Topic 8. EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGICAL THOUGHT IN WESTERN EUROPE AND THE USA IN THE XNUMXTH CENTURY

8.1. The development of education in Western Europe and the USA in the XNUMXth century

In the largest countries of Western Europe and the USA in the XIX century. there was a process of formation of national education systems, which, depending on the level of development of socio-political and economic relations, acquired specific features in each of the developed countries. This process took place in situations of exacerbation of social relations (European revolutions, the American Civil War), was accompanied by intensive industrial growth and the development of pedagogical science, which stimulated the creation of new education systems. In the course of the formation of state systems of public education, global general trends characteristic of the countries of Europe and the USA can be distinguished (A.V. Duhavneva, L.D. Stolyarenko).

One of the most important trends in the development of education in the XIX century. there was an expansion of state participation in the management and financing of the school business. This process was based on the emergence of legislation regulating the organization, management and other issues of state educational policy. In Prussia, in 1794, the "General Regulations on the School" was published, in which all schools were declared public, and in 1798 and 1808 state bodies were created to control the activities of the school. In the first quarter of the XIX century. in Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony, laws on compulsory primary education were re-adopted. In general, there has been a tendency to centralize the management of school education, the activities of all educational institutions and teachers were controlled by state bodies, teachers of primary schools were appointed to positions by government orders.

in France throughout the 1801th century. there was a process of creating legislation regulating the most diverse aspects of the school. At the beginning of the century, the status and procedure for financing state primary (communal) and secondary schools (lyceums and colleges) were determined. In 1824, a system of school districts was formed according to the number of universities with strict subordination of schools within it, which was a model for creating a system of public education in Russia. In 1833, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Education was established, in 1835, according to the "Law of Guizot" (named after the creator), each community was obliged to open and maintain an elementary school, and from 16 a school inspection system was introduced. All this contributed to an increase in the share of participation in the management of school affairs, the rectors of XNUMX educational districts were directly subordinate to the Ministry of Education.

In England, the emergence of school legislation occurred later than in other Western European countries. So, in 1830, state funding of schools began for the first time, and only in 1847 was a system of school inspections created. In the second half of the XIX century. laws appeared that determined the procedure for organizing and operating the state educational system and guaranteeing compulsory primary education; in 1891, a law on free schooling was issued. In England, there were tendencies towards the decentralization of school management, for example, school committees were elected in the districts, which had the right to regulate the life of schools, there was no uniformity in secondary education, and independently developed charters were adopted in schools.

In the United States, laws regulating activities in the field of education appeared separately in various states, the process of developing national legislation was hampered by the fact that in the first half of the century the United States was becoming a state that was finally formed after the war between the North and the South. Only in 1867 did the "Bureau of Public Education" arise, but the schools were subordinate to the state authorities, who determined the organization of education and the financing of educational institutions. The schools had self-government bodies.

Another important trend in the development of education in Western Europe and the United States during the period under review was the regulation of private initiative in education. In all school systems in the West, private schools continued to operate, to a greater or lesser extent controlled by state school authorities. Thus, in Prussia, according to the law of 1794, all schools, without exception, were subject to state control, regardless of who was their founder. In France, the legislation guaranteed the operation of private schools, but at the same time there was a system of their ministerial inspection. In England, under the law of 1870, the government stimulated the creation and operation of private schools. In the United States, private schools were created mainly by religious denominations.

In the 1840th century the separation of the school from the church continued, which took place ambiguously in different countries. This process was most contradictory and tense in Prussia. At the beginning of the XIX century. the secular nature of the school was legally established, and until the 1846s. religion was excluded from the curricula. However, in 1848 the church authorities received the right to approve school teachers for the position. Then, in 1850, the secularity of education was enshrined in the constitution, but another constitution in XNUMX fixed the teaching of religion as a compulsory subject in schools. As a result, by the end of the century, church influence on the school remained significant. In England, the state declared the optional nature of teaching religion, but in educational practice it was taught in every school. In France, on the other hand, throughout the nineteenth century There was a process of separation of the school from the church. In the United States, initially state and religious education developed separately.

National education systems developed as dualistic, that is, without connection between the mass elementary school and the few secondary educational institutions. Access to secondary school was hindered by high tuition fees, inconsistencies in primary and secondary school curricula, and the existence of special preparatory classes. To resolve the problems of continuity of primary and secondary schools, in the XIX century. a new type of school arose - the higher primary school, in which, in addition to traditional disciplines, the curriculum included subjects of the natural science and real cycles.

