system. Social activity includes a conscious goal, means, process of activity and its result. Since its basis is a conscious goal formed by human consciousness, we can single out three components of social activity: a) conscious activity based on goal setting; b) the socially determined nature of the activity; c) the productivity of activity, expressed in the achievement of the goal.

Depending on the nature of the relationship of a person to the world around him and to other people social activity is divided into types: 1) material-transformative activity, the result of which are the products of labor - bread, clothing, buildings, structures; 2) cognitive activity, the results of which are embodied in scientific theories, discoveries, in scientific practice, in the scientific picture of the world; 3) value-oriented activity, the results of which are expressed in the existing system of moral, political and other values; 4) communicative activity is a system of communication of an individual with other people, interaction of worldviews, political movements, cultures; 5) artistic activity, embodied in the creation and operation of artistic values - artistic images, styles, forms; 6) health care activities implemented in medical practice, in the work of hospitals, clinics, etc.

Social activity is a set of social relations, social actions, social aspirations and meanings, combined in various ways in its various forms.

13. SOCIAL ACTION, ITS CRITERIA AND MOTIVATIONS

In the structure of social activity, social action is singled out as one of the conditions for its implementation. According to M. Weber, social action is carried out thanks to individual individuals and their interactions with other people (the main principle of M. Weber's "understanding sociology"). "Understanding sociology" seeks to understand social behavior in terms of typical motives and typical thinking about them, which guides the acting individual. social action - an action that correlates with the actions of other people and is directed to them in accordance with the necessary means to achieve the set goals. An action becomes social if it meets three criteria: 1) it is meaningful, i.e. aimed at achieving goals perceived by the individual; 2) it is consciously motivated and a certain semantic unity acts as a motive, which appears to a person as the cause of action; 3) it is socially meaningful and socially oriented towards interaction with other people. In accordance with these criteria, M. Weber identifies types of social action that differ in the degree of rationality and motivation.

Motivation - a set of motives that cause social activity and determine its direction. An important place in determining human actions is occupied by motive (lat. motiv- reason for action) - the internal cause of a person's behavior and act. Unlike motivation, the motive is not the direct cause of social action, therefore, in relation to it, we should not talk about motive, but about motivation. In the course of social action, socially conditioned attitudes and internal motives are transferred to each other. M. Weber highlights four types of social action:

• purposeful action - behavior focused on achieving a rationally chosen goal. It comprehends the relation of the means to the end and side effects of the action, and also comprehends the relation of various ends to each other. His motivation is to achieve the goal and identify the reaction of the people around him;

- value-rational action - orientation of behavior, the direction of which is based on the individual's personal beliefs about duty, conscience, dignity, beauty, goodness and other values. His motivation is socially determined and individually rethought values:

- traditional action - behavior based on habit and performed by individuals without comprehension. His motivation is habits, traditions, customs. Their meaning is not always recognized or lost;

- affective action - behavior caused and guided by the unconscious passions and feelings of the individual. The motivation for such an action is the emotions, feelings, desires of a person.

The last two types of action are not social in the strict sense of the word: they lack conscious meaning. Only goal-oriented and value-rational actions are social, since they have a certain significance in the development of man and society.

14. SOCIAL CONNECTION

social connection - a set of factors that determine the joint activities of people in specific communities, at a certain time, to achieve certain goals. The essence of social connection is manifested in the content and nature of the actions of people who are part of a social community. Social ties are established for a long period of time and exist regardless of the individual qualities of individuals. Among the main types of social communication, two types can be distinguished: social interaction and social contact.

Contact - a special type of fleeting, short-term connections established between individuals. Contacts take place at different levels: spatial, psychological and social.

Spatial contact - any relationship between people that begins with some kind of contact in space. During this type of contact, mutual observation of individuals takes place, as a result of which it turns out whether they have properties that may interest the interlocutor.

Psychological contact - establishing relationships between people on the basis of personal, emotional interest. Arises on the basis of the already existing needs of the observing individual. Interest can be mutual and one-sided. As a rule, mutual interest leads to the establishment of psychological contact. Psychological contact is a condition for the emergence of a stable connection and can develop into social contact.

social contact - a certain system, which includes individuals, values that are the basis of contact, and interaction about this value. It occurs when two individuals meet and begin to interact about an exchange of values. They can be polite words, objects, situations that are important for both parties. Social contacts are of great importance in studying the place of individuals in the social system. They are the basis and beginning of the formation of social groups. Social contacts can be formal and informal.

Formal contacts - relations in which a collective or social institution participates in order to realize certain needs and interests. Informal contacts - Relationships based on individual interest.

Personal contacts - relationships expressing interest in the personal qualities of a person. Subject contacts - Relationships that arise under the condition of interest in some subject.

social interaction - constant, stable performance of some actions that are aimed at another individual in order to cause a certain reaction on his part. Social interaction consists of such elements as the individual and social groups, the changes that have occurred in the social community as a result of these actions, the impact of changes on other individuals of this social community. In the course of social interaction, social dependence arises.

15. SOCIAL INTERACTION AS A SYSTEM OF EXCHANGE AND ITS FORMS

In public life, all people are interconnected and experience mutual influence on each other. A person's personality is a combination of those social qualities that have been formed and developed in the system of social interactions. social interaction - a system of socially conditioned individual or group actions connected by mutual causal dependence, in which the behavior of one of the participants is a stimulus and a reaction to the behavior of the others. In sociology, social interaction is also called "interaction" - the interaction established between people on the issue of joint activities and communication.

Each interaction contains certain signs, leading to a certain result: -objectivity - the presence of an external goal in relation to interacting individuals, the achievement of which requires joint efforts ■ situationality - severe limitation of interaction by the specific conditions of the situation in which it occurs; • explication - accessibility for an outside observer of the external expression of social action; • reflexive polysemy - the ability of interaction to be a manifestation of the individual intentions of the individual and the intentions formed in the course of joint activities of people.

Social life, according to P. Sorokin, is presented as a continuous interaction process. In real life, people have a variety of interactions. Among them are the main ones: 1) adaptation (lat. adapt - adapt) - adaptation of the individual to the social environment in the process of joint activities and communication with other people. Adaptation takes place in a situation of transformation of social reality in which the life of an individual takes place. The process of adaptation is considered successful if the individual manages to fulfill the social and psychological needs necessary for life; 2) cooperation (cooperation) - human interaction based on the desire for coordinated activities together with other people. It involves the search for solutions that satisfy the interests of all parties, a joint and open analysis of disagreements, the distribution of responsibility and the fulfillment of goals by mutual agreement; 3) competition (lat. sopsygo - I run into a collision) - one of the forms of organization of social interaction, characterized by the achievement of individual and group goals, interests in a confrontation with individuals and groups that achieve the same goals and interests. Competition is characterized by an open struggle for one's own interests. Competition is characterized by the use of power, coercion, pressure, the use of partner dependence. This type of interaction is effective when the existence of an individual or group is threatened; 4) conflict (lat. conflictus - collision) - a collision of oppositely directed goals, interests, opinions, positions or views of interacting individuals. Social conflict is a struggle for values and claims to certain status, power and resources.

16. SOCIAL CONFLICT

Conflict - clash of individuals, social groups, societies associated with the presence of contradictions or opposing interests and goals. The conflict is a form of relationship between the subjects of social action, the motivation of which is due to opposing values and norms, interests and needs.

Causes social conflict: 1) the coexistence of at least two groups in a single social reality, since the conflict is an interaction and is carried out between individuals; 2) the presence of an object of conflict, i.e. what the parties are arguing about; 3) it is necessary that the parties strive for profit, and its achievement would mean causing damage to the other party; 4) the actions taken by the parties must be aimed at achieving incompatible and mutually exclusive goals; 5) the desire of the parties to realize their interests with the use of force.

Conflict is such a social process that leads not only to disunity, but also to rallying people, to maintaining the stability of society. This is facilitated conflict features:

- the formation of social groups and maintaining the integrity of their boundaries;

- formation and maintenance of carriers of stability of intragroup and intergroup relations;

- creating and maintaining a balance between the opposing sides;

- stimulating the creation of new forms of social control;

- creation of new social institutions;

- obtaining information about social reality, its shortcomings and advantages;

- socialization and adaptation of specific individuals. Aftermath conflicts (positive):

a) a solution to the problem that satisfies all parties, which contributes to the improvement of relations between people;

b) the parties are disposed to cooperate, and not to confrontation, which can lead to conflicts in the future.

If no correct solution or way out of the conflict is found, then there are negative effects:

- increased staff turnover, reduced productivity;

- lesser degree of cooperation in the future;

- unproductive competition and the breakup of the group.

- representation of the other side as an "enemy" and a positive assessment of only their own goals;

- curtailment of interaction between competing parties;

- giving more importance to "winning" the conflict, rather than solving the problem.

17. CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL CONFLICTS

Understanding existing conflicts should take into account their classification. It can be based on different signs: sphere, object, subject, effectiveness, content. The sphere of conflict development can be economy, politics, culture. Depending on the scope of the conflict, it is possible to establish why it arises - about resources, power, or the interpretation of cultural norms. In this case, economic, political, intercultural conflicts arise.

Depending on the from the result can be distinguished two types of conflicts: • functional - a contradiction leading to cohesion and increasing the efficiency of the organization; • dysfunctional - a contradiction leading to a decrease in personal satisfaction, group cooperation and the effectiveness of the organization.

Depending on the subjects, in conflict: • intrapersonal - contradictions that arise in the personality itself about the incompatibility of various needs, values, attitudes, motives; -interpersonal - clash of personalities with incompatible character traits, attitudes and values; • between the individual and the group - contradictions between the positions and expectations of the individual and the group; • intergroup - the confrontation of different groups about values, satisfaction of needs, resources.

Classification of conflicts regarding about what it arises.

- conflict over a person (a child in family disputes);

- conflict around material values (property, conditions and wages);

- conflict around intellectual property:

- conflict around prestigious objects that can bring benefits (a prestigious position for which several applicants are fighting);

- conflicts related to religious faith (contradictions in the interpretation of dogmas);

- conflicts over violations of notions of fair remuneration.

In its internal content social conflicts can be rational or emotional:

1) rational conflict - these are contradictions covering the sphere of reasonable, business rivalry, redistribution of resources and improvement of the managerial or social structure.

2) emotional conflict is a relationship of confrontation, characterized by the transfer of attention from the cause of the conflict to its participants and their personal hostility.

18. THE CONCEPT OF A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Social Institute - sustainable and repetitive forms of social practice, with the help of which social life is organized and the stability of social relations is ensured. The development of social institutions is carried out through the institutionalization of public spheres and by improving the already existing institutionalized structures.

institutionalization - the process of emergence and formation of social institutions, based on the need for new types of social activity, on the creation of common goals and norms. The result of institutionalization is the formation of a system of statuses and roles. An indicator of its effectiveness is the successful assimilation by individuals of new social norms, values and forms of behavior.

