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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of pedagogy and education. School and pedagogy in Russia until the 90s. XIX century (most important)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 9. SCHOOL AND PEDAGOGY IN RUSSIA until the 90s. XNUMXth century 9.1. Formation of the public education system and the development of pedagogical thought in Russia in the XNUMXth century In the XVIII century. In Russia, an attempt was made to create a state system of public education. During this period, new types of secular schools with different content of education and orientation arose, traditional educational institutions were reformed, new principles of its organization (class-lesson system) were introduced into the practice of education, for the first time the concepts of secular education and upbringing were developed in theory and applied in practice. Since the policy in the field of education depended on the goals and views of the reigning persons on the organization of education in Russia, in the evolution of the school in the XNUMXth century. four periods can be conventionally distinguished, differing in the development of certain types of educational institutions, the prevailing trends in public and pedagogical views on the essence and content of schooling, the goals and objectives of the reform. The first period is associated with the large-scale reforms of Peter I in all spheres of social, economic and cultural life in Russia. It continued from the beginning of the century until the 1730s. and was characterized by the creation of the first secular schools that provided basic practical knowledge, and secondary institutions that trained specialists in the field of medicine, navigation, engineers, etc. The educational reforms of Peter I were of paramount importance for improving the practice of education. Thus, the appearance of the civil alphabet stimulated the development of secular literature and simplified the process of acquiring literacy. The formation of vocational education, which was practically absent in the pre-Petrine period, contributed to the development of the education system as a whole. The establishment in 1725 of the Academy of Sciences with a university and a gymnasium attached to it had an impact on the development of science and created the prerequisites for the formation of higher education in Russia along the lines of Western Europe. Peter I considered educational activity as a sphere of public service, which finally formed the teaching profession in Russia as a special social and professional group. At the beginning of the XVIII century. a number of secular schools of professional orientation were opened, in the content of education of which the real component prevailed. The most famous was the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, opened in 1701. Some researchers (N.A. Konstantinov) believe that its creation marked the emergence of real schools. The navigational school trained engineers, sailors, employees, teachers, surveyors, gunners, etc. Specialists from England were invited to teach in it. The curriculum included mathematics, which involved the development of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry; then, on this basis, special disciplines were studied - navigation, geodesy, mathematical geography, astronomy, and engineering. Mathematics was taught by the outstanding Russian scientist L.F. Magnitsky, who wrote the famous textbook "Mathematics, that is, the science of numerals." In order to prepare for education in an educational institution of an advanced type, an elementary Russian school was opened, the purpose of which was to teach civil reading and writing, and a digital school, focused on mastering elementary arithmetic knowledge. The organization of the educational process was based on strict discipline. Later, the senior classes, in which professional disciplines were studied, were transferred to St. Petersburg, and on their basis, the Naval Academy was opened there in 1715. The Naval Academy became a military educational institution, which assumed an initial general educational level of training and an advanced special one. The study of legislation, politics, heraldry, architecture, foreign languages, fortification, etc. was added to the content of education. At the same time, other specialized schools were opened. So, in Moscow in the first decades of the XVIII century. Engineering, artillery and surgical schools were opened (the latter trained military doctors), a gymnasium with teaching foreign languages. In 1714, digital schools were opened in many provinces of Russia - elementary educational institutions focused on mastering elementary mathematical knowledge. They were intended for compulsory education of children of nobles, officials, clergy; boys aged 10 to 15 were trained in them. The program of these schools consisted of consistent teaching of counting, arithmetic, the basics of geometry, and literacy; students were provided with teaching aids, and teachers were paid salaries. Digital schools produced trained technical personnel for developing production. In 1721, with the direct participation of V.N. Tatishchev in the Urals, the first professional mining schools proper were organized, which existed until the end of the XNUMXth century. In addition, there are private educational institutions modeled on the best Western schools, these include the educational institutions of N. Schwimmer and E. Gluck. In the XVIII century. the system of church education is being reformed, theological schools appear, in which education combines secular and ecclesiastical sciences. F. Prokopovich prepared the "Spiritual Regulations", according to which three types of theological schools were organized: primary - bishops', secondary - seminaries and higher - academies. Since the 1720s the children of the clergy were ordered not to attend digital schools, but to study in bishops. All types of church schools were educational institutions of a closed boarding type, where the main bias in education was made on humanitarian subjects. Compared with traditional disciplines, Latin, grammar, rhetoric, geography, arithmetic, geometry, logic, dialectics, physics, and theology were added to the curriculum. In the era of Peter I, the organization and content of family education received a new direction, especially among the nobility, merchants and the prosperous urban population. Since new worldview priorities have developed in society that have influenced the life and consciousness of people and are dictated by Western European influences and fashion, especially for everything French, it has become important to teach children etiquette, foreign languages, introduce them to Western European fashion, etc. In the pre-Petrine era the home teaching corps was formed mainly from retired non-commissioned officers, clerical employees, clerks of parish churches, they could not fully satisfy the new needs and desires of parents regarding the education of children. XNUMXth century can rightfully be called the age of tutoring: both noble and poor people had a desire to raise children "in a European way." However, education