Topic 6. DEVELOPMENT OF PEDAGOGY AND EDUCATION IN MODERN TIME

6.1. Pedagogical theories of modern times

Pedagogical theories and ideas of modern times were based on the best humanistic traditions and absorbed the advanced ideas of our time. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the first scientific pedagogical theories are created.

The foundations of the formation of didactics were the works of the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke (1571-1635). Rathke graduated from the university in Rostock, where he studied theology and philosophy, but abandoned the career of a priest and became engaged in teaching. Having studied the experience of German urban schools, W. Rathke advocated reforming the learning process, changing the principles and content of education. According to the teacher, the transformations should be based on the new principles of education, which were formulated by him almost simultaneously with Ya.A. Comenius. Thus, W. Rathke insisted that the upbringing process should be organized in accordance with the laws of nature, while he believed that all children are equal from birth and are like a "blank slate" that is filled in by an adult in accordance with the goals of upbringing.

V. Rathke believed that teaching should take into account the peculiarities of the process of cognition, in which, on the basis of the perception of objects and phenomena, these perceptions are comprehended. In this regard, he considered it necessary to widely use various forms of visualization, follow from the concrete to the abstract, systematically conduct exercises and repetitions, and maintain students' interest in knowledge and learning. At the same time, Rathke remained a supporter of the classical form of teaching - lectures. Analyzing the possibilities of schooling, the teacher was a follower of the humanists and advocated teaching in his native language; based on the analytical-sound method of teaching literacy, he created a number of textbooks and readers for the German school. In school management, V. Rathke, recognizing the priority of pedagogical control, insisted on the need to make all schools state-owned, made high demands on the methodological training of teachers and advocated raising the social status of teachers.

The largest figure in the pedagogy of modern times was the Czech teacher and philosopher Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670), who developed many pedagogical problems, created the first scientific theory in the history of pedagogy - didactics, subordinated to the idea of ​​the comprehensive development of the individual. Ya.A. Comenius was born in the Czech Republic in the family of a priest of the community of Czech brothers, he received his primary education at a brotherly school, then studied at a Latin school, graduated from the Herborn Academy and the University of Heidelberg. All his life he was engaged in educational activities, created a number of pedagogical works and textbooks for the school.

Главным трудом его жизни является "Всеобщий совет об исправлении дел человеческих", в котором, как и в других его произведениях, основной выступает идея пансофии - всеобщей мудрости, что означает "знание всех вещей", реально существующих в мире. По мнению педагога, возможность улучшения социальной жизни и избавления общества от несправедливости кроется в совершенствовании системы воспитания и образования людей, поскольку это позволит совершенствоваться каждому человеку и, как следствие, всему миру. В этой связи педагог в течение всей жизни старался создать программу всеобщего воспитания и комплексного метода формирования личности, основанных на непрерывном процессе усовершенствования всех и всего посредством творческого труда. В ХХ в. этот постулат Я.А. Коменского был развит в теории и практике непрерывного образования.

The idea of ​​the universality of education in the theory of Ya.A. Comenius has not only a philosophical, but also a practical orientation, its implementation is developed in detail in the "Great Didactics" and "The Rules of a Well-Organized School". In these works, the teacher outlined the universal theory of "teaching everyone everything", based on the principle of natural conformity. Man, as part of nature, is subject to its universal laws; accordingly, education should be determined by the natural nature of things and allow learning quickly, easily and firmly. Based on this, the education of a person should begin at an early age and continue through adolescence. To implement this idea, Ya.A. Comenius, for the first time in the history of pedagogy, developed a scientifically substantiated integral system of schools in accordance with age periodization and outlined the content of education at each level of education. The teacher advocated universal education and believed that in any well-organized society there should be schools for the education of children of both sexes.

The first step in the project of Ya.A. Comenius had a maternal school (from birth to 6 years). At the stage of preschool education, when the child learns information about natural phenomena, people's lives, receives basic knowledge of geography, astronomy, the teacher called labor and moral education the main areas of education. At the stage of primary education (from 6 to 12 years old), the school of the native language follows, in which children in their native language are introduced to a fairly wide range of knowledge that goes beyond the traditional framework of modern teacher education. Ya.A. Comenius proposed to include in the program of this school the native language, arithmetic, the beginnings of geometry, geography, "the beginnings of cosmography", the beginnings of social and political knowledge, crafts, psalms, catechism, and other sacred texts. The mother tongue school was intended for the joint education of all children. Secondary school in the Ya.A. Comenius is a gymnasium, or a Latin school (from 12 to 18 years old), which should be opened in every city for the education of young men who have achieved success in learning. The teacher included the "seven liberal arts", physics, geography, history, the beginnings of medical knowledge, etc. in the gymnasium program. In the structure of the academy, traditional university faculties were singled out, and the purpose of its creation was to communicate pansophic knowledge.