Primary education in most countries of Western Europe and the USA in the 7th century. has not undergone significant changes. The main achievement was the emergence of compulsory free primary education (duration of XNUMX years), in addition, new types of primary schools appeared, the most common of which were evening and Sunday schools for teaching adults, which made it possible to increase the literacy rate of the population. Education at the primary level was organized as separate for boys and girls - in Europe and joint - in the USA, was free (or the school fee was negligible) and met the requirements of the classroom system.

In most countries there were some differences in the content of primary education. For example, in England, the primary education program included reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, needlework (for girls); in Prussia - the foundations of religion, reading, writing, arithmetic, singing, basic information on geography, history, natural science; in France - reading, writing, counting rules, lessons in religion, the beginnings of natural science, geography, agricultural labor; in the USA, reading, writing and arithmetic.

The greatest changes in the XIX century. occurred in secondary education. Although educational institutions for the most part retained their traditional names, the content of education and the organization of education changed significantly, real schools and colleges arose almost everywhere. These transformations took place in different ways in the leading countries of Europe and the USA. So, in England, secondary education was represented by grammar schools. Among them, "public schools" (public schools), which had a classical orientation of education and a closed nature of education, were especially widespread. These schools charged high tuition fees, with the exception of gifted children from poor backgrounds. The main tasks of the schools were the formation of leadership qualities among pupils, the development of student self-government, and the preparation of students to continue their education at the elite Oxford and Cambridge universities. The vast majority of British statesmen and politicians, military and diplomatic leaders and senior clergy became graduates of "public schools". The curriculum of these schools included subjects of classical education, mathematics, natural sciences, and foreign languages. The other part of grammar schools consisted of weekly schools of two directions: classical and modern.

In Prussia, the classical gymnasium was the main type of secondary school, but the content of education in it is expanding through the study of the German language and literature, and mathematics. Throughout the XNUMXth century the number of urban schools - real schools, the curriculum of which includes religion, German, mathematics, physics, geography, history, French, drawing, singing, gymnastics - is increasing. By the end of the century, real education in Prussia was gradually pushing aside the classical one.

In France, secondary education was represented by lyceums and colleges. The education program in them was the same, but the former were funded by the state, and the latter by the municipalities. The content of education in them was classical, and the organization of education depended on the sequence of study of disciplines, in lyceums and colleges education lasted six years, and at the end of additional "philosophical" education, an exam for a bachelor's degree was supposed.

In the United States, the leading type of high school was the academy, the program of which included a classical and a real component. In the XNUMXth century the content of education in the academies was not uniform, since these were private educational institutions. In the second half of the century, on the basis of the primary school, state secondary schools appeared - "high school", the term of study in which ranged from three to five years, and the program combined the disciplines of elementary and secondary education.

In the XNUMXth century in the countries of Western Europe and the USA, secondary state educational institutions for women's education arose. Higher education was concentrated in universities.

8.2. The formation of the ideas of educative and developmental education in the pedagogical thought of Western Europe until the 80s. XNUMXth century

In the XNUMXth century in pedagogical thought, theories of training and education arise, which become classical pedagogical theories and the basis for the further development of science and the practice of education in all countries.

So, one of the founders of the didactics of primary education, a Swiss teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), who completed two courses at the Collegium Karolinum, was active in educational activities, organized a number of orphanages for children from the poorest environment, where orphans lived and studied. I.G. Pestalozzi was the author of works that reflected his pedagogical ideas: "Lingard and Gertrude" (1781-1787), "How Gertrude teaches her children" (1801), "Letter to a friend about his stay in Stanz" (1799), "Swan Song" (1826). The pedagogical heritage of Pestalozzi was analyzed by A.P. Pinkevich, EH Medynsky, V.A. Rotenberg and others.

Developing the idea of ​​the relationship between upbringing, learning and development, the teacher proceeded from the recognition of the decisive role of upbringing in the development of the child's personality from the moment of his birth. The essence of developing and nurturing education was expressed by I.G. Pestalozzi in his theory of "elementary education", which was intended for the initial stage of education. Elementary education implies such an organization of learning, in which the simplest elements are distinguished in the objects of cognition and activity, which allows you to constantly move from simple to more and more complex, bringing children's knowledge to possible perfection. The teacher identifies the following simple elements of cognitive activity: number (the simplest element of a number is one), shape (the simplest element of form is a line), names of objects indicated using words (the simplest element of a word is sound).