was often understood as teaching children foreign languages, manners, dances, knowledge of the sciences was considered optional. It must be said that in aristocratic families the level of home education was traditionally high. Thus, the most enlightened nobles were attentive to the candidacy of a tutor, and some tried to send professors from leading European universities as home teachers from abroad. A.I. writes about this. Herzen in the novel “Who is to blame?”: “The Genevan was a well-educated man, knew Latin well, was a good botanist. In the matter of education, he saw the fulfillment of duty and a terrible responsibility; State control over home education undoubtedly had a negative impact on the content side of family education. This was especially evident among the small estate nobility, merchants and philistinism. It was the situation of participation in the upbringing of children of a non-professional foreign teacher that was described by A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Captain's Daughter", in which Monsieur Beaupré became the tutor of the protagonist, "who was a hairdresser in his own country, then a soldier in Prussia, then came to Russia and became a teacher." Such a vivid description of the state of tutorship in some families had real grounds. In the development of pedagogical thought until the 30s. XNUMXth century a significant contribution was made by L.F. Magnitsky, V.N. Tatishchev, I.T. Pososhkov, F. Prokopovich and others. Outstanding mathematician and teacher Leonty Filippovich Magnitsky (1669-1739) developed the fundamentals of the methods of secular vocational and general education. His undoubted merit was the creation of the first Russian textbook of a new type, which he published in 1703 after a serious test of it in practice. In "Arithmetic" L.F. Magnitsky, the best European traditions of teaching mathematics were combined with domestic experience. The material of the manual was built in the logic of the principle of systematic training from simple to complex, from the standpoint of the principle of accessibility, the content of tasks was selected. L.F. Magnitsky was a supporter of the widespread use of visualization in education, being the head of the Navigation School, he promoted the use of tables, layouts, models, drawings, instruments, drawings, etc. in teaching. Philosopher, historian, public figure Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev (1686-1750) is known for his pedagogical writings and educational activities. Under his leadership, the first mining school was opened in Yekaterinburg, and then a whole network of such schools arose. According to V.N. Tatishchev, in the process of child development, education should not be narrowly specialized: professional skills and abilities should be built on the previously laid foundation of general education. In 1733, in the essay "A Conversation of Two Friends about the Benefits of Sciences and Schools" by V.N. Tatishchev highly appreciated the importance of education for the Russian state. Determining the content of education, one of the first Russian thinkers insisted on the exclusively secular nature of education, taking the spiritual component out of the scope of public education. The main school disciplines, according to Tatishchev, were to be writing, grammar of the native language, rhetoric, foreign languages, mathematics, physics, biological sciences, history, law, medical and military knowledge. In the work "On the order of teaching in schools at the Ural factories" (1736) V.N. Tatishchev expressed the idea that the pedagogical process at school should not be confined within the framework of education, but should aim at the moral education and spiritual development of students. For the first time, he assessed the importance of the teacher's personality in the process of the formation and development of the child. In 1734, Tatishchev wrote "Spiritual to my son", in which, considering the content and organization of noble education, he stated the requirements for the use of a wide range of disciplines in the education of noble children and after the age of majority of compulsory civil service. In general, the pedagogical views of V.N. Tatishchev had a great influence on the formation of the traditions of secular education in Russia. The second period in the development of the practice of education in Russia lasted from 1730 to the early 1760s. and is associated with the reign of Empresses Anna Ioannovna (1693-1740) and Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). At this time, closed class noble educational institutions arose, a system of noble education was formed, the first Russian university was created (1755), and schools created under Peter I fell into decay. To prepare the nobility for military service as an officer, in 1731 the first cadet corps was opened in St. Petersburg. The children of the "gentry" - the noble nobility (that's why the cadet corps were often called gentry) studied here at the age of 13 to 18, applicants were required to be able to read and write in Russian. Despite the military bias, the corps also trained officials for public service. In the organization of training, four classes were distinguished, which meant a set of subjects necessary for study. Thus, in class IV, they taught Russian, calligraphy, Latin, and arithmetic; in grade III - grammar, geometry, geography; in grade II, special subjects were added to general education: fortification, artillery, history, rhetoric, law, morality, heraldry, political and military sciences; in the first grade, depending on abilities and diligence, a military or civilian profession was chosen, and in accordance with this, the training of cadets was built. In each of the classes, the training was individual and lasted as long as it was necessary for the young men to master the academic disciplines, so young people of different ages could study in the classes. In addition, all the cadets were engaged in aesthetic subjects, foreign languages, fencing, combat training, etc. Later, the Naval Cadet Corps arose on the model of the Land Gentry Corps. Military training of young men for military service was carried out in infantry garrison schools and artillery arithmetic schools. Significant changes in domestic education took place during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. At this time, some educational institutions opened under Peter I were undergoing reorganization. Thus, in order to improve the training of specialists, the Artillery School was connected to the Engineering School, digital schools were merged with garrison schools and provided primary education for people from simple layers. In the late 1750s - early 1760s. new gymnasiums were opened, the Academy of Arts was created and, with it, the School of Architecture. The most significant milestone in the development of education at that time was the discovery in 1755 with the direct participation of M.V. Lomonosov of the first Russian institution of higher education - the University in Moscow. The university consisted of three faculties: law, philosophy and medicine. To prepare students at the university, two gymnasiums were opened, the curriculum of which included the native language, Latin, foreign languages, literature, mathematics, and history. Thanks to this, it was possible to create a successive system of higher and secondary education. The university became the center of secular education, and its graduates were the flower of Russian science and culture. During this period, private "noble boarding houses" are opened, mainly by foreign citizens, providing the foundations for general education and etiquette. The state seeks to establish control over the quality of education in the field of family and private education. