Topic 13. DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL AND PEDAGOGY IN RUSSIA AFTER THE OCTOBER REVOLUTION (1917)

13.1. Reforming the education system in the first years of Soviet power

The history of the national school and pedagogy of the Soviet period turned out to be extremely dramatic and controversial. The movement of education along the ascending line, the increment of pedagogical knowledge took place in social conditions that impede free ideological debate, in an atmosphere of repression, dictatorship and censorship by official authorities, and a reduction in contacts with world pedagogical science and the practice of education. There are three major periods in the history of the Soviet school and pedagogy: 1917 - early 1930s, 1930s-1940s, 1945-1991. At these stages, with a certain continuity of school policy and pedagogical thought, essential features and specific features were manifested.

In 1917, the Bolsheviks who came to power intended to govern the country, while using the school and teachers as instruments of their influence. Prominent figures of the Bolshevik movement A.V. Lunacharsky, N.K. Krupskaya, V.M. Bonch-Bruevich and others. Soon after the revolution, the destruction of the existing education system began. In February 1918, a decree "On Freedom of Conscience, Church and Religious Societies" was adopted, which established that "the school is separated from the church. The teaching of religious beliefs in all state and public, as well as private educational institutions where general education subjects are taught, is not allowed." In July 1918, the document "On the organization of public education in the RSFSR" was adopted, which determined the basic principles for organizing public education. In accordance with it, all educational institutions became state-owned and transferred to the jurisdiction of the People's Commissariat of Public Education, national, class, and religious restrictions on education were abolished, the former structures of school management were destroyed, private educational institutions were closed, and the teaching of ancient languages ​​was abolished. In October 1918, a decree "On the introduction of a new spelling" was adopted, which provided for the introduction of simplified spelling, which greatly facilitated literacy. Work was carried out to create a written language for peoples who did not have it before.

Since 1922, as a temporary measure, the Latinization of the alphabets of the Turkic and Mongolian languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR was carried out, which made it easier for adult students to master reading and writing. In the late 1930s the writing of some peoples was translated into Russian graphics.

The most significant influence on the reform of the Soviet school was the adoption of the "Regulations on the Unified Labor School" and the "Declaration on the Unified Labor School". This made it possible to introduce a unified system of free joint education with two stages of education: 5 years of study at a first stage school, 4 years at a second stage school. All primary and secondary schools, vocational schools, lower and secondary technical, agricultural, economic schools and colleges were transformed into a single school. The right of all citizens to education, regardless of race, nationality and social status, equality in the education of women and men, a school in their native language, unconditional secular education, education on the basis of connection with productive labor were proclaimed. The project of a unified labor school eliminated elite and dead-end educational institutions, ensured continuity between the main links of the public education system. Along with the basic principles of organizing education, these documents also contained specific recommendations on the formation of the content of education, the duration of the academic year, and the use of certain forms of educational work. Thus, the curriculum of the unified labor school included the native language, literature, history, social science, mathematics, natural science, fine arts, manual labor, singing, geography, etc.

Exams, punishments and rewards were abolished, teachers were supposed to be elected.

In 1920-1925. A campaign to eradicate illiteracy was announced - mass compulsory literacy education for illiterate adults, as well as adolescents of school age who were not covered by school. The eradication of illiteracy unfolded in the first years after the Civil War and foreign military intervention. According to the decree "On the elimination of illiteracy among the population of the RSFSR" (1919), the entire population of the republic aged 8 to 50 years old, who could not read or write, was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language (optional). The eradication of illiteracy was seen as an indispensable condition for providing the entire population with opportunities for conscious participation in the political and economic life of the country. Each settlement with more than 15 illiterate people had to have a literacy school (likpunkt). The curriculum included reading, writing, counting; the purpose of the work of the likpunkt was to teach to read clear printed and written fonts, to make brief notes necessary in life and official affairs, to read and write whole and fractional numbers, percentages, to understand diagrams and diagrams; the main questions of building the Soviet state were explained to the students. The term of study in the likpunkt was 3-4 months. In order to facilitate the education of illiterate adult students, their working hours were reduced with the preservation of wages, provision was made for the priority supply of educational centers with teaching aids and stationery.