Цель обучения И.Г. Песталоцци определяет как возбуждение ума детей к активной деятельности, развитие их познавательных способностей, выработку у них умения логически мыслить и кратко выражать словами сущность усвоенных понятий. Таким образом, метод "элементарного образования" - это определенная система упражнений по развитию способностей ребенка. Песталоцци разработал эту методику, руководствуясь следующими идеями:

1) ребенок с рождения обладает задатками, внутренними потенциальными силами, которым свойственно стремление к развитию;

2) многосторонняя и многообразная деятельность детей в процессе обучения - основа развития и совершенствования внутренних сил, их умственного развития;

3) активность ребенка в познавательной деятельности - необходимое условие усвоения знаний, более совершенного познания мира. Такое развивающее и воспитывающее обучение должно содействовать переходу детей от беспорядочных и смутных впечатлений к четким понятиям.

I.G. Pestalozzi expanded the content of primary education, including information from geography and natural history, drawing, singing, gymnastics, and the beginning of geometry. The teacher believed that speech should be developed systematically and consistently, starting with sounds and their combinations in syllables, through the development of various speech forms while enriching and deepening the child's ideas about the world around him. Learning to count Pestalozzi suggested starting not with memorizing arithmetic rules, but with combinations of single objects and forming on this basis ideas about the properties of numbers. He divided the study of form into teaching children to measure (geometry), drawing and writing.

The idea of ​​developmental education K.D. Ushinsky called "the great discovery of Pestalozzi". The teacher considered the main goal of training not to master the knowledge presented by the teacher, but to excite the mind of children to active activity, develop their cognitive abilities, the ability to think logically and express the essence of the concepts they have learned. Isolation of the developmental function of learning posed fundamentally new tasks for the teacher: the development of clear concepts in students in order to activate their cognitive powers. Interpretation of the idea of ​​developmental education in the works of I.G. Pestalozzi still has not lost its relevance.

Developing the idea of ​​developmental education and elementary education, the teacher became one of the founders of formal education: he considered the subjects studied more as a means of developing abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge. This point of view of Pestalozzi was supported by F.A. Diesterweg and K.D. Ushinsky. The method of "elementary education" made it possible to simplify the methodology of primary education and expand its possibilities.

Priority value of I.G. Pestalozzi assigned education, he believed that education should give children from the people good labor training and at the same time develop their physical and spiritual strength, which in the future will help them get rid of poverty. Education should be nature-conforming, that is, it should be built in accordance with the natural course of development of human nature itself, starting from infancy. "The hour of a child's birth is the first hour of his education," Pestalozzi insisted. He believed that the general goal of education is most capable of solving its moral component. Among the tasks of moral education, the teacher singled out the development of high moral qualities in children, the formation of moral consciousness and convictions in the younger generation, their development through direct participation in good and useful deeds.

Trying to be consistent, I.G. Pestalozzi, speaking of educative education, singles out the initial element of a person's humanistic feelings. The first germ of morality, according to the teacher, is the very first and most natural feeling of a person - trust, love for the mother. With the help of education, the circle of objects of children's love should gradually expand (mother - sisters and brothers - teachers - schoolmates - people). Thus, according to Pestalozzi, school education is successful only when it cooperates with the family. Thus, I.G. Pestalozzi was the first to put forward the thesis about the activity of the child in the learning process.

In physical education, the main element is the desire of the child to move. The beginning of physical education, according to I.G. Pestalozzi is laid in the family when the mother gradually teaches the child to stand, take the first steps and walk. Joint exercises were put by the teacher as the basis of "natural home gymnastics", on the basis of which he proposed to build a system of school "elementary gymnastics".

Elementary labor training Pestalozzi considered as an important part of the development of the child and proposed at the initial stage the assimilation of the "alphabet of skills", which contributes to the development of physical strength and mastery of the necessary labor skills.

Pedagogical views and activities of I.G. Pestalozzi influenced the further development of world pedagogical science and brought to life a whole pedagogical trend - Pestaloztsianism.