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, by decree issued in 1755, forbade foreigners to teach and educate children at home if they did not pass the exam at the Academy of Sciences and did not submit a certificate of identity, which made it possible to streamline the activities of foreign tutors and remove unprofessional teachers from education. The development of pedagogical thought and education in the 1740s-1760s. associated with the name Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) - scientist-encyclopedist, artist, poet. While working at the Academy of Sciences, the university and the gymnasium, he was actively involved in teaching, was a supporter of the class-lesson system of education, lectured, and created teaching aids. The scientist insisted on the need for a broad public education in Russia. His pedagogical views were based on the theories of Ya.A. Comenius, D. Locke, J.-J. Rousseau, in particular, on this basis, he formulated the principles of education, developed the basic methods of teaching in higher education, identified and substantiated some scientific categories of pedagogy and psychology. The main goal of the harmonious development of the personality of M.V. Lomonosov considered the upbringing of "sons of the Fatherland" based on taking into account the psychological characteristics of the child. The scientist believed that the soul of a child consists of a "lower" - sensual, egoistic and "higher" - spiritual, patriotic component, from here he derived the goal of enlightenment, which was the scientific education of a person, which should lead the child to an understanding of the primacy of public benefit over personal interests. Lomonosov advocated the creation of a national education system, against the dominance of foreign teachers. The third period in the development of domestic education was associated with the policy of Catherine II in the field of reforming educational institutions and the development of educational ideas. The first stage of Catherine's reforms in the field of education lasted from 1766 to 1782, when the idea of creating a general education school for the general population with a pedagogical, and not a professional or class, goal of education was finally formed. In 1779, the first Teacher's Seminary was opened at Moscow University. Later, in 1786, in her image, a teacher's seminary was created in St. Petersburg, which became the first higher educational pedagogical institution in Russia and trained teachers to work in various educational institutions. Teachers' seminaries taught the basics of science and teaching methods. During the reign of Catherine II, new types of educational institutions appeared. In 1763, on the initiative of I.I. Betsky, an educational home was opened in Moscow, and later similar homes began to be created throughout Russia. Children from 5 to 20 years old were brought up in these institutions. It was assumed that a special educational environment would be created there to protect the child from the negative influences of society. In 1764-1765. educational institutions for boys were opened at the Academy of Arts and the Academy of Sciences, in 1864 - an educational institution of an increased type for the education of women - the Institute of Noble Maidens in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery, in 1772 - a commercial school for training specialists in the field of trade and industry. Common to all these educational institutions were the prohibition of corporal punishment, intimidation of children, an individual approach to the assessment of each student, and an orientation towards the development of the personality of the pupil. Catherine II herself was attentive to the issues of education and upbringing, studied the treatise of J.-J. Rousseau "Emil, or On Education", having accepted the idea of raising a child in isolation from society, was the author of pedagogical works "Selected Russian Proverbs" and "Continuation of the Primary Teaching". Thus, in the 1760-1780s. in Russia there were objective prerequisites for the creation of a uniform, harmonious state system of education on the basis of general education. At the first stage of Catherine's reforms, the essence and content of the reforms were significantly influenced by Ivan Ivanovich Betskoy (1704-1795) - a public figure, a teacher who was educated in France and adopted progressive educational views. He fully shared the idea of Catherine II about the need to educate a "new breed of people" in closed educational institutions of a class nature. These ideas of I.I. Betskoy began to implement with the creation of new types of educational institutions. He recommended in the content of education to focus on the best European examples, and in education, the main attention should be paid to the moral development of the child's personality. According to Betsky, among the qualities necessary for a person, attention should be paid to the education of diligence, courtesy, good manners, etc. However, the lack of specially trained teachers in Russia and isolation from the life of closed educational institutions did not allow I.I. Betsky in the field of education. The fourth period in the development of domestic education began with the reform of 1782-1786. and continued until the end of the century. At this time, the first attempt was made to create a state education system in Russia. To prepare the school reform, a Commission was created on the establishment of public schools, Catherine II invited outstanding teachers and public figures to create a project for the development of public education in Russia. Dilthey's project on the establishment of various schools (1764) and the project for the organization of state gymnasiums (1766) were submitted to the Commission. In 1786, the Commission created a project on the establishment of public schools, in the same year the "Charter of the public schools of the Russian Empire" was approved, according to which two types of public schools were created for the education of children of the nobility, merchants and clergy: the main public school with a five-year term of study and small public schools with a two-year term of study. They were supposed to organize training based on the principles of the class-lesson system. The content of the education of the small public school included reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, catechism and church history. In the main public schools, Russian grammar, the beginnings of a common history, were added to this list of subjects. In schools, boys and girls were supposed to study together, the school day began at 8 