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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of pedagogy and education. Education in Kievan Rus and the Russian state (until the 18th century) (most important)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 7. EDUCATION IN KIEVAN RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN STATE (before the XNUMXth century) 7.1. Education among the ancient Slavs The upbringing of children among the Eastern Slavs under the primitive communal system in the period from the XNUMXth century. by the ninth century developed in the same logic and with the same characteristic features as that of other primitive peoples. Initially, the process of education was inseparable from the life of the tribe and was carried out through the inclusion of the younger generation in the labor, economic, household, ritual and ceremonial activities of adults. During the period under review, the main ideas, values, rules of folk pedagogy were formed, which not only determined the specifics of the education of the ancient Slavs, but also for a long time became the basis of the entire pedagogical culture of the Russian people. Among the rituals and ceremonies, the customs associated with the veneration of the earth, water, sky, aimed at developing a careful attitude to bread, nature in general, and the results of labor, aimed at honoring elders and parents, carried a special pedagogical meaning. During the period of matriarchy, when the upbringing of children was the responsibility of all members of the tribal community, it lined up in a certain sequence: at an early age - up to 4-5 years, sometimes up to 7-8 years, all children were under the supervision of women; then the boys moved to the house of the Muyaschins and learned there the skills of hunting, gathering, labor skills, etc.; the girls stayed with the women and learned housekeeping and handicrafts. Among the Eastern Slavs, the period of childhood was clearly divided into certain age stages, which corresponded to the content of education. A child under 6 years old was called "young", from 7 to 12 - "child", from 12 to 15 - "lad". As in other ancient cultures, in the East Slavic there was a rite of "initiation", which marked the transition from one age group to another. From the period of the late matriarchy, the Slavs organized youth houses. In their activities, an important place was occupied by preparation for initiations, during which adolescents learned to hunt and make tools, comprehended secret mythological rituals, mentors sought to form strong-willed qualities, discipline and endurance in young people. The specificity of the content and forms of education also depended on which social group the child belonged to. Traditionally, among the Eastern Slavs, farmers, artisans, warriors and pagan priests stood out. The upbringing of farmers was carried out mainly in the family. The purpose of the upbringing of the boys was familiarization with work, mastering the skills and abilities of agriculture, animal husbandry and agriculture, the girls learned housekeeping, weaving and needlework. The ideal of educating the children of artisans was close to the values of agricultural education, but was realized within the framework of apprenticeship. The student lived in the family of an artisan, helping in the workshop, mastered the difficult skills of the craft, the master sought to instill in the teenager moral and religious norms of behavior, to form the worldview of the student. The priests focused on the intellectual component of education and knowledge of mythology and rituals. The warriors lived apart from the community in special fortified camps, their children were trained in military affairs. At the age of 12, they continued to comprehend this art in gridnitsa - houses arranged like a kind of paramilitary boarding schools. Thus, education among the Eastern Slavs from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries. had a familial character. In Russia, the transition to a family consisting of spouses and children ended in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. With the advent of the paired family, the public education of children was replaced by family education, which became the leading form of education. The organization of family education among the ancient Slavs had some specifics: in a poor environment in the XNUMXth century. there was a custom to invite a mentor to the family to educate the younger generation, as a rule, it was the mother's brother - the uncle. So, the Russian proverb "What are the uncles - such are the children" reveals this educational tradition, although a later version of folk wisdom is also known: "What are the mothers - such are the children", indicating a change in the priorities of family education and meaning that later the main responsibility for education mother carried the children. In the absence of a native uncle, the upbringing of children was entrusted to pious and decent neighbors. The custom of giving children to be brought up in a strange family was called "nepotism". Among the noble representatives of the community, this custom had a different interpretation and was called "feeding", when the educator was responsible for the moral, spiritual and physical education of the noble offspring, taught him management, economic activities and military skills. As a socio-pedagogical phenomenon, "feeding" was preserved by the Russian princes until the XNUMXth century. Between the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. In connection with the change in economic and economic