Social institutions carry out socially necessary functions that ensure the organization and development of society. Types of social institutions:

- the function of consolidating and reproducing social relations is to develop certain standards of behavior for individuals with the help of a certain system of norms, values and rules;

- the adaptive function is that the action of social institutions in society ensures the adaptability of society to changing conditions of the natural and social environment;

- the integrative function of social institutions means that they, by their actions, norms.

prescriptions ensure interconnection, mutual responsibility and solidarity of individuals and social groups;

- the communicative function consists in the fact that information produced in one institution is distributed both within this institution and between institutions and organizations operating in society;

- the socializing function of social institutions lies in the fact that they influence the formation and development of the individual, the assimilation of social values, norms and roles by the individual, in the realization by the individual of his social status;

- the regulatory function of social institutions is to ensure the regulation of interactions between individuals and social groups through the development of certain norms and standards of behavior, a system of encouragement for actions approved by society. Social institutions are formed in various spheres of public life in order to consolidate socially recognized norms and rules in them. Types of social institutions by scope: • an institution of economics aimed at ensuring the life of the individual and society as a whole, the process of production and distribution of benefits; • institutions of the family and education, ensuring the reproduction and education of members of society; • a political institution whose function is to establish agreement between individuals, social groups and collectives; • cultural institutions that ensure the preservation and transmission of spiritual values.

19. FAMILY AND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

Family - a social institution based on consanguinity, marriage or adoption of children. Historically, the family is the forerunner of all social institutions. The family unites people by common life and mutual responsibility for the upbringing of children. The social institution of the family is a value-normative complex of relations that regulates the behavior of family members - parents, children, brothers, sisters, and determines their social statuses and roles.

In sociology, to conduct a comparative analysis of families in different cultures, the a number of parameters characterizing the characteristics of the family as a social institution;

• family form - this is a structure that includes a certain composition of blood relatives and differs in the number of family ties. There are two types of families: nuclear family consists of adult parents and children who depend on them;

- form of marriage - a way of establishing relations between spouses. monogamous marriage - a type of establishment of marital relations between one woman and one man. polygamous marriage- the type of marital relationship that a certain number of women and men enter into;

- types of power structures - establishing the right to make decisions for one of the spouses. On this basis, the following types of marriage are distinguished - matriarchy, patriarchy and egalitarian families. Under matriarchy, power over the rest of the family members belongs to the wife and mother, under patriarchy - to the husband and father, in an egalitarian family, all members have the same rights;

- preferred partner - the choice of norms, rules forbidding or allowing marriage. The rules governing marriages outside certain groups (families, clans) are called the rules of exogamy. The rules of endogamy prescribe marriages in one social group (caste):

- residence rules regulate the choice of the place of residence of the newlyweds (with or separately from their parents, residence on the territory of the spouse);

■ pedigree and inheritance of property - a set of rules establishing consanguinity and the transfer of property by inheritance. Establishing a pedigree can be carried out on the maternal, paternal, or both simultaneously. Inheritance of property: either the eldest child in the family, or the youngest child, or it is divided among all children. The family is called upon to form members of society, and in this regard, it performs two socially significant functions: - reproductive function - the implementation of the reproduction of new members of society; - educational function - conducting primary socialization or teaching children socially acceptable norms, values and rules of behavior.

In the process of education and socialization, no less important is institute of education - a system of associations of people and institutions focused on mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, including in the field of professional activity, on increasing the competence of people in all spheres of life.

20. THE INSTITUTE OF CULTURE, ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND FUNCTIONS

culture - social property, embodying the commonality of norms, customs, mores. Passing from one era to another, one can trace how customs and rituals are replaced by legal norms and artistic creativity, and institutions of education and upbringing are formed. The forms of culture are varied - politics, economics, education, medicine, religion.

In sociology, the social significance of culture is essential. culture - supra-individual reality comprehended by a person in the process of personality socialization. In sociology, such types of culture are distinguished as universal and national culture, subculture, mass and elite culture.

Human culture represented by the best examples of literature, science, production. Cultures are not isolated, and by interacting they influence each other. The increase in interactions leads to the connection of different cultures. Each nation chooses in the sphere of culture that which corresponds to its development and best suits its spiritual needs. Therefore, against the background of the connection of different cultures, the self-consciousness of national cultures is outlined.

national culture - a plastic whole that changes in an evolutionary way.

Mass and elite culture are qualitatively different and belong to different population groups. The division of society into different social groups gives rise to the need to form a culture that characterizes the system of values and norms of this social group, or subculture.

The whole set of types of culture goes through the process of institutionalization and forms a social institution. Socio-cultural institutions - stable and regulated ways of interaction between people regarding the creation and dissemination of cultural values. They include a system of cultural institutions (theaters, museums, libraries), creative associations and unions (writers, artists, composers, theatrical figures), organizations and institutions that disseminate certain value-normative patterns of cultural behavior.

Culture performs socially significant functions:

• transmission of social experience - the function of culture, aimed at the transfer of spiritual values, social norms, patterns of behavior in the historical process - from one generation to another and between representatives of different cultures:

- translation form (transfer) of social experience through the development by each generation of the objective world of culture, cultural values and patterns of behavior;

- personality socialization - the function of culture, which is a way of mastering cultural norms and values by an individual. The content of culture is the development of man as a subject of social activity. A feature of culture as the socialization of an individual is the requirement for a personal understanding of one's attitude to social norms, values, and rules.

21. RELIGIOUS SOCIAL INSTITUTE

Religion - worldview, attitude and appropriate behavior, determined by belief in the existence of God, deity. Its significance lies in the desire to instill in a person high moral and spiritual values. A distinctive feature of religion is its ability to connect a person with the Absolute, forming an idea of the superreality of the divine world and its spiritual values. The features of various religions are due to the specific features of the spiritual and psychological qualities of the peoples who profess them.

Institute of Religion - a set of social associations (religious groups, communities, sects), as well as institutions and organizations (church, monastery, theological seminary and academy), focused on maintaining, disseminating and strengthening religious faith, strengthening its role in the lives of individuals and their communities . Religion is complex structure, including such elements as religious consciousness, religious cult, religious organizations. Religious Consciousness - a set of basic ideas about the world, man and God, determined by the belief in the existence of supernatural forces. Religious consciousness is divided into religious psychology and religious ideology.

Religious psychology - a set of religious experiences, feelings, moods, habits, traditions inherent in believers. The formation of religious psychology occurs in the process of practical, ritual activities. They act as incentives. Religious ideology - a system of religious ideas that are developed and promoted by organizations represented by professional theologians and ministers of the church. It includes theology, religious and philosophical teachings, social theories.

religious cult - a set of symbolic actions with the help of which believers turn to supernatural forces. Religious cults include rituals, divine services, sacraments, rituals, mysteries, fasting, prayers. This is served by material objects - temples, shrines, sacred relics, utensils, robes. The cult helps to strengthen the confessional unity of religion. In communication and joint cult activities, specific ties arise between believers, religious communities are formed, united by joint activities.

Religious organizations - associations of representatives of a certain religion, arising on the basis of common beliefs and rituals. The most important religious organization is the church.

Church - the name of the totality of religious communities on the whole earth or in a separate country. In Christianity, the church is understood as a community of believers, like-minded people. The Church, as a religious organization founded by Jesus Christ, is the mystical "body of Christ", which contains both the Creator, and creation, and the world spirit, and the existence of the world, and which is both divine and human, in which both Christ and the community abide.

The process of secularization plays an important role in the development of the church. Secularization - the process of rejection, or the transfer of church property and lands into secular or state possession, i.e. their "reconciliation".

22. STATE AND ECONOMY AS SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The economic and political spheres of society are the basis of its organization and development. State - a social institution that determines the nature of social relations in the sphere of politics. The instrument of the state's activity is political power. It structures society, its activities.

Economy - a social institution that regulates social relations and relationships in the economic sphere of society. The means of economic regulation is property. The efficiency of the economic sphere depends on the interest in highly productive labor. This interest stems from ownership. The ability to dispose of property, products and results of labor at one's discretion can be considered as economic power. It has a different nature compared to political power and historically appears much later. At the first stages of the formation of society, political power was of decisive importance for property relations, but in the future, their interconnections developed differently. Can be distinguished two types of these relationships:

The first type of relationship is the inseparability of power and property - characteristic of traditional societies, "oriental despotism" and "Asian type of production." Its main features are: the absence of full-fledged private property and its guarantees; inseparability of property and administrative power with the advantage of the latter; economic and political dominance of the bureaucracy. In such a system of social relations, power is the main thing, and property plays a secondary role. The development of the economy is possible only through the strengthening of the state and its impact on it.

The second type of relationship is the division, opposition and establishment of the relationship between power and property. - characteristic of Western society, market relations, democratic system. Its main feature is private property free from the state. In conditions of economic freedom, efficiency of economic activity, better distribution of resources and greater social justice can be ensured. The connection of political power and property in such a society is carried out as the activity of the state to protect property through laws. The role of the state is to establish and maintain the stability of society. To accomplish this task, it is necessary to resist monopolism with the help of power levers, to fight for the preservation of competition in society and the economy. Allocate two main reasons for the emergence of the economic role of the state: 1) the state carries out such economic functions needed by society as a whole that cannot be performed by the market (basic research in science, the armed forces, law enforcement agencies, the maintenance of disabled citizens); 2) in conditions of limited market self-regulation, the state is entrusted duty to maintain a balance between supply and demand, maintenance at a certain level of employment, control over the volume of money supply.

23. SOCIETY AS A SOCIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENON, ITS CONCEPT AND FEATURES

Sociology studies society as a whole, therefore its universal properties are essential for it. Society - a historically developing integral system of relations and interactions between people, their communities and organizations. It develops and changes in the course of their joint activity. The unity of society and culture is considered by the socio-cultural approach. Society acts as a set of interacting individuals with its socio-cultural relations and processes. It is a complex developing system with certain features, structure, functions and patterns of development. Its features: -sociality - expression of the social essence of people's lives, the social specifics of their relationships and interactions; • establishing new interactions between people - the ability of society to form new connections between people and renew those that have lost their significance for some time. Social interactions exist only in human society and are carried out at the psychological level. Individuals participating in interactions constitute a social group: ■ territory - an essential factor of society, on which certain social interactions unfold and which determines the characteristics of society. Territorial identity plays an important role in the formation of typical features of life, culture, and customs of ethnic groups; - irreversibility of the evolution of the socio-cultural system as a whole - the impossibility for society to return to the previous state as the system moves away from the equilibrium point; • self-regulation - the ability of a society to have self-sufficiency, which allows it to create a high level of organization of social interactions necessary for each historical stage of its development without outside interference. It ensures its sustainable and directed self-development. Social processes embody the dynamics of society as a whole system; • the presence of a social structure and social institutions that regulate social life. The sociocultural approach characterizes society as an integral, open system interacting with the environment; • the presence of subjects of social development, those. all social processes occur under the influence of the consciousness of the will and activity of people. An individual is understood as an active person, or a subject of actions. The very action of the subject is a component of interaction with other subjects. In these interactions, a person is presented as a multidimensional, biosociocultural being; -social space and social time - signs of society that form the basis of its existence, functioning and development. They define the historical era or territory to which a society can be attributed. They do not always coincide with physical space and time. So, people who are nearby in physical space are separated by insurmountable boundaries in social terms.

All these features of society interact with each other and ensure the integrity and sustainability of social development.

24. SOCIAL PROCESS AND ITS MAIN FORMS

social process - the total activity of institutionalized and non-institutionalized subjects in the implementation of their social activities that determine social life. The social process is a cyclic, evolutionary development.

The development of society is affected three main factors: territory, features of the society itself, its elements. The territory determines the historically emerging boundaries for the implementation of social processes. Their development is influenced by climate, landscape, geographical location. A society can be relatively stable or dynamically developing; on this depends the nature of the commission of social processes.

