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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of pedagogy and education. School affairs and the emergence of pedagogical thought in the early stages of human development (the most important)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 2 2.1. The emergence of education as a special type of social activity Education arose with the advent of human society and exists throughout its history, from the very beginning fulfilling the general function of transmitting social experience from generation to generation. Some scientists (G.B. Kornetov, A.V. Dukhavneva, L.D. Stolyarenko) date the origin of the beginnings of education in the tribes of habilis hominids (Human Beings with Skills) to the period of 2,5-1,5 million years ago. The development of hunting led to the fact that the habilis accumulated and passed on to the next generations information about the terrain, the habits of animals, methods of tracking and hunting them, intra-group interaction, the creation and use of hunting tools. Such activities are in some ways similar to education. At the same time, it is very difficult to name with certainty the time of the appearance of education itself as a special social function, but with a certain degree of probability it can be assumed that this process took place in three stages. At the first stage (from 1,5 million to 45 thousand years ago), a new branch in human evolution appeared - archanthropes, who possessed the rudiments of speech and thinking, lived in collective communities, their brain was close in size and structure to that of a human. In archanthropic communities, tools of labor that were more complex in processing technology and purpose were used, the production of which required special ways of transferring experience that differed from the instinctive imitation of adults. Along with this, hunting for large animals developed, which necessitated the need for special training of young men in hunting skills. The emergence of education as a social function was facilitated by the mastery of fire, the emergence of the rudiments of speech and the associated development of certain areas of the brain. The appearance of paleoanthropes, the closest known ancestors of Homo sapiens, belongs to the same period. About 250 thousand years ago, the process of hunting differentiated and became more complicated in paleoanthropic communities: the tribe began to hunt a certain type of animal. The ancestor of man passes to genuine labor and its division according to gender, as a result of which differentiation appears in the content of the training of boys and girls. Archaeological data convincingly indicate that the upbringing of paleoanthropes was carried out in the process of everyday communication, labor and hunting activities, and religiously colored rituals. At the same time, rituals act as models of behavior and methods of action in situations related to hunting, and carry a pronounced emotional coloring. In the period of approximately 100 thousand years ago, the process of glaciation began in Eurasia, which significantly accelerated the evolution of social relations and economic activity. As a result, a new stage in the development of mankind appears - Homo sapiens. Thus, by the period of 45-40 thousand years ago, education finally stands out as a specialized social function, which is facilitated by the constant complication and accumulation of social experience that requires special forms and methods of its transmission. At the second stage (40-10 thousand years ago), in the early, and then in the late primitive communities, special methods and forms of education were born, which were realized in rituals and ceremonies. The way of life of the human community during this period is characterized by the transition from appropriating forms of economy to productive labor, a tribal community is being formed with the social equality of all its members. In the early tribal community, which lived mainly by hunting and fishing, almost the entire adult generation is engaged in education. The youth organically joins the process of life of the community, during which the necessary knowledge and skills are mastered. Magic rituals, which included teenagers aged 10-13, became one of the first organized forms of education, since they contributed to the physical development of the younger generation and teaching them elementary skills (imitating the habits of an animal, imitation of the sequence of movements of a hunter or fisherman, etc.). Among the first means of education are toys-totems, tools of labor and hunting, made especially for children. Adolescents gained experience in labor and social behavior in games, ritual dances, prohibitions - taboos and verbal devices - approval or disapproval were used as a powerful regulator of behavior. At the third stage (from 10 to 8 thousand years ago), as a result of further complication of the economic and, as a result, social life of the community, the family appeared. The tribal community began to gradually divide into family cells, to lose collective control over the upbringing of the younger generation, which was now carried out by the family. In the family, upbringing was differentiated by gender: girls were raised by mothers and other women of the family, boys were raised by men. An important stage in the development of education as a special type of social activity was the emergence of the initiation rite, symbolizing the transition of boys and girls into the category of socially mature full members of the community. The initiation involved a whole range of tests, their successful completion was a vital condition for the further existence