Topic 4. UPBRINGING AND EDUCATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES

4.1. The Development of the Christian Pedagogical Tradition in Byzantium

Byzantium was formed as a state in 359 on the territory of the Eastern Roman Empire and was conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. in Byzantium, in the theory and practice of education, the ancient and Christian traditions of education, the values ​​of the culture of the Near and Middle East were combined. Christianity as a new religion developed in the XNUMXst century BC. in Palestine. In Christian teaching, the ideal of man was formulated, which determined the logic and content of the education of Byzantium, medieval Europe and Russia, which boiled down to the education in man of self-denial, humility, mercy, mutual assistance, spiritual independence from worldly power and submission to the power of God. Among all segments of the population, the number of literate people in Byzantium was quite large.

In contrast to medieval Europe, in the Byzantine system of education, the influence of the church was limited, and monastic schools were not as widespread as in the West. However, by the 7th c. the state sought to pursue a conscious policy aimed at eliminating the traditions of ancient education. Until the age of 2, children were brought up in a family; in wealthy families, boys were supposed to have military and physical training, and literacy. Primary education was provided in private schools called "propedia" which provided reading, writing and numeracy skills. In an elementary school, children usually studied for 3-20 years. Secondary grammar schools were private, state and church. The secondary school program was called the term "pedia", then "encycliospedia" - a comprehensive education and included the "seven liberal arts", literature, ancient languages, philosophy. The basis of the content of education in secondary school was literary education, so the subjects of the quadrium were studied by a few. Primary and secondary schools were small, designed for 40-XNUMX students with one teacher, the most capable older students helped the teacher in the teaching process. During the VII-XI centuries. in Byzantium, attempts were repeatedly made to create higher schools like European universities on the basis of ancient educational institutions of a higher type. School education was intended for men, women received an upbringing comparable in level to the public one in the family.

The system of church education was based on a special type of relationship between teacher and student, based on spiritual unity, obedience and mentorship. The first church schools appeared in the XNUMXth century. and were schools of theology, where the entire learning process was based on the study of the Holy Scriptures. Byzantine monastic schools flourished in the XNUMXth century.

The pedagogical ideas of Byzantium were set forth in a treatise John Chrysostom (350-407) "On Vanity and the Education of Children", which dealt with the basic principles of Christian education and upbringing. John Chrysostom believed that the main methods in teaching should be conversation and instruction, in education - exhortation, advice, warning, but he did not exclude the impact of fear. At the same time, the thinker believed that the goal of education should be ascetic, severe, monastic, since earthly goods are of little value, one should strive for a spiritual, exalted, heavenly ideal of piety. According to John Chrysostom, the main educational book should be the Bible.

4.2. Upbringing and education in the early Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is a significant era in the development of human culture and civilization, which lasted about twelve centuries - from the XNUMXth century. according to the XNUMXth century During this long period in Europe and other regions of the world, powerful feudal states were formed and strengthened, Christianity and other world religions were developed, great works of world literature and art were created, effective education systems were developed, the foundations of education and upbringing were laid, combining mental development with moral development of the individual. The content and specifics of the organization of education and upbringing during this period were determined by the dominant importance of the Christian religion and the church in the social and cultural life of society. In the Middle Ages, religion formed a certain consistent picture of the world and knowledge about a person, regulated behavior and lifestyle, and formulated ethical imperatives.

Within the framework of the era of the Middle Ages, three periods are usually distinguished in historical science: VX centuries. - early Middle Ages; XI-XII centuries - developed, or High, Middle Ages; XIV-XVI centuries - late Middle Ages, or the Renaissance. Figures of the Middle Ages denied ancient culture as sinful pagan, while rejecting the ancient ideal of a comprehensively developed personality. The development of medieval education is connected with the development of church culture, since knowledge was necessary for teaching church dogma, the assimilation of which was required for people who wanted to be baptized, and church ministers in the fight against heretics and pagans. Over time, education and upbringing were monopolized by the church, which formed a new type of school - Christian, where Latin became the language of instruction. The pedagogical ideas of the Middle Ages considered the world as a "school of Christ", in which the meaning of life for each person is the knowledge of God.

At the very beginning of the Middle Ages, schools appeared for the education of those who wished to become a member of the Christian community and learn the basics of religion. Schools of catechumens (announced) considered the study of psalms and the foundations of Christian morality as their main goal. Over time, the reading of the catechism was included in the content of education in these schools, and the schools began to be called catechetical. Gradually, these educational institutions were transformed into schools of a higher type, which provided both general education for children from any class, and served to train priests. Later, on the basis of these educational institutions, cathedral or cathedral schools were formed.