In the organization of training Ya.A. Comenius initially preferred the subject principle and was the author of a number of textbooks on physics, geometry, geodesy, geography, astronomy, and history. Subsequently, he came to the conclusion that a person should receive a system of knowledge about the world, and created a textbook of a new type - "The Open Door of Languages ​​and All Sciences", in which the phenomena of the surrounding world were given in their integrity and unity from the positions of various sciences. The learning process should be based on clear principles.

1. Ya.A. Comenius promoted visual learning, which was reflected in the "golden rule" of didactics: "Everything that is possible should be provided for perception by sight, audible - by hearing, smells - by smell, subject to taste - by taste, accessible to touch - by touch. If any objects can be perceived at once by several senses, let them be grasped at once by several senses.

2. The content of the educational material should be arranged in the correct sequence, from simple to complex, "so that everything today consolidates yesterday's and paves the way for tomorrow", as a result, the student will develop an integral system of knowledge.

3. Education should evoke in children the joy of mastering educational material. The teacher demanded that the educational material be arranged "according to the levels of age, so that only that was offered for study that was accessible to the ability of perception." In this regard, the clarity of teaching was of particular importance, consisting in a clear explanation of all provisions without much delving into details, but in a clearly traced logic.

4. The strength of knowledge is based on the independence and activity of students in the learning process. "In my students, I always develop independence in observation, in speech, in practice and in application, as the only basis for achieving solid knowledge," Ya.A. Comenius.

Выделенные Я.А. Коменским принципы послужили ядром новой универсальной классно-урочной системы обучения, которую педагог теоретически обосновал и предложил правила ее реализации на практике. До сегодняшнего дня классно-урочная система остается основой школьного обучения, что можно считать бесспорной заслугой Коменского. Ключевыми понятиями этой системы являются:

а) класс, что предполагает постоянное число учеников приблизительно одинакового возраста и уровня знаний, которые под общим руководством учителя стремятся к одной общей для всех образовательной цели;

б) урок, что предполагает четкое соотнесение всех видов учебной работы с конкретным временным отрезком (учебный год, четверть, каникулы, учебная неделя, учебный день - от 4 до 6 уроков, урок, перемена). Важным звеном в разработанной Я.А. Коменским системе становится процесс закрепления и повторения знаний, для чего педагог предложил использовать регулярные домашние задания и экзамены.

Issues of education and training Ya.A. Comenius considered in inseparable unity, giving priority to the learning process. The teacher paid attention to the study of the main categories of education - goals, content and methods. According to the principle of conformity to nature, education should be based on the analysis of the laws of a person's spiritual life and the coordination of all pedagogical influences with them. The purpose of education, according to Comenius, is to prepare a person for eternal life. He saw the path to eternal bliss in the knowledge of the external world, in the ability to control things and oneself, in raising oneself to the source of all things - God. Thus, the Comenius system singled out the components of education - scientific education, moral and religious education. The teacher saw the goal of education not only in the acquisition of knowledge, but also in the system of moral qualities, of which he considered justice, courage and moderation to be the most important. In the process of education Ya.A. Comenius assigned a decisive role to the personal example of the teacher, and at school he attached great importance to discipline.

6.2. Pedagogical theories of the Enlightenment

Pedagogical ideas of the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. proceed from the need to change education on the basis of the realization of "natural rights" of a person - freedom, equality, fraternity - through education. Thus, the English philosopher, educator and statesman John Locke (1632-1704), who received an excellent education at Oxford University, argued the natural equality of people, believed that upbringing on a "blank slate" inflicts the character and personal qualities of a person. The teacher wrote about this: "Nine-tenths of people become what they are, thanks to their upbringing." Thus, Locke, one of the first educators-thinkers, raised the question of the limits of the possibilities of education, which are limited both by individual abilities and the living conditions of the individual. The concept of upbringing and education by D. Locke is set forth in his treatise "Thoughts on Education" (1693), which contains a program for the all-round development of a gentleman, bourgeois, businessman of the New Age.

The main goal of education, according to D. Locke, is to prepare a person for a happy and reasonable life, in which he would be free and would not infringe on the freedom of others. To achieve this goal, the teacher involves mental, moral, physical, labor education. The upbringing of a gentleman must be carried out by a trained tutor in the family, since "a school is a collection of ill-bred boys." The priority for Locke is moral education, the main task of which is the development of character: "It is necessary to educate the boy, but this should be in the background, only as an aid to the development of more important qualities." To such qualities, he attributed restraint, courage, self-control, benevolence, generosity, good manners, etc. The teacher attributed persuasion, example, exercise, discipline, encouragement, censure, etc. to the means of moral education.