During this period, the restoration of the network of educational institutions began. Along with the increase in the number of educational institutions, the number of secondary schools increased, and the number of schools in the countryside increased rapidly. By the beginning of the 1920s. in conditions of war, devastation and famine, about 20% of all children of school age studied in schools. In this regard, in parallel with secondary schools, a number of clubs are being opened for teenagers over 13 who do not attend schools. In 1919, a special type of secondary school arose - the working faculty, which initially solved the problems of improving the technical qualifications of workers. By this time, the most acute issue was the development of the secondary school on the basis of combining education with productive labor. It turned out that self-service and work in school workshops of a handicraft type do not solve the problems of the connection between the school and industrial labor. Projects were put forward to transform secondary schools into technical schools, but they were not implemented, as a result, general education was preserved in secondary educational institutions. New programs and methodological recommendations were created for organizing the educational process, however, the non-mandatory nature of these programs was emphasized, which gave scope to the pedagogical creativity of teachers.

In the 1920s continued their search for experimental institutions (OPU), headed by the most qualified teachers - S.T. Shatsky (First Experimental Station), M.M. Pistrakom (school-commune), A.S. Tolstov (Gaginskaya station), N.I. Popova (Second Experimental Demonstration Station) and others. The spirit of experimental pre-revolutionary pedagogy has been preserved in these educational institutions.

A special role in this period was assigned to the educational work of the school, which was supposed to fulfill the tasks of ideological training of young people and educating them in the spirit of the ideas of communism. The purpose of the educational work of the Soviet school was the formation of perseverance, diligence, social activity, the spirit of solidarity and internationalism. The children's team was recognized as the main instrument of education, which was formed in the course of common work and connections with the surrounding life. Forms of children's self-government actively developed in educational school systems.

The basis of education was the seven-year labor polytechnic school, covering children from 8 to 15 years old and preparing them for special education. A significant place in the education system was occupied by the FZU school (factory school), which solved the problem of training qualified workers for industry. The training program in it was close to the program of the seven-year school. In the countryside, education tried to solve the problems of connection with agricultural production, as a result of which schools for peasant youth arose. By 1927, the professionalization of the secondary school intensified, it included the training of preschool workers, elementary school teachers, huts, librarians, cooperative workers, employees of institutions. However, by 1929 a requirement was put forward that the secondary school, along with theoretical and practical training, would provide the entire amount of knowledge that "is necessary for the transition to the next, higher level."

In the 1920s Several systems and types of educational institutions have been experimentally tested: a 9-year general education school (4 + 5 or 5 + 4), a 7-year school with biases (trade union centers), a 9-year factory school. However, in general, there was no significant increase in the effectiveness of training during this period.

People's Commissar of Education until 1929 was Anatoly Vasilievich Lunacharsky (1875-1933). He was engaged in the introduction of the ideology of Bolshevism into the school and carried out its reform, defended the idea of ​​shaping a person in the interests of society, developed the problem of the connection between pedagogy and sociology, the connection between aesthetic education and education.

Outstanding Russian teacher Stanislav Teofilovich Shatsky (1878-1934) headed the experimental station, which is a complex of educational institutions of the People's Commissariat of Education, a number of kindergartens, urban and rural schools, out-of-school institutions of various types, teacher courses. In the 1920s the teacher continues to develop his pre-revolutionary ideas related to the organization of children's lives in all its diverse manifestations. He believed that the construction of the entire educational process should be planned with the obligatory consideration of the personal experience of children. S.T. Shatsky organized a scientific school on the basis of the teaching staff of the First Experimental Station. The station was a complex of scientific and pedagogical institutions, kindergartens, schools, out-of-school institutions for children and cultural and educational organizations for adults, where, on the basis of a single research program, forms and methods of education were developed and tested in practice. The concept of the teacher was based on the idea of ​​organizing an "open" school, a center for raising children in a social environment.