a.m. and lasted until 18 p.m. with a break from 11 a.m. to 14 p.m.; children were admitted to the school twice a year. In 1783, I.I. Filberg, which was translated by F.I. Jankovic de Mierevo. The document revealed the methodology of working with the class, considered the specifics of teaching various subjects. At the end of the XVIII century. a number of leading scientists and teachers of Russia have created textbooks for public schools in various disciplines. The beginning of women's education in Russia can be considered the middle of the XNUMXth century, when the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was created and several boarding schools for girls appeared. The Smolny Institute was the favorite brainchild of Empress Catherine II. The organization of the institute was the beginning of the systematic education of a Russian woman. The main principle of the first institute was education in beauty and joy. After the death of Empress Catherine, the head of all charitable and women's educational institutions in Russia passed to Empress Maria Feodorovna, who contributed to the further development of women's education. An education reform plan was prepared Fedor Ivanovich Yankovic de Mierevo (1741-1814) - an Austrian teacher invited to Russia on the recommendation of the Austrian emperor. F.I. Yankovich de Mierevo was a follower of the ideas of Ya.A. Comenius and M.V. Lomonosov, sought to introduce the class-lesson system into the practice of education in Russia, proposed an original methodology for teaching children to read and write, and developed methodological rules for organizing the activities of a teacher. Active work on the creation and financing of private public schools led Nikolay Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818) - writer, educator, public figure who published the first children's magazine "Children's Reading for the Heart and Mind". N.I. Novikov saw the need to develop concepts and ideas of theoretical pedagogy, he was also the author of the term "pedagogy" in Russia. Novikov outlined his pedagogical views in the work "On the upbringing and instruction of children for the dissemination of generally useful knowledge and general well-being", where he considered the essence of the moral and physical development of children. In general, during the XVIII century. in Russia, various types of secular educational institutions of all levels of education were created, pedagogical ideas reached a significant development, and the professional training of teachers began. 9.2. The development of the state education system in Russia in the XNUMXth century In the 1824th century in Russia, the creation of an education system focused on the best Western traditions continues. Domestic pedagogy is developing on the basis of Western pedagogical ideas. However, from the second quarter of the XIX century. serious attempts are being made to identify and substantiate the original features of Russian pedagogy, to reveal its unique character. In the process of development and reform of education in the XIX century. three periods can be distinguished: from the beginning of the century to 1825, 1860 - the beginning of the 1860s, 1890-XNUMXs. Beginning of the 1802th century was marked in Russia by the liberal reforms of Emperor Alexander I. The government paid close attention to the development of education in the Empire. Among other ministries established by the emperor in 1803, the Ministry of Public Education was created, which led the reform aimed at creating a public education system in Russia. In the “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” (1804), and then in the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” (XNUMX), it was stated that “for the moral education of citizens, according to the responsibilities of each state, four types of schools are determined, namely: 1) parish, 2) district, 3) provincial, or gymnasiums, 4) universities." The basic principles of public education were proclaimed classlessness, free and accessible to all. According to the "Charter..." Russia was divided into six educational districts according to the number of universities. In addition to existing Moscow, Vilna and Dorpat, in 1804-1805 universities were opened in Kazan and Kharkov and the main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg, which in 1819 was transformed into a university, the Charter introduced strict dependence of the links of public education: parish schools were subordinate to the district superintendent. schools, district schools - to the director of the gymnasium, gymnasium - to the rector of the university, university - to the trustee of the educational district. Parish schools assumed an initial level of education with a term of study of one year, they were opened one per parish (administrative church unit) in each city or village. The curriculum of parish schools included the law of God and moral teaching, reading, writing, the first steps of arithmetic, as well as reading some sections from the book "On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen", classes were held for nine hours a week. District schools were opened in district and provincial cities, had a two-year period of study and provided in-depth training for children who graduated from parish schools. Organized earlier during the reform of the late XVIII century. small schools were transformed into county ones, new ones were created. The content of education in district schools was represented by the law of God, the study of the book "On the Positions of a Man and a Citizen", Russian grammar, general and Russian geography, general and Russian history, arithmetic, the basics of geometry, physics and natural history, the initial rules of technology related to the economy edge and its industry, drawing. Only two teachers taught at the school, a rich program did not provide an opportunity for deep mastery of knowledge in many subjects. Gymnasiums were opened in provincial cities, the course of study in them was four years, they represented the middle stage of education, following the district school. The curriculum of the gymnasium included a wide range of subjects: Latin, French and German, history, geography, statistics, natural history, experimental physics, theoretical and applied mathematics, philosophy, fine and commercial sciences, drawing, technology, music, gymnastics, dance. In addition, logic and grammar were added in grade I, psychology and "moral teaching" in grade II, aesthetics and rhetoric in grade III, and legal and political sciences in grade IV. Graduates who graduated from the gymnasium could enter the university. By 1811, the imbalance and congestion of the content of gymnasium education became obvious, political economy, philosophy, commercial sciences were excluded from it, the natural science course was shortened, however, under the influence of German traditions, the teaching of the law of God and the Greek language was introduced. Universities were granted autonomy, which included the right to elect a rector, deans and appoint professors, an elected university court. The higher school carried out the functions of administrative management of educational institutions included