Social processes have several stages of their development: •institutionalization - the process of formation of the organs of the social system. They are social institutions, social organizations and movements; -stratification - division of society into social strata. Society is heterogeneous. it distinguishes different groups of people with different economic, cultural, legal opportunities. Therefore, it is necessary to divide society into separate layers or strata; • self-reproduction - reproduction of the components and features of the social system in the process of its functioning. The social system has the mechanisms of social dynamics and social statics. Therefore, at each new stage of development, it does not copy itself, but is enriched with new properties.

This process does not cancel what has already been incorporated in it, but repeats its properties and structure in a new way; • control - verification of the actions of the social system of society. It is carried out with the help of traditions, norms and sanctions developed in society.

These stages of the social process are characteristic and manifest themselves to varying degrees in each of its stages. forms: ■ cooperation - joint activity of people, characterized by the awareness of the need for cooperation. Cooperation is based on coordinated actions and the achievement of common goals; • competition - the struggle between individuals, groups or societies for the acquisition of values, the stocks of which are limited and unequally distributed among individuals or groups; - fixture - acceptance by an individual or group of cultural norms, values, standards of actions of a new environment, when the norms and values learned in the old environment do not lead to the satisfaction of needs. Adaptation forms a type of behavior suitable for life in changed conditions; -assimilation - the process of mutual cultural penetration, through which individuals and groups come to a common culture shared by all participants in the process. It is always a two way process. In it, each group has the opportunity to penetrate its culture into other groups in proportion to its size and prestige. Assimilation weakens the conflicts between groups, connecting them into one big one; • конфликт - an attempt to achieve a reward by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or destroying an opponent seeking the same rewards.

25. TYPOLOGY OF SOCIETIES

The system of society, with all its stability and integrity, is being transformed in the process of historical development. In the course of this development, different types of society are distinguished. Typology of societies - assignment of companies to certain types on the basis of essential features and distinctive features.

In the middle of the XIX century. K. Marx proposed his own typology of society, which proceeds from the dominant role of the mode of production in a certain socio-economic formation. Society in historical development has passed four formations: primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist. All of them represent the prehistory of the development of human society, which reaches its full flowering only in a society of the fifth type - socialist. It opens up opportunities for the all-round development of a person as a person.

In the second half of the XIX - early XX century. in Western sociology, a different typology of society was formed (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, A. Toynbee). Traditional society (agrarian way of economic life, sedentary social structures based on the traditional way of sociopolitical and sociocultural regulation) and industrial society - a type of social organization in which industrial production is the basis of economic life.

In the second half of the XX century. Western sociology created a three-stage typology of societies (D. Bell, R. Aron, O. Toffler, J. Fourastier).

Agrarian-craft type of society - a society in which the land is the basis of the economy.

family organization, politics and culture. A simple division of labor, several well-defined classes: nobility, clergy, warriors, slave owners, slaves, landowners, peasants. Rigid system of authoritarian power.

Industrial society - a society characterized by large-scale machine production, a developed system of division of labor with its strong specialization, mass production of market-oriented goods. Development of means of transport and communication. The level of social mobility and urbanization of the population is increasing.

Industrialization - a social process that characterized the transformation of traditional (agrarian) societies into modern (industrial) ones through the creation of a large-scale machine industry and production technologies. The criterion of development is economic efficiency and military might. Mass production oriented towards mass consumption.

Post-industrial society - a society characterized by universal computer equipment. Mass production of goods is being replaced by products for individual consumption, produced quickly and to order in accordance with the needs of certain groups of buyers or individuals. New types of industrial production are emerging: the radio-electronic industry, petrochemistry, biotechnology, and space stations. The role of knowledge is growing, as a result of which the proletariat of an industrial society is being replaced by a "cognitariat" - workers who are able to work efficiently using deep knowledge of complex and diverse information.

26. THE CONCEPT OF THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

The concept of the information society is formed according to the triad method: communication satellite - cable television - personal computer. Information society - a new type of society characterized by a high level of development of communication technologies. The reason for the emergence of this type of society is the lack of historical time. It requires extreme speed and accuracy of reactions to what is happening, the ability to focus on strategic directions, changes in the technical space, i.e. the transition from a car and a transport network to an information and communication network, which is symbolized by such information means as telephone, computer and television. Herbert McLuhan presented a three-stage model of world history, dividing it into three eras. First era - the era of the tribal individual or "person listening". It is dominated by oral speech as a means of communication in the acoustic (pre-alphabetic world) and mythological consciousness based on the belief in the existence of supernatural forces. Second era - the era of the industrial individual or "man looking". It is symbolized by the first printing press of I. Gutenberg and is distinguished by the predominance of the printed word over oral speech in communication. In this era, the invention of the alphabet meant the transition to a new era and a new organization of people's lives. A person begins to think logically and sequentially. third era - the era of the informational individual or "a person who watches and listens." It is marked by the victory of electronic (audiovisual) communication, which increases the intellectual abilities and creative nature of the individual. In this era, mythological and rational consciousness are combined.

Electronic revolution reshapes life In the initial stage electronic technology (space communication, portable video recording) performed the task of social therapy. She created a new stage of social communication. It erases economic and geographical differences and obstacles between different strata of society and peoples. The electronic revolution is the root cause of major social changes, as the media (radio, television) began to determine the values and norms of culture. Information technology creates a whole world of behavioral patterns.

The second stage The communication revolution is associated with three great innovations: satellite communications, the creation of fiber optic cables and cable networks, digital electronic devices using microprocessors and integrated circuits for high-speed reception and transmission of information. This gave man access to databases and knowledge. Intellectual-technological systems lead to a new state of civilization and culture - to global hyperintelligence (industry of data and knowledge). Information technologization of social life has led to a new concept of democracy - "computer democracy". In it, information represents power. Media - independent mass media and public relations - an institution of public relations act as an intermediary between the authorities and society. Their activities are aimed at establishing and maintaining bilateral relations between a social organization and its public.

27. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

Social structure of society - the internal structure of society, the totality of its social communities and relations between them. Society is a complex system of social interactions that individuals, communities, values and norms enter into. In the process of interaction, individuals are united into various social communities, groups, which form the initial components of the social structure. All social communities are interconnected with each other and have common interests, so this concept can be expanded. In the social structure, all groups occupy a certain status and perform the corresponding social roles. Distinctive feature social structure is its identity to the systemic properties of the totality of its constituent elements. Therefore, its study is complex and focuses on the study of the interrelations of its elements.

The social structure of society is multifaceted and includes many components but its initial elements are social groups. Social group - a set of people who interact with each other, are aware of their belonging to a given group and are considered members of this group. In sociology, primary and secondary groups are distinguished. AT primary groups, there is a direct influence and psychological connection between all individuals. It forms the outlook of the individual, his value and normative guidelines. Secondary groups are formed by people between whom there are almost no emotional ties. Their interactions are determined by the desire to achieve certain goals.

The distribution of people into groups does not exhaust the social structure of society. An equally important role in it is played by the distribution of people, groups and communities according to social strata (strata). Loss - the social stratum of society, characterizing inequality in the field of income, education, profession, participation in power structures. In society, people unite in order to achieve common interests, form the same values and meet needs. Therefore, they unite in social communities.

Social communities - groups of people united by common interests, values and a common cause. The leading element of the social structure are social institutions. They are distinguished by a clear delineation of social statuses and roles. Social institutions regulate the behavior of individuals and groups and control their activities. They ensure the stability and sustainability of society. Thus, it is possible to distinguish the main composition of the social structure of society: 1) social strata or strata - workers, intellectuals, students; 2) ethno-national communities - Russians, Ukrainians, Poles; 3) territorial communities - the population of a city, village, region; 4) professional groups - teachers, doctors, engineers, officers; 5) associations of people that differ in relation to faith - believers, non-believers, Orthodox, Catholics, Protestants, Hare Krishnas; 6) cultural and subcultural groups - fans of classical music, literature, painting, lovers of pop art, rock music.

28. SOCIAL COMMUNITIES, THEIR DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES AND TYPES

Society is integral, but not homogeneous. The circle of people who interact in society is large, and there is a need to form communities. A community is formed only if people come into contact and form unchanging aggregates. The dynamics of social processes constantly forces the formation of new associations. Therefore, the integrity of society consists in the possibility of creating the immutability of its composition and the constancy of its existence. Public life - the basis, thanks to which people have the opportunity to unite and interact within the framework of the communities being created. Social community is an intermediary between the individual and society.

Social community - a set of people, which is characterized by certain economic, social, professional conditions of their life. Signs of social community are:

■ belonging to historically established territorial entities. From this point of view, communities are people living in the same apartment, in the same district, in the same city, or temporarily staying in the same territory (collective);

■ belonging of a group of interacting individuals to social institutions. Such social institutions are the family, education, science, politics, religion. In accordance with this, such communities as doctors, pensioners, students, believers, etc.

Social communities differ in a number of ways: by content, by degree of stability, by size. According to the content of the community, they are divided into territorial (residents of the city, village), ethnic (ethnos, nation), demographic (children, parents, youth), professional (doctors, miners), class (classes, estates).

By size communities can be large, medium and small. Big Commons or groups exist on a national scale as a whole (nations, classes, strata, professional associations). Middle Commons - groups that exist at the level of territorial districts, large enterprises (residents of the district, employees of a large enterprise). Small communities - groups that unite people by direct ties (family, team, classroom).

By sustainability communities are divided into short-term, medium stability and stable. Short-term communities - groups that form spontaneously and for a period of several minutes to several hours (people in line, theatergoers, passengers). Average stability of generality - groups that unite in an organized manner and for a period from several years to several decades (student group, classroom, labor collective). Sustainable Communities - groups that develop historically or as a result of social processes and exist from several decades to several millennia (nations, classes). All of them are modified, appear and are destroyed depending on social changes and needs.

29. SOCIAL GROUPS, SIGNS AND TYPES

Social group - an association of people connected by common relations, which are regulated by special social institutions, and have common norms, values and traditions. The bonding factor for a social group is social interest, i.e. spiritual, economic or political needs. Belonging to a group implies that a person has some characteristics that are valuable and significant in this group. From this point of view, the core of the group is distinguished - those of its members who possess these characteristics to a greater extent. The remaining members of the group form its periphery.

The characteristic features social groups are:

- a certain way of interaction between its members, due to their common interests and business;

- awareness of membership or a sense of belonging to a given group, which is manifested in the protection of the interests of the group as a whole;

- awareness of the unity or perception of all members of the group as a single whole, not only by themselves, but also by the people around them.

The groups differ in a variety of ways. By the nature of social relations groups are divided into real and conditional. Real group - a set of people united by real social relations or activities (army platoon, football team). Along with them, there are quasi-groups characterized by the randomness and spontaneity of their formation, the short duration of their existence and instability (crowd). Conditional group - a set of people united according to certain characteristics and being the object of study of sociology. Here individuals have no direct or indirect real interactions with each other. They are conditionally combined for the purposes of scientific analysis - demographic, statistical.

On dimensions social groups can be large or small. small group - a relatively small number of individuals directly interacting with each other and united by common goals, interests and values. large group - a real, significant in size and complexly organized community of people involved in social activities and a system of relevant relationships and interactions. These groups are not quantitatively limited and are able to expand.

In society, people interact with different groups, but they do not identify with all of them. In this regard, there are such types of groups as ingroup and outgroup. Ingroup - such a social community to which the individual feels his belonging and in which he is identified with others so that he regards other members of the group as a whole. Outgroup - a social group, interaction with which does not lead the individual to identify himself with its other members. Many in- and out-group connections can overlap creating complex relationships.