Claiming the organic connection of the Soviet school with society and the environment, S.T. Shatsky drew the attention of teachers to the variety of types of children's life, the development of labor skills and creative abilities of the child. He built the pedagogical process as an interaction between a teacher and a pupil, covering the spiritual world of the child and the sphere of its practical implementation. The fundamental novelty of Shatsky's idea was that he did not just single out the key positions of the educational process, but determined the relationship both between its participants and between individual elements, to which he attributed mental and physical labor, art, and play. The teacher emphasized that the violation of the connection between the components of personality education leads to one-sided development of the child. According to Shatsky, the material, disciplinary and experimental outline of education is physical labor, business self-management organizes the life of children; art, as well as play, which sets a cheerful tone for children's activity, form their aesthetic feelings, while the work of the mind directs the general life and spirit of research. He considered self-government, which promotes the development of the individual, the assimilation of universal values, to be an effective means of organizing free creative interaction between the student and the teacher, the team and society.

Experimental work by S.T. Shatsky allowed him to draw a conclusion about the need for a systematic organization of the content of the educational and educational processes of the school on a national scale. The teacher assumed the creation of conditions for the development of each person on the basis of the harmonization of all spheres of school life. To carry out this task, he considered it possible only on the democratic principles of the organization of the school, which would create the basis for creative interaction, ensuring the effectiveness of education and upbringing. In this interaction, the teacher assigned the teacher the role of not only an organizer, but also a researcher of children's life. According to Shatsky, the teacher in the process of transferring knowledge to students forms their citizenship, social optimism, a sense of perspective, and develops the creative potential of the individual.

The organizing core of S.T. Shatsky considered aesthetic education, which covers the whole world of beauty (music, painting, theater, applied arts, etc.) and, in unity with labor education, acts as a catalyst for the creative potential of the individual and the team. From a new perspective, the teacher comprehended the content of aesthetic education, calling it "the life of art." Under the system of aesthetic education, he understood the optimal interaction of all political and civil institutions of society in order to develop the creative capabilities of the individual, the team, and the masses. He believed that in the structure of the system of aesthetic education there is a combination of influences on the personality through the activation of cognitive and emotional-aesthetic processes. According to the teacher, art reveals the essence of being to a person, allows you to go beyond ordinary emotions, empirical experience; harmoniously forming all components of the personality, it is able to change the spiritual world of a person, his emotions, reorient the goals and ideals of the personality.

S.T. Shatsky made a significant contribution to the development of issues of the content of education at school and the enhancement of the role of the lesson as the main form of educational work. Under his leadership, methods of pedagogical research were developed - a socio-pedagogical experiment, observation, and a survey. At all stages of activity, the teacher dealt with the problems of training teachers who are able not only to organize training and education at school, but also to conduct educational work with the population and engage in research work. The teaching staff of S.T. Shatsky considered like-minded colleagues as a creative organization.

13.2. The development of Soviet pedagogy and schools in the 1930s

Major changes in school education that occurred in the 1930s were associated with the adoption of the resolution "On Primary and Secondary Schools" (1931). It stated the poor preparation of students and the transition of the school to subject curricula, a stable education system was created with successive stages, regular subject education, and a clear mode of study. However, the Soviet school during this period had a number of negative aspects: the lack of alternatives and excessive unification of the principles, content and organization of the educational process, the rejection of differentiation in education. In the late 1930s in the cities, universal 7-year education was introduced, the system of public education was abolished, the personality cult of Stalin was planted, and self-government was abolished. A tragic example of the denial of the achievements of domestic pedagogy by the official authorities was the fate of pedology, which was crushed by the decree "On Pedological Perversions in the System of the People's Commissariat of Education" (1936). In essence, this decree dealt a blow to science and scientists, who set as their goal respect for the characteristics, interests and abilities of children.