in the district, professors were sent to the schools with an inspection. In general, the reform stimulated the creation of a large number of new educational institutions and the spread of education. In 1810, Alexander I signed the Decree on the Lyceum, which gave rise to the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, an institution for children of the higher nobility, which combined the secondary and higher levels of education. Later, following the model of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, other educational institutions of this kind began to open. By the 1820s Odessa, Yaroslavl lyceums and the Nizhyn gymnasium of higher sciences (later - the lyceum) were opened. In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Education. In 1819, the plans of schools and gymnasiums were changed, compulsory reading of the Holy Scriptures was introduced, philosophy, statistics, natural law, ethics, etc. were withdrawn. Under Prince A.N. Golitsyn, who in 1817 became the Minister of Public Education and Spiritual Affairs, religious principles were put in the basis of education. The goal of mental development was proclaimed to be the union of faith and knowledge, in educational institutions of all levels great attention was paid to the study of the dogmas of the Holy Scriptures. These changes, to a certain extent, were a government reaction to "Western free-thinking", the penetration of which into Russia sharply intensified after the war of 1812-1814, as well as to the ever-increasing reformist and revolutionary ferment of society, the autocratic-feudal foundations of which were experiencing an acute crisis. In 1819, tuition fees were introduced in gymnasiums, parish and district schools, changes were made to the curricula of elementary schools, “reading from the Holy Scriptures” was introduced, and the teaching of natural science was prohibited. University autonomy suffered significantly. Thus, in the first quarter of the XIX century. as a result of reforms in Russia, a state education system was created, the basis of which was the relationship of continuity between educational institutions of all levels. The beginning of the second period in the development of education in the XIX century. associated with the reign of Nicholas I (reign - 1825-1855), during whose reign the education system and school policy have undergone important changes. The new emperor sought to develop a "uniform" school policy that would be aimed at strengthening social stability. Count Lieven was appointed Minister of Education, who carried out a similar course in the new "Charter on Primary and Secondary Schools" (1828), which outlined ways to reform education. The "Charter ..." confirmed the existing four-level system of education and proclaimed the principle - "each estate has its own level of education." In accordance with this, parish schools were intended for the lower classes, district schools - for the children of merchants, artisans and other "city dwellers", gymnasiums - for the children of nobles and officials. School life was under the strict supervision of the authorities and the police. For misconduct, all sorts of penalties were relied upon, including the rod, expulsion from school, and for teachers - dismissal from service. In 1833, S.S. became Minister of Education. Uvarov (1786-1855), who remained in this post until 1849 and pursued a conservative school policy. Uvarov put forward three principles of upbringing and education: "Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality", which corresponded to state policy and the idea of national revival. In 1832-1842. the education system was noticeably expanded, the number of students in various state educational institutions increased from 69 to 300. Thus, as a result of the reforms of the second quarter of the XIX century. each type of school acquired a complete character and was intended to serve the population of a certain class. The successive connection between educational institutions, introduced in 1804, was abolished, and the access of children of the taxable class to secondary and higher schools is difficult. Parish schools, designed for boys and girls from the "lowest conditions", were not supposed to prepare them for district schools. County schools, intended for the children of merchants, artisans, burghers and other urban residents who are not related to the nobility, have now become three-year educational institutions. They studied the law of God, sacred and church history, the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry (up to stereometry) without evidence, geography, abbreviated general and Russian history, calligraphy, drafting and drawing. The teaching of physics and natural science was discontinued, and mathematics had to be taught dogmatically. In order to divert the children of the unprivileged urban classes from entering the gymnasium, district schools were allowed to open additional courses where those who wished to continue their studies could receive any profession. During this period, various ministries actively participate in the development of secondary education. So, in 1839, the Ministry of Finance opened real classes at some gymnasiums and district schools; The Ministry of Jurisprudence creates gymnasium courses in jurisprudence, the Ministry of State Property organizes advanced secondary schools. In gymnasiums subordinate to the Ministry of Education, a course was taken for classical education, but in 1849-1851. Gymnasiums were reorganized, in accordance with which three types of gymnasiums were established: with two ancient languages (classical), with teaching natural science and jurisprudence, with teaching jurisprudence. In 1835, the Ministry of Education issued a series of documents defining a new procedure for the functioning of universities, which significantly curtailed their autonomy. In 1834 a university was opened in Kyiv, but in connection with the unrest in Poland in 1830 Vilna University was closed. There were also changes in the field of vocational education: in 1828, the Technological Institute was established in St. Petersburg, in 1832 - the Institute of Civil Engineers; the Mining and Forest Institutes were reorganized. In general, in the 1830-1850s. throughout Russia, lower and secondary agricultural, technical and commercial educational institutions were opened. From the beginning of the 1830s. in the villages where the state and appanage peasants lived, elementary schools were created by the state property department and the appanage department. Their task was to teach peasant children to read and write and to train clerks and accountants for the institutions that controlled the peasants. In these schools, much attention was paid to the development of good handwriting in students and their mastery of oral counting. Schools existed at the expense of public fees from the peasants, by 1858 there were 2975 of them. figure, writer, outstanding teacher-educator V.F. Odoevsky (1832-1862). He carried out the pedagogical management of the educational activities of rural schools of state peasants. The number of schools intended for the people, before 1861, was so insignificant that the peasant population and the