At the beginning of the XNUMXth century in Ireland and Britain, the first monastic (church) schools are opened, the organization of education and the content of education in which are formed thanks to the ideas of the Christian philosopher of late Antiquity Augustine Aurelius the Blessed (354-430). According to Augustine, the content of education is based on the knowledge contained in the Bible. In determining the educational minimum for a Christian, Augustine put the "verbal" sciences and history in the first place as especially important for understanding the Holy Scriptures, followed by mathematics and the natural disciplines. In particular, the Christian philosopher insisted that the curriculum should include not only theological, but also secular knowledge necessary for a Christian polemicist and preacher - languages, history, dialectics, rhetoric, and the basics of mathematics. In the process of teaching, Augustine attached particular importance to the faith and authority of the teacher. In the VI-VIII centuries. the number of schools in Western Europe was small, and they were concentrated in monasteries, where there were opportunities for the correspondence of religious literature and the surviving works of ancient authors, libraries were created.

Already in the XNUMXth century. church schools are divided into closed - internal - to prepare for monastic tonsure and open - external - for teaching the children of parishioners, otherwise they were called episcopal, or cathedral, since they were established at the department of the city cathedral. Up to the XII century. internal monastic schools were more widespread and important than cathedral ones. Great importance in all church schools was given to the education of morality, fasting, renunciation of blessings, etc.; mental development and education was not a priority in the Middle Ages. Church schools had different levels of education: elementary (reading, writing, counting, singing); medium (trivium course: Latin grammar, rhetoric and dialectics); advanced (quadrium course: arithmetic, astronomy, geometry and music theory). As a result of the spread of monasticism throughout Europe, monastic schools remained the focus of education and upbringing for a long time.

During the reign of Charlemagne (768-814) an attempt was made to create educational institutions for the education of the secular population. Schools were opened at monasteries and church parishes, they taught reading, writing, church singing, Latin grammar and counting. However, in the second half of the IX century. secular tendencies in culture gradually faded away, educational activity again concentrated in monasteries, many schools were closed.

4.3. Upbringing and education during the developed Middle Ages

В период XI-XIII вв. на смену идеологии раннесредневековой школы пришло новое философское учение - схоластика (от греч. shcolastikos - школьный, ученый). Она вырабатывала новый тип культуры, ориентированный на формальную логику и абстрактное богословие. Схоластика определила организацию, содержание и методы образования в период развитого Средневековья, сыграла ведущую роль в дифференциации системы учебных заведений, особенно в развитии университетов. Кроме того, она способствовала формированию в обществе представления о том, что интеллектуальная деятельность и люди, ею занимающиеся, достойны самого высокого социального статуса. Философ и теолог Thomas Aquinas (1226-1274) developed scholasticism as a creed in a scientific form, combining the postulates of the teachings of Aristotle and Catholic theology, faith and scientific knowledge, while giving priority to the divine, considering it the highest intellectual teaching.

The development of scholasticism led to the decline of the old church school: grammar and rhetoric were replaced by logic and new Latin, the formal-logical component of education intensified, and educational material began to be distributed in the content of education in accordance with the logic of the subject. The scholastics stressed the need to start the education of the child as early as possible. In this regard, the content and logic of education in monastic schools changed: in each monastery a school of the middle level was established, and to complete the education - the highest level. The course of study was designed for 6-8 years: philosophy was studied for two years, theology, church history and law for two years, theology for two years in depth. Upon completion of the secondary level of education, the same cycle was studied, but at a higher level. After 13-16 years of study, the young man received a bachelor's degree and the highest spiritual dignity.

Thus, during the period of the High Middle Ages, a peculiar system of educational institutions of various levels was formed: primary education was received in parish schools, this level was limited to elementary knowledge; the average level of education was given by monastic schools, cathedral or cathedral schools. Education in secondary schools was conducted in Latin, and only in the XIV century. the first educational institutions with teaching in their native language appeared. The content of education included the norms of Christian morality, learning to read and write, followed by the "seven free arts", theology, philosophy. Among the books studied were the Holy Scriptures, the writings of the Church Fathers, as well as some ancient authors - Aristotle, Plato, Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Cicero, etc. The study of Latin grammar and rhetoric in the medieval school was explained by the fact that Latin was used as the language of worship, administration state, diplomacy, legal proceedings, international trade.

By the XII-XIII centuries. with the growth of cities, the intensification of trade, the development of handicraft production, a third estate was formed. During this period, for the education of the children of the townspeople, a wide variety of primary schools arose - magistrates, workshops, guilds. These were private educational institutions of various types, independent of the church: numeracy schools, Latin schools, schools of the native language. In the XII century. the growth in the number of scholastic schools led to an increase in the number of people involved in pedagogical work. Teachers and students united in corporations called universities. In other words, for the first time in the history of education, educational institutions appeared that implied higher education.

A system of apprenticeships relating to the education of feudal lords, merchants and artisans was established. With the rise in the XI-XIII centuries. chivalry - feudal lords in military service - the content of knightly education began to take shape, which was based on the military traditions of the early Middle Ages and Christian service. In the knightly education system, a boy at the age of 10-12 years old fell into the house of a noble feudal lord or to the court of the king as a page. While serving his benefactors, the child learned good manners, playing musical instruments, singing, dancing, versification, horseback riding, handling weapons. The young page had to learn such values ​​as valor, courage, the desire for glory, generosity, disinterested worship of the lady. At the age of 14-16, the teenager became a squire, engaged in versatile military and physical training. At the age of 18-21, after numerous trials, the young man was knighted, during this period the priest taught the young feudal lord theology. By the XIV century. chivalry lost influence in society, but the ideal of chivalric education, which included learning French, reading literature, playing chess, writing and singing your own poems, playing musical instruments, owning a spear, fencing, riding, swimming, had a significant impact for a long time on education in Europe (for example, reflected in the "theory of education of a gentleman" by D. Locke).