life, significant changes took place in the ancient Slavic family: it became large, the need to involve relatives and strangers in raising children disappeared. The main educators are the parents, especially the mother, which is why the Slavs called a person who has reached social maturity "mother" - brought up by the mother, in addition, older children are connected to the upbringing of the younger ones. The result of family education was that the youths inherited the profession or craft of their parents. The main means of education, in addition to pagan rituals, were works of oral folk art, which retained their pedagogical significance in subsequent eras. So, in fairy tales and epics, the ideal of ancient Russian education was reflected - a hardworking person who loves his homeland and children, who is able to protect his native land and fellow tribesmen from any enemies. The code of moral behavior was contained in proverbs, riddles were intended for mental education, songs for aesthetic development. According to historical and pedagogical research, in the VIII century. the Slavs developed writing, they used "features and cuts", that is, a kind of pictographic writing. At pagan sanctuaries, some children could learn to read and write. However, the East Slavic educational tradition in the period under study did not know school forms of education. 7.2. The influence of Christianity on the development of education and pedagogical thought in Russia until the XNUMXth century By the X century. on the territory of the Eastern Slavic lands, a state was formed - Kievan Rus. The specificity of education and upbringing in Kievan Rus was mainly determined by its dependence on the Orthodox Christian tradition. However, medieval Christian pedagogy in Russia differed significantly from Western European upbringing and education. Five centuries after the spread of Christianity in Western Europe, in 988, Kievan Rus was baptized, and the Eastern Byzantine version of Christianity, Orthodoxy, became the dominant official religion. Along with the cultural tradition of Orthodoxy, Russia also receives from Byzantium educational traditions based on ancient models, which favorably affects the development of Russian education. In addition, the all-Slavic tradition of education, especially the ancient Bulgarian one, had a noticeable influence on the formation of Old Russian education and training. In 863, the monk brothers Cyril and Methodius created the Slavic alphabet - the Cyrillic alphabet, which was based on the traditions of the Greek alphabet, but took into account the phonetic structure of the Old Church Slavonic language. Gradually, the alphabet adapted to the specifics of the Old Russian language, which took shape by the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. Old Slavonic, and then Old Russian, with a spelling and pronunciation understandable to a Russian person, became not only the language of church rituals, but also, unlike Western Europe, the language of enlightenment. Under the influence of Orthodoxy, education in the native language became available to the widest sections of the population, but this distanced the content of education and upbringing in Russia from the richest heritage of Antiquity, which was actively used in the European tradition. The content of education was limited to the study of sacred texts without their interpretation, "hagiographic" literature (lives of the saints), some folklore works. The language barrier made it difficult to access works written in Latin, which significantly narrowed the range of scientific and philosophical knowledge. In 1054, in the process of the official separation of the eastern and western branches of Christianity, Russia, having taken the position of Byzantium, tried to adhere to an original tradition of education, opposed to the European one, which the Russian Orthodox Church associated with Catholicism. If in the X-XI centuries. in monasteries and cultural centers, work was carried out to translate Greek and Latin books that corresponded to Orthodox ideas about the world into Old Russian, then by the XNUMXth century. she was practically silent. This predetermined the further development of education and training in the Russian state until the XNUMXth century. The ideal of ancient Russian education was strongly influenced by the values of Orthodoxy, according to which every person must believe in God (that is why the Russian population was called "peasants", i.e. "Christians") and this true faith should become the basis of education and training. On the way to communion with God, the Russian man was guided not by a rational understanding of the world around him, but by internal self-improvement, achieved in a humble righteous life. Thus, the pedagogical influence was aimed at "mental construction", defining the attitude towards knowledge as a moral and spiritual value. In the XV century. The Byzantine Empire fell under the onslaught of the Turkish conquerors, the confrontation between Orthodoxy and Catholicism intensified, which forced Russia to abandon the use of Byzantine traditions and previously translated ancient sources in teaching. In Russia, they began to be almost hostile to everything Western, including education. An indirect consequence of the influence of Orthodoxy can be considered the fact that the existing system of educational institutions existed without significant changes until the era of the reforms of Peter I. In addition, schools of various types were not created in Russia, the development of which was characteristic of medieval Europe; the prerequisites for revival tendencies