townspeople of the lower classes remained almost completely illiterate. The most common in the countryside were literacy schools with a term of study of one to two years. They were created by the peasants themselves at their own expense. Literate deacons of the local church, retired soldiers or former courtyards taught here, but these schools turned out to be viable, in some places they could be found even at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The education of the younger generation in the XIX century. characterized by attention to the activities of foreign teachers and the adoption of measures to protect domestic education. The decree of Nicholas I, issued in 1831, obliged to increase supervision over private educational institutions and foreign teachers. Foreign teachers and mentors with certificates from Russian universities and additional positive characteristics were allowed to teach. In Russia, a system of secondary pedagogical education, mainly for women, was taking shape, which seriously competed with foreign teachers in the field of family education. From the beginning of the 1860s. the third period in the development of domestic education begins, characterized by the preparation of a new reform. At this time, huge political transformations took place in Russia, which significantly influenced the moral climate in society. The leading public figures of that time considered the abolition of serfdom (1861) as the most important condition for the moral development of the people and the country, a necessary prerequisite for the struggle for further progress. The idea of the unity and equality of all people, the dignity of every human person, the need for an attentive and humane attitude to its needs and requests began to take root in the consciousness of a Russian person. The liberation of the individual from class, household, family, religious fetters becomes the main task of the generation of the intelligentsia of the 1860s. The reforms of this period caused an extremely broad democratic movement, a powerful spiritual upsurge of Russian society, the desire of the leading figures of that time to actively participate in the renewal of Russian reality, to direct its development in accordance with their ideas and ideals, gave rise to hope for an early and complete death of "past times". At that time, Russia was literally languishing under the burden of heightened hopes aroused by the peasant reform and the transformations that were expected after it. “Everyone was waiting, everyone was saying: the golden age is not behind us, but ahead,” wrote M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Enlightenment was recognized as the most important means of liberation and development of the individual. Faith in the power of enlightenment was characteristic of all those who longed for the renewal of Russian society. The idea of the need to defend the interests of the masses of the people, especially the peasants, of the fulfillment of "duty" to the people, was widely spread. This debt could be paid primarily in the form of the spread of education and culture among the masses. This is connected with the participation of broad circles of the intelligentsia in cultural and educational work, the creation of Sunday schools, the emergence of special publishing houses, the development of pedagogical journalism, etc. In the 1860s for the first time in Russian history, institutions and organizations appeared whose activities were aimed at disseminating knowledge among the masses. At the initiative of the progressive intelligentsia, mainly student youth, in the middle of the XNUMXth century. Sunday schools arose - educational schools for adult peasants, artisans, etc. The first public libraries and reading rooms were created - public free libraries for workers. People's readings began to be held, which were one of the most common forms of popularization of general educational, professional and applied knowledge. Since the 1860s there is a flourishing of Russian national pedagogy, whose representatives have made a worthy contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought and brought primary education to a new level of development. Following natural scientists, scientific societies began to organize in the field of the humanities. One of the first in this area was the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Society (1869), which brought together a wide range of scientists and public education figures who set themselves the task of promoting the scientific development of pedagogical problems. Among the active members of the society were K.D. Ushinsky, N.Kh. Wessel, P.F. Kapterev and other prominent teachers. Members of the society organized branches in other cities, supervised pedagogical courses, and delivered lectures in various audiences. In 1871, the St. Petersburg Society for the Promotion of the Primary Education of Preschool Children was established. The result of his activities were courses for the training of teachers in families and kindergartens, lectures on preschool education, etc. The St. Petersburg Society marked the beginning of the spread of such societies throughout Russia. Teachers' congresses played a special role in the development of pedagogical thought, in improving the methods of education and training. The first teacher's congress took place in 1867 in the Aleksandrovsky district of the Yekaterinoslav province. In 1870 a congress of teachers was held in Simferopol; K.D. took part in its work. Ushinsky. The congress at the All-Russian Polytechnic Exhibition in 1872 brought together about 700 participants, before whom prominent teachers and methodologists spoke. In the post-reform period, more attention was paid to teacher education. 4-6-week pedagogical advanced training courses for elementary school teachers have become widespread. K.D. Ushinsky developed a plan for the training of elementary school teachers. According to this plan, all zemstvo teachers' seminaries and schools built their work. He also expressed the idea of creating pedagogical faculties at universities. All this stimulated attention to the improvement of teacher education. In general, the most significant development of the school and pedagogy in Russia in the XIX century. fell on its second half and was the result of a large-scale reform. In 1860, the "Regulations on Women's Schools of the Department of the Ministry of Public Education" were adopted, according to which two types of women's schools were established: schools of the first category (six years of study) and the second category (three years). In schools of the first category, the law of God, the Russian language, grammar, literature, arithmetic, geography, general and Russian history, the beginnings of natural history and physics, calligraphy, needlework were studied. In 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" was approved, in which elementary schools of all departments, urban and rural schools maintained at the expense of the treasury, societies and individuals were classified as elementary education. The elementary schools taught the law of God, reading from the books of the civil and church press, writing, the four arithmetic