30. SOCIAL RELATIONS

Social interactions are the actions of an individual, group, community, performed in relation to other subjects. Therefore, relationships and connections arise between them. These ties become stable and long lasting if they concern the vital interests of social groups and individuals. The totality of such connections acts as social relations inherent in society at a given historical stage. They are formed in relation to the individual to society, society to the individual or individual to the individual. Social relations - a set of diverse connections that arise between individuals, their groups and communities, as well as within the latter in the course of their economic, political and cultural activities and the implementation of their social statuses and roles.

Social relations arise when the social interactions existing between people carry some value for their participants or lead to the emergence of value. Value is such a property of an object that is able to satisfy a certain need of an individual, group or society. Social relations are manifested in certain types of interactions between people, in the course of which these people realize their social roles and statuses, and the roles and statuses themselves have clear boundaries of action. They are characterized by great diversity, so their typology is of particular importance. It is produced for various reasons: according to the subject of social relations, according to the object of social relations and according to modality, i.e. by the nature of the relationships between individuals and their groups.

On subject of social relations they are divided into the following types:

■ individual or personal relationships - the totality of the individual's ideas about himself;

- interpersonal relationships - relationships that are established between individuals on the basis of emotional closeness;

- intra-group relations - relationships between members of the same group;

- intergroup relations - the relationship between different groups and their members, taking place at the social level;

- international relations - the relationship of different peoples and representatives of different countries object of social relations they are classified as economic, political, socio-cultural, religious and household.

According to its modality social relations are divided into relations: cooperation; mutual assistance; rivalry; conflict; subordination (hierarchy).

Social relations are closely connected with such social processes as social movements Social relations are focused on social changes, which is due to group and public interests and goals.

31. SOCIAL MOVEMENTS, THEIR SIGNS AND TYPES

social movement - mass collective actions of social groups associated with ensuring group or public interests, meeting needs, both material and spiritual, and aimed at social changes or resistance to them in conflict opposition with other social groups. Social movements are characterized by their focus on transformation and the absence of certain life cycles. They do not have a stable institutional status. The following can be distinguished types of social movements: 1) general social movements - social actions of large social groups (youth, workers, women), the main content of which is attempts to achieve a comprehensive change in human values. They manifest themselves in the desire of many people to develop a new point of view about their position in society and their rights. They direct their activities to various spheres of public life and develop mainly informally and informally:

2) specific social movements - social actions that arise on the basis of general movements, but give them a more specific character. They have clear goals that they seek to achieve by active actions, an organized, hierarchical and branched structure. In the process of their development, they form certain behavior, worldview, attitudes and values.

3) political movements - mass actions aimed at the conquest, strengthening and overthrow of political power, the existing political regime, state bodies, are expressed in the demands addressed to the state by other power bodies. They can be carried out within one country or between several countries, they are able to acquire some continuity and universality to the extent that they continue and develop certain political traditions; 4) expressive movements - mass movements that clearly understand the unattractiveness and depravity of the existing social reality, but seek to change not it, but their attitude towards it. Through cultural patterns - dreams, visions, rituals - they find the means to make people's lives acceptable. 5) revolutionary movements - mass actions aimed at deep and complete changes in the existing social reality, structure, functions and content of the activities of most or many social institutions - the state, the courts, the education system. They seek to destroy the existing social system, overthrow the existing social order, establish a new system of power; 6) reform movements - mass political actions focused not on the revolutionary overthrow of the existing socio-political order, but on changing and improving the existing system through reforms.

There are a number of other social movements that differ in subject and content, goals and composition (youth, feminist, environmental and other social movements).

32. ETHNONS AND ETHNO-NATIONAL RELATIONS

In the XX century. studies of ethnic communities and ethno-national relations are of great interest. Ethnic community - a set of ethnic groups that take shape in the historical process. These include tribe, nationality, ethnos, nation.

Tribe - a natural and social community of people, characteristic of a primitive society, united by blood and family ties and represented by a combination of two or more genera. It is distinguished by a common territory, language, culture, and religious beliefs.

Nationality - a historically established ethnic community of people, characterized by linguistic, territorial, economic and socio-cultural characteristics. It has a formed supra-tribal language, the presence of folklore (folk) culture in the form of legends, epics, rituals, customs, institutions of power. It is characterized by social stratification and the presence of private property.

Ethnos - a natural-social and anthropological community of people that has arisen and is developing on the basis of the unity of natural and landscape conditions, consanguinity, language, features of appearance, common culture and religion. An ethnos is distinguished by its special features - culture, religion, race, the material foundations of life, the originality of anthropological characteristics, clothing, traditions, and customs.

Nation - a historically established multi-ethnic social community of people that has arisen and is developing on the basis of a common territory, economic ties, features of their national identity, mental make-up, a single language, a multi-layered political culture, and state-legal regulation of all spheres of life. The movement of an ethnos towards a nation is accompanied by changes in the development of culture and civilization as a result of an increase in tolerance in interethnic relations.

Ethnic communities enter into relations that are divided into uniting and separating. Uniting ethno-national relations are divided into the following types: consolidation - unites several independent ethnic groups related in language, culture, way of life into a single, new, larger ethnic group; assimilation - dissolution of one ethnic group or its part in another, more numerous; cooperation - cooperation of two ethnic groups close in language, way of life, culture, which coexist with each other for a long time.

Ethno-national relations separating character: ethnic dominance - the desire to elevate one's ethnic group with the indispensable infringement of the interests and rights of other ethnic groups during the formation of state independence: ethnodiscrimination - restriction or deprivation of the rights of a certain group of citizens on the basis of nationality; ethno-priority nationalism - protrusion, exaltation of one's ethnic group, culture, language, traditions.

The listed ethno-national relations of the dividing type become the cause of national conflicts.

33. THEORIES OF STRATIFICATION

In the social structure of society, an important role is played by the division into strata, symbolizing social inequality or stratification. Stratification - a structured system of social inequality, in which individuals and social groups are divided by rank, rank in accordance with the social status occupied in society. It expresses the vertical stratification of society, in which social groups, layers line up in social space in a hierarchical order according to some attribute.

The most important concept in considering the theory of stratification is the term "stratum" - a social stratum that characterizes inequality in terms of income, education, prestige of work, participation in power structures.

Initial characteristics stratification: - in the process of stratification, people are divided into hierarchically organized groups, i.e. to the higher and lower social strata, classes, strata; -social stratification divides people not only into higher and lower, but also into a privileged minority (know, rich); • Social stratification leads to the desire of the lower strata, if possible, to move to more affluent, privileged strata, which gives rise to social contradictions, conflicts, upheavals.

P. Sorokin introduced the term "social stratification" in scientific work. He singled out three main types of stratification according to three criteria: • economic, dividing people into poor and rich in terms of income; • political, separating people according to belonging to power; • professional, dividing people into representatives of different professions.

E. Durkheim derives social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, sex and age) and organic (arising as a result of training and professional specialization). Stratification is the result of the division of labor, so social inequality is determined by the significance for society. The profession becomes the defining criterion of social stratification.

T. Parsons supplemented these signs of stratification with new essential criteria: • "qualitative" characteristics that people have from birth (ethnicity, gender and age characteristics, family ties, intellectual and physical characteristics of the individual); - "role characteristics", determined by the set of roles that an individual performs in society (position, level of knowledge, professional training); '"characteristics of possession", expressing the presence of individuals and groups of property, material and spiritual values, privileges.

The generalization of these criteria into a single multidimensional model makes it possible to present the process of social stratification as a multifaceted stratification of people and groups in society on the basis of ownership (non-ownership) of property, power, a certain level of education and training, gender and age characteristics, ethnicity, sociocultural criteria, political position, the social statuses occupied by people and the roles they play.

34. MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF STRATIFICATION

Society has several stratification systems at once and many of their transitional forms that coexist with each other. The following types of stratification can be distinguished:

- physical genetic stratification - the division of society on the basis of "natural" socio-demographic characteristics - gender, age, physical qualities. Inequality is affirmed by physical violence, and subsequently fixed in rituals and customs;

- slaveholding stratification - establishing the inequality of people by military-physical coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. This position is inherited and fixed in generations;

- caste stratification - social inequality based on ethnic differences, which are reinforced by the religious order and religious rituals. A caste is a closed group that occupies a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy. Position in the caste system is also hereditary:

- estate stratification - Distinguishing groups by legal rights, which are strictly related to their duties, which are legally enshrined obligations to the state;

- etacratic stratification - social division that occurs between groups according to their position in state hierarchies (political, military, economic) and other differences (demographic, religious, ethnic, economic, cultural). It has to do with the formal ranks that groups occupy in power hierarchies;

socio-professional stratification - social division based on the principles of division of labor. A special role in it is played by qualification requirements for a professional role;

class stratification - social division according to belonging to a certain class. Class - a social group of politically and legally free citizens, the differences between which lie in the nature and size of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, and, consequently, in the level of income received;

cultural-symbolic stratification - division of people and groups arising on the basis of differences in access to socially significant information and abilities to be carriers of knowledge;

cultural-normative stratification - a system of social differences established by the degree of authority and prestige arising from the comparison of lifestyles and norms of behavior followed by an individual or group. The division can be based on such parameters as physical or mental labor, habits, manners, consumer tastes, etiquette, language.

35. BASIC APPROACHES TO DETERMINING THE SUBJECT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political Science - the science of politics, the political sphere of society and its constituent elements. Its content is an analysis of the structures, functions and mechanisms of the political system and its individual elements - the state, political parties, political leadership. Its subject includes the identification of the conditions and components of political action, political behavior and political life, i.e. politics.

Policy - relations between large groups of people within society, as well as between societies that are aimed at establishing, maintaining and redistributing power. It covers state and other socio-political organizations, mechanisms of state power, legal relations, party systems, and the political culture of society.

A huge merit in the formation of political science belongs to the largest scientists of the XIX-XX centuries. K. Marx, M. Weber, T. Parsons They formulated the main approaches to understanding politics as a subject of political science.

The concept of K. Marx lies the idea of conflict between classes as the driving force of politics. Class - a large group of people within society, which is distinguished by its attitude to power. Power - possession of material resources and means of production. From the point of view of K. Marx, politics depends on the economic sphere, and the possession of material values gives power. The close connection between the distribution of power and the economic situation induces the ruling class to leave the existing inequality unchanged and to maintain the uneven distribution of property. The means of this is ideology. Ideology - a system of values that is imposed by the ruling class on the rest of society, who have neither power nor property.

M. Weber viewed politics as a desire to participate in power or in its distribution. In this regard, he noted that politics is not only associated with power, but is a sphere of professional activity. Both groups within the state and the state can enter into political relations. Therefore, the subjects or actors of politics are citizens, institutions within society and large state entities.

T. Parsons explores politics as a subsystem of public life. The aim of the policy is to ensure that the goals of society are achieved by mobilizing the resources necessary for this. Society faces certain tasks associated with a particular situation, and it has goals to which it must constantly strive.

Classification policies (by scope): • global politics (dealing with issues of global importance); • international politics (mutual relations between states); • state policy: ■regional policy; • local politics.

By area of distribution allocate: domestic policy - a number of political measures aimed at regulating relations between citizens or their groups within the state; foreign policy - political measures taken to regulate the relations of the state with other states and their associations.