Determining the content of mental education, D. Locke proceeded from the principle of utilitarianism: a gentleman must be given the knowledge necessary for "business activities in the real world." The teacher included reading, writing, native language, arithmetic, geography, finance, law, history, astronomy, French, accounting, dancing, horse riding in the program of mental education. In addition, good manners are developed on the basis of learning music, dancing, etiquette, fencing; the practical orientation of education requires knowledge of crafts and light work, which forms a personality and makes a person independent. The learning process, according to Locke, should be based on the natural curiosity of the child. At the same time, the pupil must be prepared not only for the conduct of commercial affairs, but also for the realization of his civic responsibility, adapted to a virtuous life. In the interpretation of physical education, the teacher paid great attention to hardening, combined with physical labor, since health is the key to human happiness. D. Locke argued that taking into account the natural inclinations and the specifics of individual characteristics will allow the mentor to maximize the possibilities of education.

French philosopher and enlightener, writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) considered it necessary to change the social order, based on unjust inequality, through education and proper education, which is the backbone of any form of government and therefore valuable to society; well-being of the state and every person depends on properly organized education. He outlined his theory of "free natural education" in the treatise "Emil, or On Education" (1762).

Rejecting the traditional system of education, J.-J. Rousseau believed that upbringing would contribute to the development of the child only if it acquired a natural nature-like character, if it was connected with the natural development of the individual. Education is given to a person by nature as an internal development of the abilities and organs of a person, education from people is learning how to use this development, education from the side of things is the acquisition by a person of his own experience regarding the objects that give him education. All these factors, according to the teacher, should act in concert. A child is born sensually receptive, receives impressions through the senses, as his susceptibility increases as he grows, knowledge about the environment expands under the influence of adults. This approach J.-J. Rousseau was fundamentally new for the pedagogy of that time, since the traditional school rejected both individual and age differences.

For Rousseau, education is the art of developing the true freedom of man. The desire for nature in the teacher is manifested in the rejection of the artificiality and attractiveness of everything natural, simple, direct. In the pedagogical system of J.-J. Rousseau places the child at the center of the pedagogical process. However, the educator must accompany the child in all his experiences, direct his formation, but never impose his will on him. In teaching, it is important not to adapt knowledge to the level of the student, but to correlate them with his interests and experience. It is important to organize the transfer of knowledge in such a way that the child himself takes on the task of obtaining it. The teacher believed that different education systems were needed for boys and girls: nature assigns an active, leading role to men in the life of society, therefore Rousseau attaches more importance to their upbringing; women should be brought up differently, because they have a different purpose in society, endowed with opposite properties and inclinations. The teacher argued that "the natural state of a woman is dependence," therefore, a girl should be brought up for a man, able to adapt to her husband's opinions and judgments, and accept his religion.

In the interpretation of training and education, J.-J. Rousseau argues that they are inseparable, since they are connected by a single goal: to teach a child about life, to raise a person who is independent, sane, friendly to people, who feels confident in any situation. The upbringing of a child should not take place in a school, which, being part of a corrupted society, is not capable of forming a natural person, but in the bosom of nature, in a country house under the guidance of an enlightened mentor and teacher. In the most general form, the requirements for the personality of the educator were reduced to broad knowledge in the sciences and crafts, knowledge of the laws of "human nature" and the individual characteristics of the pupil, possession of the secrets of pedagogical art.

J.-J. Rousseau proposes such an organization of the upbringing process, which is based on the age periodization he derived, where tasks and means of upbringing were provided for each age period. At an early age (from birth to 2 years), the main goal of education should be physical development, which goes along with the development of the senses and speech. From a very early age, it is necessary to give the child freedom in movement, it is unacceptable to accelerate the process of mastering speech.

The teacher calls the age from 2 to 12 years the period of "sleep of the mind" and considers the "development of external feelings" as the main goal of education. J.-J. Rousseau expressed the conviction that during this period of his development, the child is already aware of himself as a person, is relatively independent, but is not able to reason, therefore, in education, instructions should be abandoned. During this period, it is necessary to continue the physical education of the child, intellectual development is not yet available to him, but he can still acquire knowledge on his own, by observing wildlife and his own experience. The mentor is obliged not to teach science, but to skillfully and thoughtfully create situations that, awakening in the child a desire to acquire this or that knowledge, would force him to independently discover them. It is necessary to gradually initiate him into the relationship of a person with the outside world and one should not give the child books, except for "Robinson Crusoe", in which an example of "natural education" is brilliantly described. It is especially important to inspire him that to be free means to yield to necessity.