operations and, where possible, church singing. All teaching was to be conducted in Russian. The duration of training was not specified in the Regulations. In fact, in the best zemstvo and city schools it was three years, in many others - two years. All elementary public schools, which were previously under the jurisdiction of various departments, were subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education, however, an exception was made for elementary schools opened by the clergy: they remained under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod. In general, the reform of primary education, in accordance with the Regulations of 1864, which meant its non-estate character, gave the right to open primary schools to local governments (zemstvos), allowed women to teach, and established collegiate school management bodies. In the same year, the "Regulations on zemstvo institutions" were published, according to which zemstvos could open elementary schools and maintain them economically. During the first ten years of its existence, the zemstvos created a significant network of primary rural schools. In some zemstvos, the training of folk teachers was organized in zemstvo teachers' schools, courses and congresses of teachers were held, and school libraries were set up. However, the rights of the zemstvos were limited and were limited mainly to solving financial and economic issues, the zemstvos did not have the right to interfere in the educational process and the activities of schools. Zemstvo schools were among the ministerial schools and were officially called "elementary public schools in the provinces, which are subject to the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions." Among the population, they were more popular than other primary schools. It was the zemstvo schools that played a big role in spreading education among the peasants. Zemstvos, thanks to good wages, could invite teachers with special pedagogical education to work. When the opportunity arose in zemstvo schools, the range of subjects studied by children expanded, most often due to the inclusion of real knowledge. Zemstvo took care of the development of applied knowledge in schools. For this, craft classes were organized at some schools, nurseries, bee houses were bred, agriculture was practiced, lower agricultural schools and practical farms were organized. Teachers who expanded the formal curriculum sought a comprehensive education for their students, as well as the use of new, more effective teaching methods. Zemstvo schools could rightfully be considered educational institutions offering a high level of primary education. In 1864, the "Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums" was approved, which proclaims the principle of universal education and non-class schools. According to the charter, two types of gymnasiums were established: classical - with the teaching of Latin and Greek, and real - without ancient languages, training in them was designed for seven years. In a real gymnasium, in comparison with the classical one, precise and natural subjects were taught in a larger volume: mathematics, natural science, astronomy, physics, drawing. The organization of pro-gymnasiums was envisaged - incomplete secondary schools with a 4-year term of study, corresponding to the first four classes of the gymnasium. As a rule, they opened in small county towns. In 1863, a new university charter was adopted, providing for the relative independence of universities and approving the status of other higher educational institutions - the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, the Mining Institute, the Institute of Communications, the Petrovsko-Razumovskaya Agricultural Academy, etc. The right to elect a rector was returned to universities, vice-rectors, deans and professors, stimulated the development of scientific research, increased the staff of the teaching staff. In the 1870-1880s. after the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Alexander II, education reforms began to bear a reactionary character. The new Charter of Primary Schools, adopted in 1874, provided for increased control of ministerial inspectors in individual educational institutions. The government began to slow down the opening of zemstvo and city schools. The creation of parochial schools was encouraged. By the 1880s in connection with the assassination of Alexander II, the reaction in school politics intensified. The regulation of 1874 was in effect until the revolution of 1917 and, according to N.A. Konstantinov, was a big brake on the development of primary education. The supervision of the clergy over the way of thinking and behavior of folk teachers and the spirit of teaching in elementary schools was strengthened. Reactionary politics in the 1870s and 1880s had a strong influence on the activities of zemstvos in the field of public education. In the last quarter of the XIX century. three times fewer zemstvo schools were opened than in the previous 10 years. At the same time, the content of elementary education was significantly expanded in these schools; through explanatory reading, elementary information on natural history, geography and Russian history was communicated to students. During this period, elementary public schools with a three-year course of study could no longer meet the needs of industry and agriculture, and there was a need to organize elementary advanced schools. In this regard, two-class public schools were created with a five-year term of study: in the first three years, education was considered the first class and corresponded to the course of a one-class public school; the fourth and fifth years were the second grade, they taught Russian, arithmetic (fractions, progressions, the triple rule, percentages), visual geometry, elementary information in natural science, physics, geography and Russian history. Two-class public schools became dead-end educational institutions that did not provide the opportunity to continue general education in secondary schools, since the curricula and programs of these schools did not have continuity. A higher level of education was assumed in primary urban schools. Most of the district schools established under the Charter of 1828 were transformed in the 1870s. to city schools. These schools had a six-year course of study, their goal was to give children of non-noble origin an increased primary education and some applied knowledge. The city schools taught the law of God, the Russian language and literature, arithmetic, algebra, geography, history, natural science (information from botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology), drawing, drawing, and singing. City schools were also dead-end schools, since they did not have continuity with secondary schools. At many two-year city schools, various courses were organized: accounting, accounting, pedagogical, drawing, etc. In 1870, the "Regulations on Women's Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums of the Ministry of National Education" transformed women's schools of the first and second categories into women's gymnasiums and progymnasiums. From 1872 to 1876, higher courses for women