36. METHODS AND FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AS A SCIENCE

The methodological basis of political science is different approaches to the study of the phenomena of political life, among them is the historical approach, systemic and functional approaches, global approach. Global Approach - a system of ideas and methods aimed at studying political life as a whole, in which all processes and elements are interconnected with each other. He explores the mechanisms of interaction between various aspects of political life.

Historical approach - a system of methods for studying political life, which is presented as a continuous historical process. It is characterized by a comparison of the political present with past political events, the identification of historical sources and facts of the emergence and development of political phenomena.

functional approach - analysis of the political system from the point of view of its interaction with society as a whole with its internal preservation and action. It allows you to identify the forms of interaction between the political system and society, to establish its nature, to determine the conditions for the integration of society on the basis of the political system.

Systems approach - the study of political life as a single system, interacting political subjects - the state, political organizations and parties, political leaders. It allows you to identify the main features of the political system, to determine its place in public life.

Political Science Methods are formed in accordance with the leading approaches in political science. They are called upon to fulfill the goals that are set in accordance with the general idea of this or that approach. There are two main types of political science methods - theoretical and concrete.

Theoretical Methods - ways of considering political facts, which are based on certain provisions on the structure of the subjects studied and on factors that are significant from this point of view. These include: 1) structural-functional method - consideration of society as a system consisting of parts that perform certain functions and is characterized by stability. The political system consists of a variety of political institutions: the state, political organizations, political parties. The structural-functional method studies their activity and the mechanisms of this activity; 2) comparative method - a way of studying political phenomena, based on their comparison, identifying common and differences. It is based on a comparison of different political systems in order to identify the general and the specific; 3) historical method - a way of considering the political sphere of society from the point of view of its change; 4) interpretive method - a technique by which the meanings attributed by members of political life to certain political events are revealed.

Specific Methods - a system of techniques aimed at obtaining data or information relating to a particular political process or phenomenon. These include: survey, observation, experiment and analysis of documents. A concrete study of political processes and phenomena is carried out with the help of all known methods.

37. HISTORY OF FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT

The history of the formation of political views and doctrines originates in Antiquity. It laid the foundations of political science. Plato analyzes statehood from the point of view of ideas about the ideal state. Such a state cannot be built in reality, since it is a continuation of the world of ideas that are not embodied in the world of things. The ideal form of the state is an aristocracy or a monarchy - depending on who owns the consciousness of higher ideas - many or one. The main features of democratic government are the principle of elections by majority vote, the idea of the people's assembly of the subordination of the state to the law.

Aristotle believed that the basis of the state is the family (husband, wife, children and slaves). The ideal model is a slave-owning state in which power belongs to the middle class. The role of the middle class in the administration of the state is to stabilize power. He distinguishes right and wrong forms of government. The first he refers to the monarchy, aristocracy and polity; to the second - tyranny, oligarchy and democracy.

В Middle Ages the question of state power is intertwined with religious themes. Thomas Aquinas created a political concept that is still recognized by the Catholic Church as the only correct one. The best form of state power is a monarchy, which reproduces the structure of the world, where God rules. The ruler does not identify himself with God and recognizes the supremacy of church power over secular power.

During the Renaissance two types of political doctrines were formed - realistic (N. Machiavelli) and idealistic (T. More, T. Campanella) N. Machiavelli singled out the types of government, recommendations for government: two forms of government - a monarchy and a republic T. Campanella created a model of a theocratic republic in which power belongs to the priest but everyone participates in the board. The state is a "philosophical way of life by the community", where everything is in common.

In the era New time the main questions are the nature of state power, ways to limit the impact of state power on society. There are two political lines in the understanding of democracy: according to the first - democracy is the power of the people, democracy; according to the second, the basis of political power is the individual, the representative of the people. On the basis of the teachings of J. Locke and C. Montesquieu, a liberal theory democracy. J. Locke - an adherent of the contractual theory of the origin of the state, according to which the individual, the citizen, and not the state, comes first. The functions of the state include the protection of the natural rights of the individual. S. Montesquieu substantiates the ideal of political freedom, which is identified with personal security, the independence of each individual from the arbitrariness of the authorities. Freedom is guaranteed only when democratic republic - a state in which power belongs to all the people. Democracy is not identified with democracy: the people are only the source of state power and have supreme power. The ideas of J. Locke and S. Montesquieu were implemented in the US Constitution.

38. RUSSIAN POLITICAL SCIENCE: HISTORY AND MODERNITY

In Russia, political doctrines are associated with the emergence of the first state - Kievan Rus, and their development can be traced step by step.

The first stage formation of domestic political thought - XI-XVII centuries The founder of political thought in Russia is considered to be Metropolitan Hilarion of Kyiv (the theological and historical concept of the inclusion of Russia in the global process of transition from paganism to Christianity). Medieval political thought is characterized by the idea of man as the "image and likeness of God", which maintains order in society. This idea corresponded to the creation of a centralized Moscow state and the strengthening of autocracy. These ideas were developed in the theory "Moscow - Third Rome", developed monk Philotheus at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The history of mankind is divided into the history of three world states, the fate of which was directed by the will of God (Rome - Byzantium - the Moscow kingdom). Second phase: end XVII - first quarter of the XIX century. It begins with the reform activities of Peter I and ends with the Decembrist uprising. The political ideas of that time were reflected in the treatise Y. Krizhanich "Conversations about the State". It develops the idea of an enlightened sovereign who cares about the welfare of his subjects. Third period - with second half of the 1917th century before XNUMX During this period, despite the dominance of the monarchy, democratic views and traditions begin to emerge. For the first time, Alexander I turned to democratic ideas. The theoretical basis for democratic reforms is the activity of the Slavophiles and Westernizers, who were arguing about the path of Russia's development. Slavophiles (K.S. Aksakov, I.V. Kireevsky, Yu.F. Samarin) defended the idea of an original way of development of Russia, which was supported by the communal way of life of the peasants, the Orthodox faith and self-government. Westernizers (P.V. Anenkov. T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Granovsky) critically assessed the state and social system of Russia and defended the need for its development along the Western European path, opposed serfdom, and called for reforms.

Radicalism - socio-philosophical and political concepts of Decembrism. P. Pestel, N. Muravyov defended the ideas of social transformations, despite the unwillingness of their implementation on the part of the autocracy. Anarchism - a political trend based on the denial of a hierarchical system of power and the idea of an immediate transition to a stateless society. Its founders M. Bakunin и P.A. Kropotkin they accused the state of generating bureaucracy and individualism, therefore they demanded the destruction of the state and the socio-economic system associated with it.

The fourth period - from 1917 to the present day. Until the mid 1980s. politics was dominated by the ideas of Marxism-Leninism. Since the second half of the 1980s, the problem of comprehending the historical path traversed by the country, the issues of strengthening democracy, reforming state power has arisen. The modern development of political thought in Russia is associated with the issues of Russia's place in the system of international relations, the functioning of state power, parties and civil society.

39. POLITICS AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON

Policy - the sphere of public life formed by political institutions of power that protect society from disintegration and support a system of symbols that regulate social ties. In society, politics acts as a political will and thought, as a political project of activity, as political activity, as a process of reproducing ties between people and fixing them in the form of various structures of political power. Politics as a social phenomenon covers the whole a set of interrelated phenomena and processes is: ■ organized activities of social groups and their representative institutions of power in managing public life in the interests of these groups or society as a whole; • public relations between social groups and communities of people on the issue of state power, its gain, retention and use; • political culture and consciousness, which constitute an essential part of political activity and relations; • a set of political organizations and norms that implement political views, goals and interests, through which political power is exercised.

Politics as a social reality can be considered from the point of view of its three dimensions.

В institutional dimension politics is a set of institutions that carry out ruling and governing activities. Power relations are formed and operate in political institutions. In his normative politics is a set of values, norms and tasks of political activity, depending on the interests of social groups. In the procedural meaning of politics - a system of actions to protect and implement common interests and goals for the exercise of power and government.

Species classification politics from the point of view of spheres of public life and the state.

Economic policy associated with the regulation of economic relations between citizens and social groups. The economic and political spheres of society are closely interconnected by a system of laws that regulate economic relations and determine the political system.

Cultural policy aimed at regulating relations in the sphere of the spiritual life of society. Culture and politics as public spheres are interconnected by a system of values, norms, rules of political life and political relations

Social politics connected with the regulation of relations between citizens and their groups on the issue of their status and roles in society. The direction of its further development depends on the approval or disapproval of the state policy pursued by public structures.

National Policy aimed at regulating relations between national groups and nations.

The political sphere of society has its specificity form the vital structures and activities of social subjects, without which no society, no social structure survives. In the sphere of politics, the common interests and goals of communities are formulated, rules are developed according to which roles and functions are distributed among people, and the management of common affairs is organized.

40. POLICY STRUCTURE

Political structure - a set of regular connections, political relations, carried out between the subjects of politics, political organizations regarding the implementation of their political relations. Elements political structures are political subjects, political objects, political activity, political interest, political organization, political consciousness, political relations.

The subjects and objects of politics are people, social groups, real communities and organizations, depending on their position in the state - active or passive. Policy Object - social groups and communities as a whole, their interests. Political power is a means of ensuring the coordinated activities of social groups and organizations to implement their common interests and needs. Politics is objectively called upon to unite all organizations and groups existing in society. Social groups are only subjects of politics when they acquire political qualities. The totality of these can be called political subjectivity.

Political subjectivity - the definition of a political subject, it is a product of the development of social groups, individuals and their organizations. This quality of political subjects is associated with the unification, protection and implementation of common interests. As a rule, the subjects of politics are the ruling parties, the ruling classes, those social groups in whose hands the real power is. Political subjects are divided into different levels depending on the scale of development of the properties of political subjectivity. The people, the nation are the primary subjects of politics. The state, parties, socio-political institutions and organizations are secondary subjects of politics. The political elite, political leaders, individual members of society are the tertiary subjects of politics.

Political activity - management of human communities, subordinated to the implementation of common interests and goals. It is inextricably linked with political power as its means. Therefore, its forms can be various types of development and adoption of political decisions, as well as the struggle of social groups and other types of relations. Forms of political activity are inseparable from political relations.

41. POLICY STRUCTURE (CONTINUED)

Political relations - communications and interactions between members of society regarding common interests for all, state power as their instrument and protection of their interests. Political relations differ in the following ways: political power, political institutions, political values. The attitude of people towards state power is characterized by their acceptance or non-acceptance of dominant values, participation or non-participation in politics, confrontation or cooperation between members of society. Political relations determine the position and roles of social groups and individuals in politics.

Political relations are based on political interests, and at the same time, relations are manifested in the form of interests. Political interests - a generalized expression of the needs of social groups in certain policies and political structures as tools for their implementation. They show a stable orientation, direction of behavior of social groups in the sphere of political relations. Political interest is associated with a person's awareness of his attitude to the authorities, to the state, to common values for all. It is determined by the position of the subject in the system of social relations, his place and role in it.

Sphere of politics - social space of organized actions and relationships between people. It is presented in the form of political organizations.

Political organization - various political associations directly involved in political life and influencing its development. Political organizations include the state, political parties, political institutions.

The condition for the formation of a political subject is political consciousness - awareness by the subject of politics of his place, role in the system of political relations, opportunities and understanding of the consequences of his political actions. It is formed under the influence of political norms, values and rules existing in society.