of a young person, so the preparation for a kind of maturity exam was thorough and rather lengthy (in some communities it ended at 15-20 years old). With all the variety of rites that were part of the initiation, their content usually included tests for knowledge and skills in doing business, courage and physical fitness - for boys, housekeeping skills - for girls. For the successful completion of initiation, a long preparation was required, including the study of myths, songs, legends, hunting and fishing skills, labor skills, the development of courage, dexterity, will, etc. In special "youth houses" the young men practiced these activities under the guidance the most experienced and respected members of the community, which led to the selection of a group of people who, among other things, began to fulfill the tasks of educating the younger generation. Thus, by the IV-V millennia BC. e. there are prerequisites for the formation of school forms of education. The emergence of the school as a social institution dates back to the era of ancient civilizations of the Near and Far East. The separation of mental labor from physical labor leads to the emergence of a new profession - mentor, teacher. 2.2. Education and training in the countries of the Ancient East Approximately in the IV millennium BC. e. along the shores of the Persian Gulf in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, inhabited by the Sumerian peoples, a number of slave-owning states (Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria) arose in which a high level of cultural development was achieved. In historical science, these states are usually called Mesopotamia. Mathematics, astronomy, and agricultural technology successfully developed here; original writing and culture were created; there was even a system of musical notation. In almost every city of Mesopotamia there were schools organized at temples, and by the 20rd millennium BC. e. the number of schools in Mesopotamia was significant. In Sumerian the school was called "edubba" - "house of tablets" - and was intended primarily for the training of scribes. In the process of teaching writing, clay tablets were used, on which students wrote with a pointed stick (style). Basically, the schools were small, numbering 30-XNUMX students, with one teacher who created model tablets, the children copied them and memorized them. The teaching method was based on repeated repetition. In large "edubbas" (they were called "houses of knowledge") there were several teachers of writing, counting, drawing, many rooms for classes and storage of tablets. By the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. the Sumerian ideal of education is emerging, including a high level of mastery of writing, drafting documents, the art of singing and music, the ability to make reasonable decisions, knowledge of magical rites, information from geography and biology, and mathematical calculations. Schools were opened at temples and palaces, boys attended them, girls could learn writing at home from their father. The education received in the "tablet houses" made it possible to occupy managerial positions. The students were divided into younger and older "children of edubba", the training was conducted by the "elder brother" - the teacher and controlled by the "father of the school" - the director. New teaching methods were born - conversation, clarification, dispute. Gradually, by the end of the XNUMXst millennium, school education became the sphere of influence of families that for centuries from generation to generation passed on the skill of scribes. At this time, the art of healing, which was taught by the priests, reached a high level, since it was equated with magical rituals. The first schools in Ancient egypt appear in the 3rd millennium BC. e. They were small in number of students, and they charged high tuition fees. The school was attended mainly by boys from the families of officials, priests, landowners, and wealthy citizens; girls were more often educated at home. Training was individual, its duration depended on the efforts and abilities of the student. At the initial stage of education, children learned to count, read and write; at the second stage, differentiation took place: some studied music, literature, grammar, others mastered mathematics, and others learned the basics of economic activity. The learning process was routine and boiled down to rewriting and memorizing standard texts, teachings, examples, etc. Education was specialized in nature and was considered the key to a successful career in the future. In ancient Egypt, the level of family education and upbringing was quite high, and men and women had equal rights in education, there were quite a lot of literate people among all segments of the population. To achieve obedience, a wide variety of punishments were used at school, the proverb was widespread: "A boy has an ear on his back: the more you beat, the more he hears." The training was aimed at preparing for a profession, depending on the type of activity that the family was engaged in. Already in the III millennium BC. e. in ancient Egypt, the institution of a family school arises, in which the son inherited the post of his father, while the masters could take other people's children into the family and train them in the process of professional activity. В Ancient india education was family-school in nature, and the role of the family was dominant. In India, a special caste system of social structure has developed. Up to the XNUMXth c. BC e. during the period of Hinduism, education and training in ancient India was based on the idea that each person should develop his moral, physical