One of the outstanding domestic teachers, whose legacy caused and still causes mixed assessments, was Anton Semenovich Makarenko (1888-1935) - the author of the theory of personality education in a team, which was dominant in Soviet pedagogy until the 1980s. In the 1930s he led the exemplary educational institutions "Labor colony named after A.M. Gorky" and "Children's labor commune named after F.E. Dzerzhinsky", later he was active in educational activities. He outlined his main ideas in the artistic and pedagogical works "Pedagogical Poem", "Flags on the Towers", "Book for Parents". Based on the empirical experience of education in labor educational institutions, A.S. Makarenko created a pedagogical theory of personality education in a team.

Postulating the idea of ​​education in a team and through a team, the teacher formulated the basic principles of education. In accordance with these principles, a collective is an association distinguished by a certain system of powers and responsibilities, a certain correlation and interdependence of its individual parts; "through the collective, each of its members enters the society." Emphasizing the importance of pupils' self-government as a factor of decisive educational influence on children, A.S. Makarenko emphasized the role of traditions, customs, norms, values, style and tone of relations that develop in a given team. He paid great attention to the method of organizing the educational process. The teacher considered the main factor in the development of the team to be its movement: the team must always live an intense life, striving for a specific goal. This process is directed by the teacher, who develops a system of perspective lines, including short-term, medium-term and long-term goals of the activity. Developed by A.S. Makarenko's method of parallel influence was that it simultaneously implemented the requirements of the team and the teacher to the individual.

The theory of personality education in a team had a great influence on the organization of the educational process in the Soviet school and to this day is one of the basic theories of education.

13.3. Updating the content, organizational forms and teaching methods

In the 1920s within the framework of the state school policy in the USSR, the model of a "school of labor" and a "free school" is being actively promoted. The ideas of the "free school" were developed by the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (GUS). Here the further development of the theoretical foundations of the unified and labor school, the creation of didactic and methodological means for their implementation in the educational process were carried out. However, the programs of this school contained a number of shortcomings: in the subjects of the natural-mathematical cycle, little attention was paid to the consideration of theoretical issues, and in the study of the disciplines of the humanities cycle, abstract sociological schematism and ideologization dominated.

In 1919, the People's Commissariat of Education published "Materials on Educational Work in a Labor School", which destroyed the traditional subject system of teaching, exaggerated the importance of labor activity as the main way of obtaining knowledge. So, in the experimental programs at the first stage school, children had to participate in the study of various phenomena of the surrounding life, in the process of which a certain range of knowledge was to be assimilated. The material was arranged as follows: your house and your family; house, school, yard, street, city (village); surrounding geographical landscapes: meadow, field, forest, swamp; acquaintance with the county, province. The study of the native language and mathematics was supposed to be carried out in organic connection with the study of the surrounding world, without singling out "self-sufficient subjects." At the second stage school, the content and principles of organizing educational material were revised, for example, elements of dialectology and linguistics were included in the teaching of the Russian language, material on the history of the royal dynasties was removed from the teaching of history and information about the history of the revolutionary movement was added. New subjects were introduced: the history of labor, the history of art, the general picture of the universe, music, manual labor as a subject, the history of socialism.

In the early 1920s P.P. Blonsky proposed a studio form of organizing classes, in which all educational work was to be carried out in five studios: physical and mathematical, biological, socio-historical, literary-philosophical and philosophical-geographical. The teacher believed that it was much more useful for a teenager to devote himself to one science for a while in order to survive another. The studio method ruled out the free spontaneous distribution of students into studios, provided for the obligatory passage of each student through all five studios in accordance with a specific program of classes. P.P. system Blonsky was implemented in the work of some experimental institutions.

In 1923, the so-called comprehensive programs of the GUS began to be introduced into the practice of education, which based the entire educational process on the principles of the Marxist ideology of the Bolshevik persuasion. The educational material in the programs of the GUS was concentrated around three problems: work, society, nature. The main attention was paid to human labor activity, which was to be studied in connection with nature as the object of this activity and social life as a consequence of activity. With the complex construction of programs, the system of subject education was destroyed. In secondary school, the subject system of education was preserved, but the curricula of the subjects were built on the principle of their interconnection. The experience of implementing these programs showed that they helped to connect the school with life and involve students in active social activities, but did not ensure that students acquire systematic knowledge and develop learning skills.