42. POLICY FUNCTIONS

Politics is a certain type of activity and a special kind of social relations. The essence of politics is the division of duties and powers, with their indispensable coordination and ensuring the integrity of society. Therefore, it is important to know about the specifics of its functioning. Politics as an active part of society is considered within the framework of a functional approach.

functional approach arises within the framework of Western political science of the XX century. Its representatives are sociologists T. Parsons, D. Easton. They see politics as the pursuit of a rule of order and justice. This is the ability and ability to achieve separation of functions, while maintaining their interaction and the integrity of the system. Policy - a subsystem of society that performs the function of goal-setting through organization and power. The most important areas of influence of state policy on society are characterized by its functions.

Policy Features - a set of principles and methods for regulating various political processes. Policy functions include: ■ maintaining and strengthening the integrity of society as a complexly differentiated social system, ensuring public order and organization. Politics carries out the action of uniting all social structures, communities, groups in the formation of the state whole. The goal of politics is the distribution between various political subjects of duties that ensure the unity of the state;

■ development of the goals of the society and its constituent collective subjects, organization of the masses and mobilization of resources for their implementation;

■ authoritarian distribution of scarce values and goods, obligatory for all. The policy aims to maintain the existing social structure by maintaining existing inequalities;

■ prevention and regulation of group conflicts;

• integrative function of politics - the unification of society and its constituent groups as a necessary condition for the viability of the existing social system and its progress. Politics, which is a combination of political activity, political power, political relations, is aimed at uniting all elements of political life. It follows from this that the sphere of politics includes everything that ensures or hinders the realization of the common interests of social groups and communities, everything that is connected with human values;

- communication function - definition of complex social subjects. Politics reveals the meaning of the existence of social communities. It contributes to the development of rules of behavior acceptable to the subjects.

Policy performs a number of special for different types of social systems functions. These include: • maintaining class or social domination; • protection of fundamental human rights; • involvement of citizens in the management of state and public affairs; • Ensuring social justice and the common good.

43. NATURE OF POWER

Power is the central element of politics.

Power - the ability to rely on various means to influence people and exercise their will. Its means are force, authority, law, economy, tradition. In politics, power is exercised not only by individuals, but also by the state, parties, political institutions and organizations. The main question is the question of the nature of political power. In political science, there are several approaches to the question of the nature of political power.

Class (Marxist) concept consists in recognizing the class nature of political power. Power is the organized domination of the economically dominant class over other social classes.

Elite point of view consists in the statement about the origin of political power from social inequality. Political power is the result of the division of society into the elite and the masses and represents the relationship between the ruling elite and the subordinate masses.

Structural-functional concept considers power as arising from the universality of the structure of political life, which implies relations of subordination of lower levels of structures to higher ones. Political power is secondary only in relation to society as a whole. Society is given to politics and is the basis for political activity. Political power is the focus of the social. Behavioral (behavioral) concept considers power as the result of complex psychological processes expressed in people's behavior. Political power is the interaction of individuals in the process of their political behavior. Power and the desire for it is the dominant feature of the human psyche and consciousness

The main thing in the nature of power is its versatility. Therefore, all approaches are fair and objective. However, to understand the nature of political power, the relationship of large social groups about their common interests is essential. Political power - a concept denoting the real ability of a certain class or social group to carry out its will in relation to other groups, to implement common interests and goals by violent and non-violent means. Power can be defined as a way to realize common interests and achieve common goals.

The policy structure includes a subject, an object, and resources. Subject of power - an individual, the state, political parties or the people as a whole, possessing the desire to rule, the willingness to take on the responsibility corresponding to power relations, competence in conducting political relations or in a political situation.

Object of power - those to whom the power is directed, or those who obey the power. Power is always a two-way relationship in which the will of the ruler affects the object of power. Power is impossible without subjection to the object. The qualities of the object of power are determined by the political culture that exists in a given society. Relations between the subject and object of power are built according to the type of antagonism (when there are irreconcilable contradictions between the parties) and partnership (cooperation).

44. LEGITIMACY OF AUTHORITY, ITS TYPES AND SIGNS OF THE FALL OF ITS LEGITIMACY

Legitimacy of power - recognition by society of the validity and necessity of this political power and its bearers. It characterizes the legitimacy of political power and its compliance with legally established norms, the fundamental goals of the state and generally accepted norms and values. Legitimacy can be expressed in the voluntary acceptance by the majority (party, class) of political power. In this case, legitimacy arises from the homogeneity of society's dominant attitudes, mores, traditions, and values. Generally legitimacy - the subject of the struggle for the dominance of certain political forces, the subject of the search for methods of justifying the power of these forces before society. Several types of legitimacy have historically developed:

• legal legitimacy implies the legitimization of power by specific legal norms and the constitution, which is supported by the activities of relevant institutions, including the resources of political power. It is based on equally understood norms of the law;

- ideological legitimacy is based on the recognition of power by virtue of inner conviction or belief in the correctness of those ideological values that are proclaimed by power. It is based on the ideological values of the state, the ruling party;

- traditional legitimacy is based on the recognition of power due to the fact that power acts in accordance with the traditions and traditional values of the masses. This type of legitimacy is based on traditions and traditional consciousness;

■ personal or charismatic legitimacy rests on the faith of the masses in the special abilities of a political leader, a leader. It is based on the personal authority of the ruler;

■ legitimacy based on political expediency, consists in the adoption of agreements or the imposition of power on society due to the fact that it is necessary in the given conditions and is characteristic of transitional periods associated with the formation of a new political system. The listed types of legitimate power in real.

political life are intertwined and mutually complement each other. The dominance of a particular type of legitimacy is connected with the type of the existing regime. For example, charismatic power is characteristic of authoritarian systems; in a democratic system, the legal type of power legitimacy dominates. The problem of the legitimacy of power is to a large extent the problem of the participation of the masses in government. The failure of the system to ensure the participation of the masses in the government of the state undermines its legitimacy. Signs of a decline in the legitimacy of political power: • increase in the degree of coercion; • restriction of rights and freedoms; • a ban on the activities of political parties and the independent press; • growth of corruption in all institutions of power, merging with criminal structures; • the inability of the government to cope with economic problems, its low economic efficiency, the decline in the standard of living of the population.

45. THE CONCEPT OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF SOCIETY

The political system of society - a set of political organizations, socio-political responsibilities, forms of interaction and mutual relations between them, in which political power is exercised. The political system exists in a real country or group of countries. Its basis is a certain community of people. Her main elements: • political community of people - a set of large social groups that perform certain social functions in society and are carriers of political power or alienated from it (ruling elites, civil servants, etc.); • set of political institutions and organizations that make up the structure of the system (ruling authorities, groups pursuing political goals (associations of entrepreneurs, etc.); • regulatory subsystem (political, legal and moral norms, traditions, customs and other regulations of political behavior and activities); • functional subsystem, formed by a set of methods of political activity; • political culture and communicative subsystem; • political elite - an elected layer of society, whose privilege is the political management of society; • political bureaucracy - the state administrative apparatus, which actually exercises power regardless of the will of the people; • political institutions - one of the main elements of the political system. The nature of institutions and their interaction are determined by the properties of the system as a whole. Depending on this, certain institutions acquire the role of dominant ones. Each institution is the bearer of the functions of making political decisions, monitoring changes in the political system and social environment, political communication; 'state - a multifunctional political institution, acting as an instrument of political domination of a certain class and management of society. The interests of certain segments of the population are expressed not directly by the state, but by political parties and organizations; • political parties - direct political participants created by certain groups within society to achieve political goals. They acquire the right to influence the state, the ability to promote their members to the ruling bodies.

The political system consists of political actions. Therefore, all elements of the political system must be considered together. In unity, political actions and political relations form content of the political system. In this sense, political institutions are organized forms of functioning of political relations.

Political culture - all the political experience accumulated and assimilated by the subjects, including the experience of power relations. It is present in all structures and components of the political system.

Communication system - a form of joint activity of people and their social relations, the condition for its functioning and existence.

46. FUNCTIONING OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

The political system is independent and has certain capabilities and abilities. American political scientists D. Easton and G. Almond name four main capabilities:

1) regulatory capacity refers to the management of the behavior of groups and individuals through the introduction of norms, administrative actions;

2) extraction ability is associated with the extraction of economic and other resources necessary for the functioning;

3) distributive ability consists in the distribution and redistribution of resources, benefits, services of insignia;

4) regulatory ability is associated with the need to respond to the requirements of the social environment and adapt to its changes. P. Sharon adds a fifth ability - self-regulation or internally directed controllability.

Abilities are embodied in the functions of the political system. Functions of the political system - the main types of its activities, determined by its ability to ensure the existence of society as a single self-governing social organism. The functions of the political system are addressed to other subsystems of society. These include the following kinds of functions:

* definition of tasks and ways of development of society. The political system is an institutionalized form of existence of power, and through its institutions legitimation of power occurs, the right to issue laws that are generally binding is realized. The political system establishes and implements various methods and forms of rule - violent and non-violent, democratic and authoritarian; organization of the company's activities to achieve its goals. The political system regulates social relations, manages various spheres of people's life in the interests of certain social groups or the entire population;

integrative - coordination of various interests, subjects of the political process. Thanks to this function, a certain unity of all social groups and strata of the population is ensured, since this is necessary for society. It unites these social groups and strata around common socio-political goals, which makes it possible to realize the interests of the system as a whole and individual social groups;

normative - development and implementation of various norms of behavior in society; goal setting - its actions to ensure order in society, its stability and security. It controls the processes of social tension in relations between people, ensures the unity of society, distributes material and spiritual values among members of society, and concentrates resources to meet social needs;

socialization of the individual in the political system - involvement of people in political life: controlling - tracking the implementation of political and other norms of behavior, suppression of attempts to violate them.

47. POLITICAL REGIME

The historically objective relationship between the political system and civil society finds its concrete expression in the political regime. Political regime - a set of ways and methods of action of the political sphere of society. It is represented by a combination of elements of an ideological, institutional and sociological order. They contribute to the formation of the political power of a given country for a certain period. The political regime is formed as a result of the interaction of all components that belong to the political system of society, i.e. state, political parties and movements, political institutions.

The political regime as a way of exercising power is a mechanism for responding to the processes of social change. When analyzing the political regime, one should take into account such elements of civil society as the national composition of the country, the religious confession of the people, the social composition, the level of general culture, the way of the people's character. A specific political regime is characterized by the ratio of public authorities, its subjects - individuals, layers, their associations, social relations, the measure of compliance and non-compliance of political power with the values recognized by the majority. The essential elements of the political regime are the institutions of the political system: • leadership - a way of political interaction.

figures with the political system and society:

- bodies of public power - political organizations that establish forms of legitimacy of power, methods and means of activity of various public groups;

- a set of norms and rules of political control and behavior that regulate social and political relations;

- political ideology - a set of political, moral values that determine the political culture of society.

The classification of political regimes is based on the following criteria, characteristic of any type of separation of political regimes:

- degree of political freedom;

- the presence or absence of the possibility of political choice;

- the principles on which the relationship between the state and civil society is built:

- presence or absence of opposition;

- type of political culture.

The basis for the allocation of types of political regimes are the degree of freedoms allowed by the authorities, the real state of civil society and the political system, the nature of its institutions and the relationship between them, the mechanism of the functioning of political power.