never materialized in the renaissance of education; on Russian soil until the XNUMXth century. never appeared university centers of science and education. Teaching literacy and the basic sciences at school was secondary to reading Orthodox literature and was carried out only in this connection. The main form of education was family education, which took place under the guidance of a "master of letters" - a wandering monk who taught children at home. While in medieval Europe a class of professional teachers developed, the main figure of ancient Russian education was a person of clergy - the bearer of the values of Orthodox culture. If in the X-XI centuries. the spread of education in Russia as a condition for expanding the sphere of influence of Orthodoxy was the concern of the state, then later, with the strengthening of the Russian Orthodox Church, education and the organization of schools came under the jurisdiction of the church itself. 7.3. Education and Pedagogical Ideas in Russia in the Kievan Period The established system of education and upbringing in the Russian state from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries. is a holistic cultural and historical phenomenon. In connection with the invasion of the Tatar-Mongolian tribes, which marked the decline of ancient Russian enlightenment, it is traditionally customary to distinguish two periods in the history of pedagogy and education of the pre-Petrine era: Kyiv, which lasted from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries, and Moscow, from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries. By the time of the baptism of Russia, writing existed in the largest Russian cities, there were literate people, and, accordingly, there was individual literacy training. Gradually, school forms of education were born and successfully developed. The "Tale of Bygone Years" contains a record that Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, who baptized Russia in 988, began to build churches, appoint priests, gather children of combatants and nobles to familiarize them with book culture - "book teaching". Schools of "book learning" in terms of content and organization had an elitist character and were intended for teaching the children of princes, boyars, combatants. These were private educational institutions, initially the teachers in them were Greeks, Bulgarians and Russians, who had joined the book culture. The tradition of spreading "book teaching" continued successfully in the 1028th century. thanks to the efforts of the Kyiv prince Yaroslav the Wise, who was the initiator of the creation of the first Russian library in Kyiv, containing translations of Hebrew, Syriac, Greek and Old Slavonic texts. At the court of Prince Yaroslav there was an advanced school, where they received a serious education, many cultural figures of that time underwent a "book teaching": writers, chroniclers, translators and scribes of books, preachers and educated "scribes". Yaroslav the Wise contributed to the creation of schools in the largest Russian cities. In 300, by his decree, a school was opened in Novgorod for the education of children of priests and townspeople, designed for XNUMX students. Organized a number of schools and Smolensk Prince Roman Rostislavovich. The Galician prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (XIII century) started schools and ordered the monks to teach children in monasteries. At the end of the XI century. at the convent of Kyiv, a women's school was created, where girls were taught to read, write, sing and sew; in the thirteenth century a women's school was also established in Suzdal. Based on these and other data, we can assume that in the Kievan state in the X-XIII centuries. Schools were established at churches and monasteries to train the clergy and literate people needed by the state. The spread of literacy in Russia during this period can be judged by the birch bark "cursive letters" found during excavations of ancient cities, writing tools, inscriptions on the walls of churches and household items. Their content testifies to the penetration of literacy into all segments of the population - from the feudal nobility to the urban (posad) people. A significant role in the development of education in the Kyiv period was played by monasteries, which were cultural and educational centers. Chronicles and other texts of moral and religious content were created in the monasteries, used in teaching, handwritten books were preserved and copied, libraries were formed, i.e. book culture was multiplied. It should be noted that the book in Russia was treated as the greatest value - carefully and with respect. Thus, educational institutions of various types arose in Kievan Rus, which represented the primary and secondary stages of education, but did not mean its continuity. The level of development of state institutions, economic and economic life did not require a large number of educated people, therefore, at the primary level, out-of-school forms of education prevailed within the framework of family education, which was most often carried out by "literacy masters". Their main craft was teaching reading, writing and counting (mastering numbering), they taught literacy just like any other artisan taught his profession. In addition, the children of craftsmen, farmers, townspeople in the family received the skills of agricultural labor and various household chores. Craft apprenticeships also survived, but, in addition to the craft, some masters taught teenagers to read, write, and church sing. It can be said that in terms of the spread