The implementation of new ideas in the content and organization of the educational process in practice took place in experimental demonstrative institutions (OPU), of which about 100 were opened. Many of these schools had a good material base (for example, the Volskaya school in the Saratov province, Bogorodskaya in the Moscow province, etc.). All the pilot institutions were divided into three types: agricultural-oriented OPU, industrial-oriented OPU, and agricultural and industrial-oriented OPU. Schools carried out extensive experimental work on the development of the most important pedagogical problems: the organization of the school collective, the connection of mental, labor, physical and aesthetic education, the summer work of urban schools in the countryside, etc. A special place among the experimental institutions was occupied by experimental stations, which were entire educational complexes, including a kindergarten, a school, courses for teachers (for example, the First Experimental Station of S.T. Shatsky). The experience of work and communal schools, which were boarding schools and organized in rural areas, is also interesting. As a rule, the structure of the communes included a kindergarten, schools of the first and second stages, and vocational schools. The tasks of communal schools included educating young people in the spirit of socialism based on the development of the creative abilities of each child for the benefit of the entire team.

In the 1927-1928 academic year, the GUS programs were introduced in a new edition - the first compulsory school programs common to all schools in the RSFSR. They implied a combination of comprehensive and subject education. The significance of the GUS programs lay in the fact that, in specific socio-historical conditions, they introduced into the educational process a new content of education necessary to solve the ideological and political tasks set for the school, while ignoring the interests of the student's personality. The disadvantages of the GUS programs include the fact that they interfered with mastering the basics of science; study time in them was used uneconomically, as it was necessary to constantly return to what had already been studied; in addition, the real links between the sciences were broken. As a result, at the First All-Russian Teachers' Congress, the GUS programs were criticized.

The main attention of the People's Commissariat of Education was attracted by the idea of ​​polytechnic education, which manifested itself in the desire to combine education with productive labor, therefore, in 1927, labor was introduced into the school curriculum as a special subject. In the 1930s new curricula for seven-years are being formed, combining the principle of complexity and the method of projects. In addition, another principle of constructing educational material is concentric. In accordance with it, students receive a complete circle of knowledge by grades IV and VII, since at that time it was not possible to implement a universal seven-year education. Work on the optimization of curricula continued until the Great Patriotic War.

В советской школе постепенно, к концу 1930-х гг., становится базой школьного обучения классно-урочная система, где закрепляются ведущая роль учителя, постоянный состав учащихся класса, твердое расписание предметных занятий. Значительные изменения вводятся в систему учета знаний учащихся: учитель по результатам своего наблюдения за работой учащихся в конце каждой четверти должен был составлять характеристику на каждого ученика по своему предмету. В конце учебного года были введены проверочные испытания для всех учеников. После долгого перерыва была признана целесообразной дифференцированная система оценки знаний учащихся и восстановлена пятибалльная система отметок. Создание стабильных учебников по предметам стало важнейшим направлением в работе ученых-методистов, поскольку при обучении по программам ГУСа их не было. Наметилась тенденция к пересмотру роли трудового и политехнического обучения, и к 1937 г. труд как учебный предмет был отменен.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

<< Back: School and pedagogy in Western Europe and the USA between the two world wars (Development of national education systems of leading countries during the period between the First and Second World Wars. Search for ways to modernize school education)

>> Forward: Education and pedagogical thought in Russia after World War II (The establishment of compulsory general education in the USSR. School reform at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century)

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Anesthesiology and resuscitation. Lecture notes

▪ Advertising. Crib

▪ Ecology. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

The existence of an entropy rule for quantum entanglement has been proven 09.05.2024