48. TYPES OF POLITICAL REGIMES

There are the following types of political regimes:

1) authoritarian regime - ways and methods of action of the political system, characterized by a low degree of freedom in the political and ideological spheres. A large degree of freedom exists in the economic sphere and non-political areas of life, which unites it with a democratic regime. Authoritarian regimes are characterized by the limitation of the political sphere, which is expressed in the unfavorable position of the opposition, subjected to pressure from the authorities. The activities of the media are also limited here, so the open expression of the opinion of the people through them is impossible. In authoritarian states, there is a high centralized power, in which the bureaucracy plays a large role. This leads to a weak development of feedback between society and the state. All decisions are made and implemented by force;

2) democratic regime - a set of ways and methods of operation of the political system, characterized by a large degree of political freedom, pluralism in the political, ideological and economic spheres, as well as a high degree of feedback between citizens and authorities. In a democratic regime, the sovereignty of the people is the main source of power. sovereignty of the people - free expression by the people of their will. In modern societies, it is not carried out because they are numerous and have a complex structure. In modern democracies, the will of the people is carried out through elected representatives. Under a democratic regime, there is equality of citizens in rights. It holds the principles of liberalism and the majority principle. The principle of liberalism guarantees the rights and freedoms of citizens and finds its expression in the multi-party system, in the principle of separation of powers, in the ability to criticize the government. In the economic sphere, liberalism manifests itself in the inviolability of private property. The principle of the majority justifies the adoption of certain decisions and allows you to follow the principle of the sovereignty of the people;

3) totalitarian regime - ways and methods of operation of the political system, characterized by the lack of citizens' right to make political choices, the absence of political, ideological and economic pluralism and the inability to influence the authorities. In a totalitarian regime, the government exercises complete control over all spheres of life. Such control is called total. The most stringent control is exercised in the political and ideological spheres. Any manifestation of opposition is severely punished. The totalitarian regime is characterized by the use of mass terror and the apparatus of coercion.

49. ELECTORAL SYSTEMS, THEIR SIGNIFICANCE AND TYPOLOGY

One of the most massive statuses of people is the status of a voter. Currently, in most countries there are: a) the principle of universal suffrage - the establishment of the right to participate in elections for all citizens who have reached a certain age; b) the principle of equal suffrage - assigning one electoral vote to each citizen. However, until recently, certain restrictions on the voting rights of citizens, or electoral qualifications, were common in many countries: • residency requirement - rules that allow participation in elections only for those citizens who have lived in a given territory for at least a specified period of time; • educational qualification - the requirement of a certain minimum of education; • property qualification - the establishment of restrictions on the basis of a certain, rather high minimum of property and property.

In some countries, such restrictions continue to this day, depending on the political system, social customs and historical traditions.

The electoral system is a system of norms and requirements that secure the right of citizens to elect and be elected to political and other governing bodies. Depending on the procedure for determining the results of voting in elections to authorities, two main electoral systems are distinguished: majoritarian and proportional ■ majoritarian electoral system - a set of rules and requirements that establish the right to receive a seat in government only those candidates who gain the majority of votes in the election process. Under the majoritarian electoral system, a candidate who receives an absolute (more than 50% of votes) or relative (at least one vote more than other candidates) majority of votes is considered elected; ■ proportional electoral system - a set of rules and requirements establishing the right to distribute seats in government in proportion to the number of votes received. The proportional electoral system provides for the distribution of seats between parties in accordance with the number of votes received in percentage terms. At the same time, a certain minimum of collected votes is set (usually 5%), which allows one or another party to have its representatives in parliament.

Electorate - circle of voters voting for one or another political party, political leader and election program.

Essential in the election campaign is the ability of the voter to correctly navigate and evaluate the election programs of candidates and the leadership capabilities of the latter. Pre-election program - promises that the candidate undertakes to fulfill after his passage to the authorities. The aim of the program is to unite the most important interests of various groups of the population. The actual feasibility of a program is determined by the means by which it is achieved.

50. THE CONCEPT OF A POLITICAL INSTITUTION

Sphere of politics - social space, formed by a set of organized actions and relationships of people. Political institutions are one of the forms of such an organization. The structure of the political institution includes: • certain groups of people authorized by society to perform social and politically significant functions; • organizations for people to perform certain functions; • a set of material and other means of activity that allow organizations or groups of persons to carry out established political actions; • a set of political roles and norms, the implementation of which is important for certain social groups and society as a whole.

political institution - a system of institutions and organizations that streamline political and other social relations with the help of material and ideal means and on the basis of certain norms. Political institutions include the state, state and political bodies and political institutions, political parties. Political institutions operate in the sphere of political relations, ensure the exercise of political power. They are designed to meet the political needs and interests of individuals or their groups.

Elements of political institutions: goals, functions and roles arising from goals, means, institutions, sanctions. The goals of political institutions are issues that constitute the scope of their activities. This can be control over public and political life, the development of methods for retaining, seizing and strengthening power, the formation of the political consciousness of citizens, their political choice. Means of political institutions constitute material, ideal and symbolic forms of government that have social and political significance.

Political institutions change along with the change in the social structures with which they are connected by political relations. Political institutions are permeated political values (a type of social values recognized not by individuals, but by large groups, entire communities). The objective basis of political values is the common vital needs and long-term interests of large social groups and individuals. Political values mainly have a subjective meaning, therefore forms of their objectification are necessary. Political symbols serve as one of the forms of objectification of values.

political symbols - values and the socially recognized attitudes they express. Embodiing socio-historical experience, values act as objective elements of political institutions. Through values, a certain relation of individuals to political institutions is established. The commitment of citizens to these political values is a necessary condition for the stable operation of political institutions and the ability to fulfill their roles.

51. THE STATE AS A FUNDAMENTAL INSTITUTION OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM

The state is a special political institution, qualitatively different in that it determines the rules by which political life proceeds, is responsible for observing and changing these rules. Significance of the state: • the state is the most massive political organization, as it includes all members of society, regardless of their degree of activity; • any person is able to participate in the life of the state as a political organization, since his behavior - active or passive - entails certain political processes; • the state has sovereignty or complete independence from other political entities both within society and outside it. This means that it has supremacy in relation to all citizens, to political and non-political associations; • the state is the owner of resources and means of production. This right of the state may be exercised in absolute form when it acts as a monopolist, or partially, when state property is limited by other forms of ownership; • the state has a developed system of legal means by which it can exercise control and regulation in political life. The means of control and regulation are legislative acts issued by state bodies; • The state has a special apparatus that monitors compliance with the provisions of the law and helps the state achieve its goals. These bodies include the court, the prosecutor's office.

Particular attention is paid to the question of the origin of the state. In political science, there are five concepts of the origin of the state.

• patriarchal theory - the concept of the origin of the state as a continuation of paternal guardianship in the family, carried out for the common good. It originated in ancient Greece and received a theoretical justification in the XNUMXth century. in the works of the English thinker R. Filmer;

- theological concept - the theory according to which the state is a sacred and inviolable institution, given by God to organize people's lives;

- social contract theory - the concept of the origin of the state, according to which the emergence of the state is the result of an agreement between individuals in a pre-state state in order to ensure the rule of law that guarantees the use of natural rights. It became widespread in the 11th-XNUMXth centuries. in the works of G. Grotius, T. Hobbes, J.-J. Rousseau;

- theory of "violence" or "capture" - the concept, according to which the state arises as a result of an act of violence, the conquest of one people by another, stronger and more organized. It is created to strengthen power. She finds theoretical justifications in the works of E. Dühring, L. Gumplovich, K. Kautsky;

- socio-economic theory - the concept according to which the state arises as a result of the social division of labor and the emergence of classes that are in conflict. It is created to consolidate the dominance of some classes over others.

52. SIGNS OF THE STATE

In question about the essence of the state stood out two main lines. First goes back to the classical tradition in the history of political thought and is represented by the political theories of Aristotle T. Hobbes, J.-J. Rousseau, K. Marx. The state is considered as a necessary form of organization of society, its political existence. Second line pays attention to the institutional side of the state. State - a political institution, understood as a system of norms, the content of which is to determine the behavior of people in society. The state is a union of people, a political community subordinate to a single supreme authority. It is an organization that governs society on the basis of a system of norms. They regulate the behavior of people and are aimed at ensuring common interests, protecting human rights and freedoms.

Signs states as a political institution are:

- the presence of a group of people exercising supreme power on behalf of a certain class or majority of society and managing common affairs;

- monopoly on coercion against members of society in the interests of the dominant minority or majority of a given country;

- the right on behalf of society to carry out domestic and foreign policy;

- the exclusive right to issue laws and regulations binding on the entire population within a given territory, the right to levy taxes for their own maintenance and public needs.

The state is a political institution of a special kind, representing the highest level of the political community of people. He also has other socio-political characteristics:

- the presence of institutions that ensure human rights and a system of socio-political and legal values, a single language as a means of communication;

- the presence of a single economic and cultural space;

- the material and natural basis of the political community is the territory. In conjunction with the state, it turns into a socio-political space. Its social significance lies in the fact that it constitutes the environment for the life of this community. Its political significance lies in the fact that it constitutes the spatial boundaries of the action of the state;

- the population also matters for the state. It is a social group, which, under the influence of the state, unites into a people, acquiring common essential features of a way of life, social consciousness and psychology.

As a subject of political life, the state differs complex structure. Depending on the political regime, historical traditions and other factors, it may include the institution of the presidency, the government, institutions of local government, and the institution of the judiciary. They perform legislative, executive and judicial functions.

53. FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE

The state is a stable structure of the political organization of society. It forms its basis due to the fact that it performs a number of distinctive functions. Functions of the state - duties, range of activities, purpose and role of the state in society in the most generalized form. It is customary to distinguish between internal and external functions.

К internal state functions include 1) political function - state actions related to the exercise of political power, maintaining the political dominance of the dominant class in the state, suppressing the will of the oppressed classes, ensuring political stability. It allows you to establish relations with political parties, trade unions, and other public institutions on the formation of state structures. Thanks to it, powers of authority are exercised, program-strategic goals and objectives for the development of society are developed; 2) legal function - the actions of the state in the implementation of law-making, the establishment of legal norms and the adoption of laws. It allows you to regulate social relations and the behavior of citizens. Legal norms are rules of conduct sanctioned by the state, the violation of which entails penalties; 3) economic function - actions of the state in the development and implementation of tax policy, the allocation of loans, the use of economic sanctions, incentives in the development of the sectoral economy. It allows you to influence transport, energy, use long-term planning and programming; 4) social function - actions of the state, including meeting the needs of people in work, housing, maintaining health. It contributes to the implementation of social protection for the elderly, the disabled, youth, the unemployed, life insurance, health, property; 5) educational function - actions of the state aimed at reforming the education system, at developing an educational policy covering the entire process of education from preschool to university. The state ensures the democratization of education, its continuity, provides people with equal opportunities to receive it; 6) cultural and educational function - actions of the state that serve as conditions for meeting the cultural needs of people, the formation of high spirituality and citizenship. To carry out this activity, the state attracts such social structures as the church, television and radio companies, the press, publishing houses, and non-governmental public organizations.

External functions of the state related to foreign policy and international relations;

- defense function - actions of the state aimed at protecting the borders, the territory of the country;

- military-aggressive function - actions of the state aimed at interfering in the affairs of other states;

- diplomatic function - actions of the state to maintain and develop interstate relations, carry out foreign trade, coordinate joint activities with other states in various fields, participate in blocs, unions.

54. STATE TYPES

States are not homogeneous and are divided according to different criteria. According to the degree of stability of political life, constancy and continuity in the foundations of its development, states are divided into a) stable states - are characterized by a high degree of continuity in political life, the constancy of state and political structures; b) unstable states - are characterized by frequent change of presidents, parliaments, governments, constitutions, a long series of coups.