At the age of 12-15, according to J.-J. Rousseau, a person enters the most favorable time of life, the most suitable for a full-fledged intellectual and labor education. The organization of mental education is based on natural curiosity. Rousseau proposed a research way of obtaining knowledge, which is possible when the object or phenomenon being studied is of interest to the child. The teacher abandoned the subject structure of education and proceeded from the cognitive interests of the pupil, teaching him the ability to independently apply knowledge in life. At first, the child's curiosity is caused by things and phenomena that directly surround him, therefore, first of all, he must be introduced to geography and astronomy. The teacher attached particular importance to work, which not only cultivates virtue, but also allows you to maintain an independent position in society. In labor education, the child learns to respect the common man, begins to appreciate the results of labor. The child must invent and create the tools necessary for the craft on his own, then he will be not just a craftsman, but a researcher, a thinker.

From 15 to 22 years old, a "period of storms and passions" begins, at this age J.-J. Rousseau assumes the moral education of the young man in society. According to the teacher, such qualities as a sense of duty, citizenship, patriotism, compassion for people should be brought up. Returning to society, the young man remains free inside, because in previous periods independence from social prejudices and delusions was formed in him. The ways of moral education are communication with good people and the study of history, in which there are enough examples of noble, moral, patriotic behavior. By the age of 22-24, natural education should be completed, a person begins an independent life, he should marry, focusing on the advice of a mentor in choosing a bride.

The views of J.-J. Rousseau had a great influence on the development of the theory and practice of education in the XVIII-XIX centuries. and continue to be relevant to this day.

6.3. Development of the practice of education in the XVII-XVIII centuries

The development of the practice of education in the XVII-XVIII centuries. was influenced by the ideas of the Reformation, Counter-Reformation and Enlightenment. In the 5.3th century the idea of ​​individual knowledge of faith and God demanded from a person the development of thinking through education. In Western Europe, a system of schools was formed, teaching in which corresponded to these principles. The main emphasis was placed on education in secondary Latin schools and gymnasiums (see XNUMX), in which education was being restructured on humanistic principles. The main provisions of the organization of the education system were formulated: secular authorities should provide training and education of citizens, schools and libraries should be funded by the state, in addition, the demand was put forward for the democratization of the school, the introduction of universal primary education; the purpose of the secondary school should be to train Protestant clergy and civil servants. The result of these trends in education was the emergence of a classical gymnasium, the expansion of the number of secondary schools, and changes in their activities.

Among the secondary church schools, the most widespread were the Jesuit schools, which were founded by the Catholic order of the Jesuits. These were educational institutions of a closed type, where strict order and discipline reigned. The education program included physical (gymnastics, fencing, horseback riding) and mental development (classical languages, literature, rhetoric, dialectics, theology, the beginnings of mathematics, geography, history). In training, special attention was paid to the strength of mastering knowledge, competitiveness, and in interpersonal relationships, denunciation was encouraged.

In contrast to the Jesuit upbringing in France, the port-royal schools of the Jansenist religious society arose, who called themselves "the hermits of Port-Royal." The founder of these schools was Duvergier de Gorany (1581-1643). The main principle of education in these schools was individual education and upbringing, which made it possible to best form the morality, religiosity and education of the child. Education began in their native language, then they studied ancient literature in translations, later the students got acquainted with Latin, mathematics, and history. In the port-royal school, the organization of education proceeded from the recognition of the principles of accessibility, activity and consciousness, a deep understanding of the material.

Significant changes were made to the organization of higher education. During the XV-XVII centuries. Confessional universities appeared, in which a system of permanent, state-paid lectures was developed, some universities were entirely funded by the government. Thanks to a significant increase in the level of secondary education, the Faculty of Liberal Arts was freed from the tasks of preparing for university education and was transformed into an independent philosophical faculty.

In the development of the practice of education in the XVIII century. the following main trends stand out: the gradual transition of the school from church to state, the emergence of primary public education, and the further improvement of secondary education. These tendencies were implemented in different ways in the largest countries of Western Europe. So, in Prussia, in individual principalities, decrees were issued on universal primary education. Education everywhere switched to German, but its content in elementary school was extremely limited and included reading, writing, four arithmetic operations, knowledge of civic duties. Latin schools or gymnasiums remained an elevated type of secondary school, but in the second half of the XNUMXth century. a number of real and vocational schools arose. Higher education, along with the university, was represented by the academy, in which the youth of the nobility prepared for civil and military service.

In England, the elementary school had a church or private affiliation and taught reading, writing and counting. During this period, grammar schools remained the secondary advanced schools, the curriculum of which included two ancient languages, grammar, rhetoric, and classical literature. In addition, several academies were created in which real disciplines were taught along with classical ones. Higher education was concentrated in universities.

In France, elementary schools were organized by both the church and the state, but their situation was deplorable, the content of education included only literacy and catechism. The middle level was represented by the Jesuit schools, Port-Royal schools and colleges, which were dominated by the classical ideal of education. Universities represented higher education.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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