and mental qualities in order to organically fit into his caste. Thus, the educational ideal had differences depending on the caste: for brahmins (priests) it was necessary to educate righteousness and purity of thoughts, for kshatriyas (warriors) - the formation of courage and courage, for vaishyas (peasants) the development of industriousness was required, for sudras (servants) provided for the education of obedience and diligence. Upbringing and education in ancient India had a close connection with religious beliefs, it was mandatory for the upper castes, for the sudra it was considered sufficient to be able to read, count and write. At the level of family education, systematic education was not supposed. Boys began their studies at the age of 7-8, their initiation into students took place in the form of the Upanayama rite, but the teaching of reading and counting began a few years before it. After passing the upanayama, training began with the teacher, whose relationship with the students developed according to the "father-children" model: the students lived in the teacher's house, obeyed and revered him in everything. By the middle of the 8st millennium BC. e. In ancient India, a peculiar system of education was built. At the primary level, children were educated in the family. The terms of upanayama for the three higher castes were not the same: for the Brahmins - 11 years, for the Kshatriyas - 12 years, for the Vaishyas - 8 years. The most extensive was the content of the education of the Brahmins, which lasted about 3 years and could continue after that for another 4-XNUMX years. It included poetry and literature, grammar, the beginnings of philosophical knowledge, mathematics, and astronomy. The next level of advanced education, to which few students devoted themselves, was training with a guru - a particularly revered teacher. At the end of the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. in ancient India, Buddhism arises, which promotes the spread of education and coexists with Hinduism. Buddhism recognizes the equality of rights of representatives of different castes in education and public life. During this period, the number of schools that open at Buddhist monasteries, located throughout ancient India, increases, at the same time there are an elementary religious "school of the Vedas" and a secular school. In the Buddhist tradition, a peculiar idea has developed about the content of advanced education, which included the Vedas, Vedangas, Upavedas (medicine, martial arts, music, architecture or handicraft sciences, logic, literature, languages). The success of Buddhist schools was due to the absence of caste division, tolerance for non-Christians, and a combination of spiritual and secular education. Buddhist teachers organized individual learning based on the results of constant monitoring of students, teaching and education was not authoritarian, but recommendatory. In II-VI centuries. there was a revival of Hinduism, as a result of which education acquired a practical orientation. A two-stage system of education developed: elementary schools (tol), where they taught counting, reading and writing in Sanskrit and local languages, and secondary schools (agrahar), the curriculum of which included geography, mathematics, languages, medicine, sculpture, painting, etc. e. Much attention was paid to moral education. Traditions of learning in Ancient China based on the experience of family and social education. School education was based on respect for elders; the mentor was perceived as a second father. The first schools in Ancient China appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. e., a little later they began to use the hieroglyph “xue” (teach, study) for their name. In the 2nd millennium BC. e. The school was attended mainly by the children of wealthy people, the main goal of the school was to teach them to use hieroglyphic writing, this skill was inherited and spread very slowly. In centuries The hair brush and paper were invented, as a result of which the process of mastering writing was simplified. The greatest influence on the development of school and pedagogy in ancient China was exerted by the teaching Confucius (551-479 BC), in which special attention was paid to the moral self-improvement of the individual. Confucius considered upbringing and education necessary conditions for the development of society. Over time, in China, the words "Confucian" (follower of Confucius) and "scholar" became synonymous, all scholarship consisted in the knowledge of his books, which were supposed to form the basis of learning. The ideal of education, according to Confucius, is considered to be a person's awareness of his place in society and mastery of the "six arts" - ceremonial, music, archery, chariot riding, writing and counting. Confucianism has developed a special type of educated person who diligently pursues a service career and is proud of it, repeats old texts, unquestioningly respects the norms and rules of behavior in society and the family. In general, the peoples of the Ancient East gave humanity invaluable experience in education and upbringing, created the first schools in the history of mankind, and formulated the initial ideas about education and upbringing. Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V. << Back: The history of pedagogy and education as a branch of scientific knowledge >> Forward: Education and school in the ancient world (Development of education and school in the ancient world. Development of pedagogical ideas in the philosophy of the ancient world. Democritus Socrates Plato Aristotle Mark Fabius Quintilian)
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