Depending on whether you which area is given priority in the state, which state functions are developing in the first place, we can distinguish: a) military and police-type states - the structures and functions of state violence prevail - armies, military-industrial complexes, law enforcement and security agencies, threats and repressions; b) welfare state - develops the social sphere as a priority and pursues an active social policy aimed at improving the life of the entire population, at preventing and mitigating social conflicts; c) in a legal state all socio-political processes are subject to the rule of law, which is aimed at ensuring universal equality and social justice.

According to the political regimes existing in the countries There are three types of state: totalitarian, authoritarian and democratic. They differ in the degree of provision of civil rights and freedoms.

Totalitarian state - this type of state, which is characterized by violent political domination in society, the prohibition of constitutional rights, total control over all spheres of society, censorship in the media, the dominance of a single ideology common to all, intolerance to dissent. Totalitarian views and ideas are expressed in the recognition of the need for complete subordination of the part to the whole, the individual to the state, the possibility of total control of society. A totalitarian society inevitably strives for its complete elimination, since it exists mainly due to the short-sighted exploitation of human and natural resources. As a rule, this is a closed society, devoid of internal impulses for self-development and qualitative renewal.

authoritarian state - a type of state power based on the strong unlimited power of one person or group of persons. The main task of such a state is to ensure the security of the ruling elite and the establishment of order in society, the development of foreign policy and defense of the country. It does not interfere in the non-political spheres of society, does not repress citizens.

Democratic state - a type of state characterized by the fact that the people are the source of power, they directly or through their representatives participate in the development and adoption of laws. In such a state, the rights and freedoms of all citizens are guaranteed, the rights of the minority are respected while subordinating to the majority, there is an election of bodies.

55. FORMS OF STATE GOVERNMENT AND DEVICES

States are divided according to two essential features - according to the form of government and the form of the device. Form of government - organization of state power, which includes the order and status of the highest bodies of state power and the order of interaction between them. There are two main forms of government - the monarchy and the republic.

monarchical form of government implies the concentration of state power in the hands of one person - the monarch, who receives his power by inheritance. Absolute monarchy - the form of government that was established in the feudal states during their decline. In this form of government, all power belongs to the monarch, and separation of powers is not characteristic of it. A constitutional monarchy - a form of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law. It originates in the period of capitalist society and represents a kind of compromise between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The constitutional monarchy is divided into parliamentary and mixed. At parliamentary monarchy the power of the monarch is significantly limited, especially in the legislative and executive spheres. The main body of state power is the parliament The monarch does not influence the political life and activities of the parliament. At mixed monarchy the government is formed by the monarch and is independent of parliament. There are two independent bodies of power in the state - the government and the parliament.

Republic - a form of government in which the state elected bodies are the bearer of power. AT presidential republic the popularly elected president performs two functions at once - head of state and head of government parliamentary republic power belongs to the parliament to a greater extent, and the president performs the functions of representing the state at the highest level, takes part in the awarding procedures. The president is elected by the parliament and does not take a real part in political life.

Government structure - the internal structure of the state, i.e. territorial division into its constituent parts, which have a certain degree of independence. There are three main forms of government: 1) unitary state - a single, integral entity that has a single system of legislative, executive and judicial power, as well as a single financial system and one constitution (Italy Ukraine); 2) federal state - association of states or state formations (republics, cantons, states). Federations have a single legislative, executive and judicial power, laws. However, each part of the federation also has its own laws and has its own authorities, constitution; 3) confederate state - such an association of states in which they retain their independence, exist in accordance with their own laws and have independent legislative, executive and judicial power. Confederations are created on the condition that individual states are given common tasks - economic, political, military, cultural (CIS, EEC).

56. LEGAL STATE AND ITS DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

In modern society, there are two trends in the development of the modern state -

statist and dietist.

Statist tendency is manifested in the strengthening of the role of the state in society and the growth of state structures. It is caused by the inevitability of state regulation of the economy and the social sphere, the development of the public sector of the economy, railway transport, energy, space systems, and the production of weapons.

Dietist tendency manifests itself in the limitation of state power, in the transfer of this power to non-state organizations, in the expansion of the zone of civil society, in the denationalization and privatization of the economy and other spheres of society. The effect of this trend is explained by the low efficiency of the public sector of the economy and state regulation, the growing bureaucratization of state structures, and the desire of people for greater independence from the state. In this regard, the question of the rule of law and its essential properties is essential for considering the development of a modern state.

Constitutional state - a type of state in which public life is subject to law, expressing the principles of equality, justice, freedom.

Basic principles rule of law: ■ supremacy and universality of law in society means that only the law is obligatory and not only for citizens, but also for the state itself and its bodies, officials;

• the legal nature of the laws themselves - an indicator of the high legal quality of laws that meet international legal standards and are an expression of humanity, justice, reflect the will of the people and are adopted legally;

- priority of human rights and freedoms means that the main activity of the state is to ensure and protect the rights and freedoms of the individual in society;

■ mutual responsibility of the state and the individual shows that human rights only become a reality when they are inextricably linked with the duties and responsibilities of people;

- legitimacy of power - establishing the legitimacy, legitimacy of power, formed through democratic elections and which is effective in ensuring order in society;

- separation of powers - a principle that implies a clear division of spheres of activity and powers of authority between the three branches of state power - legislative, executive and judicial.

All citizens must comply with the laws, respect the rights and freedoms of other people, preserve nature. The state is responsible to the individual and society for the performance of its functions. The forms of this responsibility are diverse: this includes reliable information for citizens, reports of executive bodies, polls, referendums evaluating the work and proposals of the government, judicial appeals of officials.

57. CIVIL SOCIETY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH THE LEGAL STATE

Civil society is an independent, self-organizing and self-governing part of society. The state includes free relations between people, social institutions generated by these relations - the family, associations of workers, peasants, doctors; church, youth, ecological movements. The criterion of civil society is the free actions and relationships of people in accordance with their personal desires and interests. They are supported and implemented on a legal basis.

Civil society is a sphere of public life in which the main character is the person himself, the individual with his individual needs and goals. People strive to embody various goals and interests. In order to preserve the civil foundations of society, all the aspirations of people are formalized in the form of a legal system and regulated by it.

Ratio rule of law and civil society noted following features:

- the concepts of "civil society" and "state" characterize various, internally interconnected and defining aspects of society as a whole. Civic life is permeated with an element of the political to the same extent that political life is not isolated from civil society:

- the distinction between civil society and the state, which are integral parts of the global whole, is a naturally logical process that characterizes the socio-economic and spiritual spheres, on the one hand, and the political sphere, on the other;

- civil society is the fundamental principle of the political system, it determines and determines the state, its legal nature. In turn, the state as a political institution is a system of institutions and norms that ensure the conditions for the existence and functioning of civil society:

- civil society is opposed to any anarchy and is a form of community of people, a set of associations and other organizations that ensure the joint material and spiritual life of citizens. The state is the official expression of civil society, its political existence. Civil society is a sphere of manifestation and implementation of individual, group, regional interests. The state is the sphere of expression and protection of common interests:

- the development of civil society as an initiative of its members, expressing and protecting individual and group interests, gives great scope for the development of the democratic foundations of the state. The degree of democracy of the state determines the opportunities for the development of civil society.

Complete and complete unification of civil society and the rule of law is impossible due to the specifics of their purpose and functioning. However, there is a close relationship between the development of the legal foundations and civil traditions of society.

58. POLITICAL PARTY AS THE MAIN INSTITUTION OF THE POLITICAL SYSTEM, ITS FUNCTIONS

The second leading institution of the political system after the state is the political party. Political Party - a voluntary, non-governmental organization created to achieve political goals and unites supporters of certain political or ideological views. The fundamental feature of a party is the expression of class interest. He points to the real source of the emergence of parties - social class contradictions due to social inequality and the dominance of some groups or strata over others. The party as an element of the political system is characterized by a set of interdependent features. It is directly connected with social groups and strata, their common interests and seeks to ensure their support. It expresses the socio-political contradictions in society.

The main features parties are: • the presence of an ideology that is shared by all members of the party and is a system of views on the world, mediated by the interests, living conditions of a certain class; • the party is characterized by the organization and purposefulness of its activities. These qualities distinguish it from other public associations and ensure its long existence; • The main goal of the party is to gain power. This feature distinguishes the party from trade unions, other public associations that uphold the rights of citizens, but do not seek to gain power; The party is counting on the support of the people and is striving to get it. This support can come in the form of party membership and voting in elections.

The first parties were formed in Western Europe and America in the XNUMXth century. Parties acquire special significance during the periods of formation of democratic states, involving all members of society in the political life.

The party becomes one of the ways of organizing political life, and this is facilitated by its features: 1) social - the party generally expresses and defends the interests of a particular social group, brings its demands to the level of state power; 2) ideological - the development of a party ideology or theoretical concepts, a party program, socio-economic and political strategies and in the dissemination, propaganda of this ideology, political information and in educational work; 3) political - mastery of state power. To fulfill this main task, parties elect their political leaders, specialists in various problems of public life, nominate candidates for elected positions, actively work in parliamentary and other state bodies; 4) managerial - parties organize and direct the actions of people, produce social and political changes in the country, actively work in parliament; 5) electoral - organization of election campaigns, conducting information and propaganda work with the electorate.

59. TYPOLOGY OF POLITICAL PARTIES

The parties are not homogeneous and are divided according to different criteria. By the nature of functioning distinguish between cadre and mass parties.

Personnel parties - political organizations characterized by a small number, free membership, lack of a clear structure and membership fees. They operate mainly during election campaigns and in parliaments. They rely on professional politicians and financial support for businesses and individual citizens.

Mass parties - political organizations that are distinguished by their large number, clear organization, mandatory membership fees. They operate constantly, performing mainly ideological and educational functions.

By the nature of political behavior in society There are two types of parties: 1) democratic - political organizations that are distinguished by a positive attitude towards political pluralism in society, tolerance towards other parties and inter-party competition; 2) totalitarian - political organizations striving for monopoly possession of power and domination, absolute subordination of other political institutions to themselves, for the eradication of dissent and the establishment of a single ideology in society. In order to achieve their goals, they unite all social forces capable of resisting the existing system.

By place in the political system and depending on participation in the exercise of power parties are divided into ruling and opposition parties.

ruling parties - political organizations that actually have political power in the state. They are capable of producing social change.

Opposition parties - political organizations that do not take part in the ruling bodies or occupy a secondary position in society. They influence the decisions of the ruling party through informal, unauthorized actions - mass demonstrations, strikes, the formation of public opinion. Opposition parties are divided into legal, semi-legal and illegal. Legal parties are those that are permitted by law and registered. Semi-legal parties are not registered, but they are not prohibited by law either. Illegal parties are banned by the state and often operate underground and in conspiracy.

By ideological orientation parties are divided into: a) conservative - stand for the immutability of the traditional foundations of society, for the preservation of the ruling system and the political system; b) liberal - focus on social changes and social progress, on the democratization of society, ensuring individual freedoms and equality of citizens, achieving agreement between all sections of society; in) rights - uphold the inviolability of private property and the existing order in society; G) left - are aimed at carrying out reforms or making revolutions; e) radicalist - they can take different positions in relation to the ruling system, their essential feature is their disposition to irreconcilable hostility, confrontation in society, they tend to use illegal, violent means.

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