of literacy, the teaching of which had no class restrictions, Russia was close to Byzantium of that time. Primary education was provided by special private paid schools (schools were called schools, i.e., the place where they study), sometimes children were taught directly at home by a "master of letters". In the Kievan period, the estate of professional teachers was not formed, so representatives of the lower clergy (singers, deacons, readers), petty officials, literate people, and servants of various state institutions were usually involved in training. Parents agreed with the "master of literacy" what, in what time and for what fee he would teach their child. In addition, the initial level of education was supposed to be in church and monastic schools, the main purpose of education in which was to prepare children for independent work with the books of Holy Scripture and the church service. The second stage of education in Kievan Rus received the name "book teaching". From the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries centers of "bookish teaching" spring up all over Russia. Similar educational institutions were created at princely courts, monasteries, churches for the education of princes and children of the nobility, and a broad education was available both for princely sons (the son of Yaroslav the Wise Vsevolod knew five foreign languages) and for daughters (the daughter of Polotsk prince Vseslav Efrosinya mastered " wisdom of the teaching of the book"). Researchers believe that during this period the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics) inherited from Byzantium lay at the heart of the content of the "book teaching". The content of the grammar included the doctrine of the eight parts of speech, information on etymology, grammatical categories, and poetic imagery of the language. On the basis of this, the study and interpretation of the texts of Holy Scripture and some writings of ancient authors took place. The works of John Chrysostom and other Byzantine texts, Russian aphorisms, rules of life behavior that corresponded to Orthodox ethical standards served as examples of rhetorical art. Under the dialectic meant the foundations of philosophy. In addition, the content of the "book teaching" included the mastery of elementary arithmetic culture: writing numbers, doubling, doubling, addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. Pedagogical ideas, reflecting the principles of medieval Russian pedagogy, have come down to us in the monuments of literature and writing. So, in the "Tale of Bygone Years" (late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth century) the idea of cultivating respect for national history and traditions, love for the native land is expressed, a righteous life is called as a way of education. The most famous work in this respect is "Vladimir Monomakh's Teachings to Children" (late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth century), addressed not only to the children of Prince Vladimir, but also to the younger generation of noble feudal lords. In it, the author instructs young people so that each of them strives to do three good deeds: repentance, tears and mercy. At the same time, a powerful ruler recognizes the right of everyone to individuality, calls for the education of industriousness, mastery of book learning, veneration of the church and the clergy. In the XI-XII centuries. in the Kiev state, a number of handwritten collections appeared, translated and original, among which there were texts and statements of pedagogical content. The collections under the names "Bee", "Izamragd" (i.e. emerald), "Izbornik" by Svyatoslav, "Chrystal jet", "Chrysostom" (named after John Chrysostom) contained statements and texts of Socrates, Democritus, Aristotle. Svyatoslav's "Izbornik" in the history of Russian pedagogy was the first attempt to present knowledge that corresponded to the ideas about the Byzantine educational tradition. For example, it contained a serious mathematical treatise by Aristotle and an original pedagogical essay by a Kiev resident Khirovosk "On Images" on the method of reading. However, on the whole, the content of the "Izbornik" tended more towards the moral and didactic, since it included a list of "heretical" works forbidden to read, various teachings and instructions addressed to children. During the Kievan period, original educational manuals were created in Russia, for example, "The Teaching by Him to Know the Numbers of All Years to Man", compiled by Kirik Novgorodets, which is an outstanding medieval treatise with high mathematical and literary merits. In the famous Russkaya Pravda (XI century) - a legal monument of Kievan Rus - mathematical problems were found, which together represent a textbook for acquiring computational skills in economic calculations. By the XIII century. school forms of education, especially "book learning", are in decline, which was associated with the defeat of the Russian principalities and the destruction of cities; cultural and educational centers in monasteries and churches were betrayed by the hordes of Batu to "fire and sword". The traditions of book culture were preserved only in the princely environment, providing a high level of home-family education. The acquisition of book culture and literacy remained unrelated to special education; professional skills were often passed on outside of literacy. 