Follower of Pestalozzi, teacher Friedrich Fröbel (1782-1852) in 1838 he created the first institution of preschool education - a kindergarten. The teacher believed that the inner world of a person through education flows into the outer world, therefore the goals of education are the revelation of the divine principle in oneself and its actualization in creative activity. F. Fröbel paid much attention to creativity in the process of developing a child's personality; these ideas were set forth in his main pedagogical work, The Education of Man (1826). The teacher believed that the main thing in a person is his creativity, which is present in every child, and education should develop these creative inclinations. F. Fröbel was sure that the child in his creative development repeats the historical stages of the genesis of human consciousness, this idea was shared by K.D. Ushinsky. The center of Froebel's pedagogical theory is game theory. Children's play, according to the teacher, is a "mirror of life" and "a free manifestation of the inner world", where the child's connection with the outside world is revealed.

For the first time in the history of world pedagogy, F. Fröbel developed a holistic, methodically detailed system of preschool education equipped with practical aids. In the content of children's education, he included knowledge from the field of art, natural science, teaching "how to use natural resources" and "simple and more complex processing", elementary knowledge of natural history, the history of mankind and individual countries, mathematics, languages. F. Fröbel developed a system of means for the development of a child at an early age and proposed using "gifts" as a tool - a ball, a cube, a cylinder, on the basis of which a holistic system of developmental activities was built: work with building material based on "gifts", outdoor games, modeling, paper weaving, cutting, embroidery, laying out and designing from various materials. This system is still used in the most general moments in the practice of preschool education and plays an important role in the process of sensory, mental development of the child.

German teacher and educator, author of about 400 pedagogical works Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg (1790-1866) studied at the Heidelberg, Herborn and Tübing universities, received a Ph.D., was a teacher of a classical gymnasium, director of teacher's gymnasiums. For his huge contribution to the development of public education and the desire to unite the German teachers, he was called the "teacher of German teachers." According to the researchers of the heritage of F.A. Diesterweg (V.A. Rotenberg, S.A. Frumov, A.I. Piskunov and others), the merit of his theory lies not in special originality, but in the brilliant interpretation and popularization of the ideas of J.-J. Russo and I.G. Pestalozzi. The main pedagogical work of F.A. Diesterweg - "A Guide to the Education of German Teachers" (1835), in which the teacher theoretically substantiated and improved the ideas of developing and educating education. Diesterweg persistently advocated a secular school and non-interference of the church in the educational process, put forward the demand for a single folk (national) school.

According to F.A. Disterweg, three principles play a leading role in the organization of the upbringing process - natural conformity, cultural conformity and amateur performance. The use of the principle of conformity to nature in pedagogy presupposes the recognition of the value and expediency of the natural organization of man. Diesterweg emphasized that only knowing psychology and physiology, the teacher can ensure the harmonious development of children, he saw psychology as the "basis of the science of education", believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development, included in the tasks of education the provision of this independent development . The teacher considered upbringing as a historical phenomenon and concluded that the state of culture of the people of each period of time also affects the development of the personality of pupils. Thus, the principle of cultural conformity means that in education it is necessary to take into account the conditions of the place and time in which a person was born and where he will live, because pedagogy is a part of human culture. The requirement of cultural conformity in F.A. Diesterweg means the need to take into account the historically achieved level of culture and the educational ideal of society in the content of education.

The teacher attributed the principle of children's amateur performance in the process of development to the universal educational principles. With the name of F.A. Diesterweg is associated with the creation of the foundations of developmental education. Good, according to the teacher, can be considered only such training that stimulates the inclinations and initiative of a person, develops him mentally, morally, physically. Compliance with this principle ensures the developmental nature of training. Diesterweg understood self-activity as activity, initiative, and considered it the most important personality trait. In the development of children's amateur performances, he saw both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education, he determined the value of individual educational subjects based on how much they stimulate the mental activity of students. The teacher believed that successful learning is educational in nature.

F. Diesterweg developed rules covering all aspects of the learning process at school, drew attention to the decisive role of the teacher in the implementation of developing learning tasks, urged teachers to fight for the high culture of students' speech and constantly engage in self-education, free themselves from routine teaching methods, work creatively, never give up independence of thought.