Girls from noble families were brought up at home under the guidance of a monk teacher or attended monastic or private schools for noble girls. Women's education included instruction in morality, housekeeping, weaving, spinning, needlework. Literacy was not compulsory, but usually noble girls could read and write, were well versed in poetry, composed poetry, could sing, play musical instruments, and dance. Women from the feudal class often received a wider education than men, and spoke Greek and Latin.

The children of artisans, as part of the apprenticeship, learned the craft from the master, the training lasted from two to six years, the work of an apprentice made it possible to save money and, after training, open their own business. Centers of handicraft education since the XII century. there were workshops.

In the XIII century. there has been significant progress in the field of natural sciences (in medicine, geography, mechanics, technology, chemistry), which was reflected in approaches to training and education. Gradually, rational knowledge based on empirical (experimental) research became the basis of education, but at the same time interest in humanitarian knowledge did not disappear. By the XII-XIII centuries. a class of teachers stood out who received remuneration or a permanent salary for their work, whose authority and social status were much higher than that of teachers in the era of Antiquity. The number of libraries that functioned at monasteries, universities, gathered in the palaces of kings, nobility and wealthy citizens increased.

However, by the end of the thirteenth century due to the economic development of society, school education was in crisis. The teaching of many disciplines was reduced to the minimum necessary for the understanding of scholastic treatises. In cities, school education was represented by only 2-3-year courses. The growth in the number of schools led to the degradation of scholastic education, scholasticism itself lost its significance and in the late Middle Ages - the Renaissance and Reformation - became the subject of condemnation from philosophers, scientists and teachers.

4.4. The emergence and development of medieval universities

In the XII century. as a result of the increased need for scientific knowledge and the people who possess it - scientists - the process of education began on the basis of cathedral schools in the largest cities of Western Europe, higher schools - universities. Initially, the concept of "university" (from the Latin universitas - set) meant a corporation of teachers, professors and students, "scholars", the purpose of which is to study and increase a single Christian knowledge.

The first universities appeared in Bologna (1158), Paris (1215), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1206), Lisbon (1290). It was in these educational institutions that the basic principles of academic autonomy were formulated, and democratic rules for managing higher education and its internal life were developed. Thus, universities had a number of privileges granted to them by the Pope: issuing permits for teaching, awarding academic degrees (previously it was the exclusive right of the church), exempting students from military service, and the educational institution itself from taxes, etc. rector and deans.

In the XIII century. 25 more universities were opened, including universities in Prague (1347), Pisa (1343), Florence (1349) and others. There were about 60 universities in Europe.

Usually the structure of the university included four faculties: artistic, legal, medical and theological. In medieval higher schools, a hierarchy was established: the theological faculty was considered the senior, then the legal, medical and artistic faculties. On this basis, the artistic faculty, where the "seven liberal arts" were studied, is called junior or preparatory in some historical and pedagogical studies, however, the rules of the university did not provide for this. At the theological faculty, they studied mainly the Holy Scriptures and "Sentences" Peter Lombard (early XII century - 1160), the training lasted about 12 years, students, continuing their studies, could teach themselves and hold church positions, at the end of their studies they were awarded the title of master of theology, and then a licentiate (a teacher admitted to lecturing, but not yet defended his doctoral dissertation).

The Faculty of Law considered Roman and Catholic law, after four years of study, students received a bachelor's degree, and after another three years - a licentiate. Education at the Faculty of Medicine included the study of the works of Hippocrates, Avicenna, Galen and other famous doctors. After four years of study, students were awarded a bachelor's degree, and for two years they had to practice medicine under the guidance of a master. Then, after five years of study, they were allowed to take examinations for the title of licentiate.

On the basis of the school course of the trivium, students of the artistic faculty studied the quadrium, especially geometry and astronomy in detail, in addition, they considered scholasticism, the works of Aristotle, and philosophy in the course of study. After two years, students received a bachelor's degree, master's training lasted from three to ten years. The main goal of education in all faculties was the achievement of academic degrees.

Within the faculties, students on a national basis united in community groups, a corporation of teachers played a decisive role in awarding academic degrees. In managing the university, the rector relied on the activities of the supervisory and academic councils, the latter was elected from among professors and masters. In some universities since the XIV century. the right to elect professors passed to the cities. Gradually to the XV century. public universities emerge.

Classes at universities lasted throughout the day (from 5 am to 8 pm). The main form of education was lectures by the professor. Due to the insufficient number of books and manuscripts, this process was laborious: the professor repeated the same phrase several times so that the students could memorize it. The low productivity of training is partly due to its duration. Once a week, a debate was held, aimed at developing independent thinking, students were required to attend debates.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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