7.4. Upbringing and education in the Russian state in the Moscow period At the beginning of the XIV century. as a result of the Tatar-Mongolian invasion, the level of literacy and education among the population decreased significantly, and the number of schools decreased. Up to the XV century. Russia continued to experience raids and participate in wars with the Tatars. The spread of enlightenment and the development of education were hampered by feudal fragmentation and internecine strife in the Russian principalities. However, gradually in the Muscovite state, freed from the consequences of the raids, a peculiar system of upbringing and education took shape. In general, it is in the period of the XIV-XVII centuries. retained the general features of the Kyiv system of education, and only by the end of this stage in the development of Russian education did the first advanced schools appear, which became the prototype of higher education in Russia. In the process of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow, strengthening the institutions of power and administration, a need arose for educated people. The process of learning to read and write by the 7th century. simplified as paper and a simplified spelling were used for writing - a semi-statutory letter. Literacy education began when a child reached the age of XNUMX and did not differ in content in all classes. In the XIV-XVI centuries. monasteries played an important role in spreading enlightenment in Russia. Clergy and secular persons studied at the monastic schools. The best teachers were concentrated in large monasteries, the traditions of copying books and preserving religious and scientific knowledge continued. Many charters of the monasteries of that time testify that almost all the monks were literate and the process of teaching children was organized. Schools (elementary schools) were organized at churches. The Stoglavy Cathedral decided to establish such schools in the houses of priests and deacons. The traditions of learning from the "masters of literacy" continued, and there were more of them than in the Kievan period. In the XIV-XV centuries. a class of professional teachers began to form from them. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. in Russia there was an acute shortage of educated people, the Orthodox Church contributed to the opening of new state-controlled literacy schools. Boys studied in these elementary schools, the education program included reading, writing, the law of God, and church singing. At the same time, the process of acquiring literacy continued to be laborious for children and adolescents due to the use of the subjunctive method, the need to adapt to the handwriting of a handwritten book, and the lack of interest among adolescents in the content of church texts, according to which they were taught. The spread of book printing in Russia stimulated the development of education. The traditions of the "learning of the book" were preserved in the family upbringing of princely children. Quite a small number of people in the Moscow period could be ranked among the intellectual elite of Russian society. However, it was in this environment that elements of humanistic views were born. On the western borders of the Old Russian lands, in the Right-Bank and Western Ukraine and Belarus, at the end of the 6.1th - beginning of the XNUMXth centuries. "fraternal schools" were developed, in which the traditions of familiarization with book culture were enriched by the experience of the development of school affairs in Western Europe. The descendants of the ancient Russian population of Ukraine and Belarus, trying to keep their religion, culture, language intact, created similar educational institutions in Orthodox communities. A distinctive feature of the educational process in the "brotherly schools" was its clear organization: the children studied for four hours a day, mandatory homework was provided for and their regular checking. Schools were accessible to children from different strata, that is, they offered not a class, but a universal principle for constructing the content of education. In the "fraternal schools" the foundations of the class-lesson system were born, which were subsequently theoretically substantiated and developed in the works and activities of Ya.A. Comenius (see XNUMX). In the history of the development of educational institutions in the period under review, the 1621th century occupies a special place, since it was at this time that attempts were made in Russia to create a higher school. The development of state institutions conditioned the need for highly educated people, however, after primary education, a person could only independently turn to reading books, since there were no advanced schools, and studying abroad in the pre-Petrine period was impossible. In Moscow, the preconditions for the emergence of such educational institutions were taking shape, there were schools founded by foreigners in the traditions of European education, for example, in 1632 a Lutheran school was opened. On the basis of the provisions of the system and curriculum characteristic of "fraternal schools", Kyiv Metropolitan Peter Mohyla in XNUMX founded an educational institution of an increased type - the Kiev-Mohyla Collegium, the main languages of instruction in which were Slavic and Latin, Greek was studied. Graduates of the Kyiv Collegium (S. Polotsky, E. Slavinetsky, A. Stanovsky) received an education comparable in level to the scholastic European standard, and took an active part in the development of the Russian Enlightenment. In the second half of the XVII century. secular ideas began to develop in education, pushing the monopoly of the church. In the 1660s in Moscow, an advanced type school was opened to train especially trusted