Quantum mechanics continues to amaze us with its mysterious phenomena and unexpected discoveries. Recently, Bartosz Regula from the RIKEN Center for Quantum Computing and Ludovico Lamy from the University of Amsterdam presented a new discovery that concerns quantum entanglement and its relation to entropy. Quantum entanglement plays an important role in modern quantum information science and technology. However, the complexity of its structure makes understanding and managing it challenging. Regulus and Lamy's discovery shows that quantum entanglement follows an entropy rule similar to that for classical systems. This discovery opens new perspectives in the field of quantum information science and technology, deepening our understanding of quantum entanglement and its connection to thermodynamics. The results of the study indicate the possibility of reversibility of entanglement transformations, which could greatly simplify their use in various quantum technologies. Opening a new rule ... >>

Mini air conditioner Sony Reon Pocket 5 09.05.2024

Summer is a time for relaxation and travel, but often the heat can turn this time into an unbearable torment. Meet a new product from Sony - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-air conditioner, which promises to make summer more comfortable for its users. Sony has introduced a unique device - the Reon Pocket 5 mini-conditioner, which provides body cooling on hot days. With it, users can enjoy coolness anytime, anywhere by simply wearing it around their neck. This mini air conditioner is equipped with automatic adjustment of operating modes, as well as temperature and humidity sensors. Thanks to innovative technologies, Reon Pocket 5 adjusts its operation depending on the user's activity and environmental conditions. Users can easily adjust the temperature using a dedicated mobile app connected via Bluetooth. Additionally, specially designed T-shirts and shorts are available for convenience, to which a mini air conditioner can be attached. The device can oh ... >>

Energy from space for Starship 08.05.2024

Producing solar energy in space is becoming more feasible with the advent of new technologies and the development of space programs. The head of the startup Virtus Solis shared his vision of using SpaceX's Starship to create orbital power plants capable of powering the Earth. Startup Virtus Solis has unveiled an ambitious project to create orbital power plants using SpaceX's Starship. This idea could significantly change the field of solar energy production, making it more accessible and cheaper. The core of the startup's plan is to reduce the cost of launching satellites into space using Starship. This technological breakthrough is expected to make solar energy production in space more competitive with traditional energy sources. Virtual Solis plans to build large photovoltaic panels in orbit, using Starship to deliver the necessary equipment. However, one of the key challenges ... >>

Random news from the Archive Sensor from any surface 07.01.2020 Sensel introduced a new technology. In fact, it allows you to touch any surface, including smartphones. The demo used a thin film that contains about 25 sensors. By installing sensors under curved glass, you can make the edges of smartphones touchable. The sensors are highly sensitive. It recognizes a range from less than one gram to 5 kg at each contact point, for a total of up to 10 points. Such impressive accuracy allows you to create many different scenarios for the behavior of the interface. The technology distinguishes between when the user simply holds the smartphone in his hands, and when he intentionally squeezes the surface. Sensors recognize the type of capture, which means that such control buttons (volume, power) can be easily switched from the right side to the left. The booth demonstrated, among other things, shooting control on a smartphone. The user can release the shutter, press the "button" halfway to focus, and long press to take a series of shots. The technology is not limited to smartphones. The sensors can be embedded on any surface, including wood and leather. This extends the use to furniture, peripherals, automobiles, and so on.

Other interesting news:

▪ Superbread for weight loss

▪ Sea lions trained to play video games

▪ Food emulsifiers harm the intestines

▪ Sea of ​​garbage

▪ Flying Solar Observatory

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site for the Builder, home craftsman. Selection of articles

▪ article by Ursula Le Guin. Famous aphorisms

▪ article What is a Sphinx? Detailed answer

▪ Nurse article. Standard instruction on labor protection

▪ article Radio bug detector with a logarithmic scale. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Rabbit from sawdust. Focus Secret

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages ​​of this page

Arabic	Hebrew	Polish
Bengali	Hindi	Portuguese
Chinese	Italian	Spanish
English	Japanese	Turkish
French	Korean	Ukrainian
German	Malay	Vietnamese

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews

www.diagram.com.ua
2000-2024