German philosopher, teacher, psychologist, mathematician Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) became the first thinker to present pedagogy as an independent science. After graduating from university, Herbart lectured on philosophy and received the title of professor. His main pedagogical works: "The first lectures on pedagogy" (1835), "General Pedagogy" (1806). The education of morality is a system-forming element of the entire pedagogical system of Herbart and his ideas about the harmonious development of the forces and abilities of the individual. According to Herbart, the goal of education can be indicated by only one word - "virtue". The teacher formulated five ethical ideas that are the basis of universal morality: the idea of ​​inner freedom, which makes a person whole; the idea of ​​perfection, combining the strength and energy of the will, giving "inner harmony"; the idea of ​​goodwill, which consists in coordinating the will of one person with the will of other people; the idea of ​​law applied in the event of a conflict of two or more wills; the idea of ​​justice, which serves as a guiding principle in judging whether to reward the one who provides services to society, or to punish the one who violates its laws. Herbart assigned an important role in moral education to religion, which should inspire a person with a sense of dependence on "higher powers".

The basis of education I.F. Herbart considered the moral development and formation of the will and character of the pupil. In the moral development of the child, the teacher singled out four stages. The first stage is the "memory of the will", on which a firm character is developed in relation to external conditions; the second stage is "choice", when a person learns to be aware of the positive and negative sides of what he aspires to; the third stage is the "principle", here the development of self-consciousness takes place, the principles underlying the motives of behavior are determined; the fourth step is "struggle", at this step the moral consciousness is "built".

As a result, moral development should lead to freedom and create harmony between the will and interests of the pupils.

Towards moral education in the theory of I.F. Herbart is closely related to management, whose task is to develop external discipline and teach children to order. The teacher called supervision, orders, prohibitions, punishments, up to bodily ones, as well as the ability to occupy the child as the main means of control. He assigned an auxiliary role in management to the authority and love of the educator, and the authority should belong to the father, and love to the mother. In the second half of the XIX century. a one-sided interpretation of Herbartinian governance was used by supporters of authoritarian education.

The key concept in the pedagogical concept of I.F. Herbart was educative training aimed at developing a multilateral interest. The teacher was convinced that the many-sided interest constantly aroused and supported by "energetic teaching" creates a perspective for the comprehensive development of the personality. Outlining his thoughts on educative education, Herbart tried to distinguish between the logic of education and the logic of education. This is not a single process: specific in their functions, training and education are interconnected and dialectically interact with each other. Education will only then have an educative character when it is based on the interest of the student. In this regard, the teacher proposed a possible classification of interest in its interaction with cognitive activity. Herbart identified six types of interest: empirical - to the outside world; speculative (speculative) - to the causes of things and phenomena; aesthetic - to the beautiful; sympathetic - to close people; social - to all people; religious. He considered attention to be the basis of interest and therefore put forward the excitation and maintenance of apperceptive attention and the development of voluntary attention as the most important didactic tasks.

According to I.F. Herbart, learning becomes developing when it is organized in a special way. The teacher singled out several levels of education: clarity, association, system, method, which must strictly follow each other. At the level of clarity, the student is initially introduced to new material based on the widespread use of visual aids; at the association stage, new ideas are established with old ones in the process of free conversation; at the stage of the system, a connection is established between the presentation of new material with the allocation of main provisions, the derivation of rules and the formulation of laws; At the stage of the method, students in the process of performing exercises using new knowledge develop the skill of applying them in practice. These steps make up the four-component structure of the traditional lesson.

Among the main forms of teaching I.F. Herbart singled out descriptive, analytical and synthetic. The teacher believed that such subjects as ancient languages ​​and mathematics, which, in his opinion, best discipline the mind, contribute to the development of students' thinking. Herbart believed that the child in his development repeats the path traversed by mankind, from which he concluded that the life of ancient peoples is closer and more understandable to a child than contemporaries. In this regard, the teacher insisted on the need to teach children up to 14 years of age mainly the language, literature and history of the ancient world, as well as mathematics and geography.

Pedagogical theory I.F. Herbart - in particular his theoretical substantiation of pedagogy, the idea of ​​educative education and the development of methods and techniques that take into account the educational possibilities of educational subjects - had a great influence on the subsequent development of the theory and practice of education in many countries.

A significant contribution to the development of pedagogical science in the United States in the XIX century. introduced Horace Mann (1796-1859) - public figure, head of the US Bureau of Public Education. A significant rise in primary education in the middle of the century is associated with his activities. H. Mann defended the idea of ​​improving social relations through education, advocated state control over the activities of schools, and considered the development of a person's moral qualities as a priority in education. With his direct participation, the first law in the United States on free primary education was adopted.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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