officials of the royal chancellery. Close attention was paid to the study of the language of international diplomacy - Latin. Doctors from the University of Padua in 1681 opened a school in the Epiphany Monastery. In 1687, the first proper higher educational institution was opened in Russia - the Hellenic-Greek, and later the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy under the leadership of S. Polotsky, focused on the program of European universities, with the study of the "seven free arts", ancient languages and theology. The brothers I. and S. Likhud were invited as teachers. They selected teachers, themselves conducted rhetoric and philosophy in the senior classes of the academy, compiled textbooks of grammar, piitika and rhetoric of Orthodox content in Greek and Latin. The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy trained the clergy, students for medical and surgical schools, many of whom later became students of the university, opened in 1725 at the Academy of Sciences. M.V. studied at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Lomonosov, famous writer A.D. Kantemir, architect V.I. Bazhenov, K. Istomin, mathematician L. Magnitsky, the first Russian doctor of medicine P. Postnikov and other famous figures of culture, science and education of the 1672th century. In 1755, the Likhuds opened a Slavic-Greek-Latin school in Novgorod, modeled on the Moscow Academy, and began to teach there. With the opening of Moscow University in XNUMX, the Greek-Latin academies lost their significance. It should be noted that in the XVI-XVII centuries. the boundaries between higher and secondary schools in Russia were blurred. Everything depended on the level of education of teachers and the goals of the educational institution. In particular, according to contemporaries, the Novgorod school of I. and S. Likhudov did not provide higher education. Thus, in Russia until the XVII century. The influence of Christianity on the entire sphere of education and family upbringing was extremely strong. By the XNUMXth century Instead of a Western European university in the form of Greek-Latin academies, Russia receives a kind of theological seminary, where, despite a rather broad curriculum, only those subjects and theories were taught that did not contradict the Orthodox idea of the world. A significant monument of ancient Russian culture, life, education of the XV-XVII centuries. is "Domostroy", many chapters of which are devoted to the problems of organizing the upbringing and education of children. Domostroy expressed the demand for raising children in the fear of God, observance of church rituals, severe discipline, combined with an attentive and caring attitude towards children. Among the necessary educational influences, it was recommended to "save fear" children from unreasonable acts, use corporal punishment or punish with "hard work." Thoughts were expressed about the need to educate the younger generation industriousness, courage, economy, frugality, religiosity, "ignorance" (education). In the XNUMXth century Epiphanius Slavinetsky publishes a treatise on children's education "Citizenship of Children's Customs", which is essentially a translation of the work of Erasmus of Rotterdam. It reflects the established European traditions of etiquette behavior. In the Russian translation, the text was divided into questions and answers concerning various aspects of a teenager's behavior: how to behave with parents, teachers, elders, what rules to follow at the table, on the street, how to maintain body hygiene and monitor appearance, etc. The Russian interpretation of the text of Erasmus of Rotterdam turned Citizenship from a book for children's reading into an instructive set of rules and marked the beginning of a new literary and pedagogical genre. At the initial stage of education, the Chasovnik and the Psalter or other liturgical books were most often used as educational literature in the Russian school at the initial stage of education. In the XNUMXth century printed primers and alphabets appeared, which included, in addition to didactic material, fragments of moral content. One of the first printed educational books was "Grammar" by Milenty Smotrytsky. A new type of educational literature took shape - alphabet books, which were a set of rules for the behavior of students, moral teachings, and guidelines for teachers. Until the XNUMXth century in teaching mathematics, written aids were not used, but during this period several textbooks appeared at once: "Numerical Counting Wisdom", "Convenient Counting", "Geometry" by Albertus Dolmatsky. This period was characterized by the creation of educational literature by the teachers themselves, for example, outstanding figures of education - S. Polotsky, N. Spafariy, K. Istomin - were engaged in the creation of educational books for the education of royal children. With the advent of schools of a higher type, books appear that reflect the subjects of the "trivium". Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V. << Back: Development of pedagogy and education in modern times (Pedagogical theories of the New Age. Pedagogical theories of the Enlightenment. Development of educational practice in the 17th-18th centuries) >> Forward: Education and pedagogical thought in Western Europe and the USA in the XNUMXth century (Development of education in Western Europe and the USA in the 80th century. Formation of ideas of educational and developmental education in the pedagogical thought of Western Europe until the XNUMXs of the XNUMXth century)
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