were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, already in the 1880s. these courses were closed and resumed their activities only at the beginning of the 1917th century. Up until the revolution of XNUMX, higher education for women in Russian higher educational institutions was impossible. In 1871, a new Statute of Gymnasiums was issued, according to which all men's gymnasiums were transformed into classical ones. Education in them was built around humanitarian subjects - ancient languages, literature, grammar, etc. In 1872, the Charter of real schools was issued - secondary schools with a 6-7-year term of study. In the last classes of the school, specialized training was assumed in the commercial, mechanical-technical or general departments. In 1888, real schools, with the liquidation of professionally oriented departments, became general educational institutions. Adopted in 1884, the new University Charter significantly reduced the rights to self-government of higher education, abolished various informal associations and fraternities, and placed the activities of the teaching staff under the control of the Ministry of Public Education. Thus, by the end of the XIX century. as a result of the reforms carried out by the state in the field of education, a national state system of public education was created, the number of schools and the contingent of students increased significantly. There were prerequisites for the implementation of the idea of universal primary education. 9.3. The development of Russian pedagogical thought in the XNUMXth century In the XNUMXth century there was a process of formation of domestic pedagogical science, the formation of various pedagogical trends and theories. Significant during this period was the contribution of social thought to the development of educational ideas. Pedagogical activity of the famous Russian surgeon, professor of medicine Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov (1810-1881) was not limited to teaching in higher education. In the 1850s he was appointed trustee of the Odessa, and then the Kyiv educational districts. N.I. Pirogov in his pedagogical writings put forward the idea of educative education, saw the goal of education in preparing for life a highly moral person with a broad intellectual outlook, opposed early specialization in teaching children and insisted on primary general education. The scientist expressed the idea of the need to create in Russia a network of educational institutions for the education of women. Among the methods of educational influence, the teacher singled out an example, persuasion, encouragement, punishment, and had a negative attitude towards corporal punishment that existed in contemporary schools. N.I. Pirogov advocated expanding the network of primary schools, supported the autonomy of universities, and developed issues of teaching methods in higher education. In the 1860s the activity of the founder of the Russian school of scientific pedagogy unfolds Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky (1824-1870). The pedagogical activity of K.D. Ushinsky began as a literature teacher at the Gatchina Orphan Institute, then worked as an inspector at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens. With his direct participation, the curriculum of the institute was changed, which included the native language and literature, subjects of the natural science cycle. K.D. Ushinsky managed to comprehend pedagogical phenomena in an integral unity in the inseparable unity of theory and practice. "Empty, based on nothing, the theory turns out to be just as worthless a thing as a fact or experience, from which no thought can be deduced, which is not preceded and followed by an idea. Theory cannot renounce reality, a fact cannot give up thinking," he wrote. In his large-scale work "Man as an Object of Education" (1868-1869), Ushinsky, considering the most important methodological problems of pedagogy, proposed a new anthropological approach to educating a person. In his opinion, the subject of pedagogy is a person in the totality of his manifestations, therefore, in order to build the process of education, taking into account all his physiological, psychological, social and other features, some kind of holistic knowledge about a person is necessary. Such holistic anthropological knowledge makes it possible to determine the content of education and upbringing, effective methods and forms of its organization, which determines the optimal development of the child. "The educator should strive to know a person as he really is, with all his weaknesses and in all his greatness, with all his great spiritual requirements. The educator should know a person in a family, in society at all ages, in all classes, in all positions Then only will he be able to draw in the very nature of man the means of educational influence, "wrote Ushinsky. Recognizing the unity of the processes of education and upbringing, K.D. Ushinsky gave priority to the latter, since he considered it the main force in the formation and development of a perfect person. Education should focus on the spiritual development of the individual, which is an integral part of the cultural and historical traditions of the people, the characteristics of their national character and worldview. Ushinsky proposed the concept of nationality in education as the basis for building the entire pedagogical system. He developed this idea in the article "On Nationality in Public Education" and other pedagogical writings. Understanding Orthodox spirituality as an integral part of Russian folk culture, the teacher singled out three constants specific to Russian national education - nationality, Christian spirituality and science. Each nation creates a unique, original system of education, which is reflected in the real pedagogical process. Based on this, K.D. Ushinsky urged to pay great attention to the study of the native language at school and created teaching aids that meet this principle - "Native Word" and "Children's World", which are used in the practice of teaching primary school to this day. In interpreting the principle of nationality, the teacher recognized the creative power of the people in the historical process and their right to a full-fledged education, and believed that the zemstvo school was most consistent with the spirit, character and needs of the people. In moral education, the teacher attached particular importance to the formation of a child's inclination and love for work, since it is the highest form of human activity. In his work “Labor in its Mental and Educational Significance”, Ushinsky noted that labor education will prepare a person for life in society and take a worthy place there, mental and physical labor of students is the key to the formation of an active and creative personality. The teacher carefully developed a system of factors and means of moral education, among which he singled out the personal example and personality of the teacher, warning, encouragement, pedagogical tact, persuasion; expressed his thoughts about the need for interaction between the school and the family in the upbringing of the child. A special place in the theory of K.D. Ushinsky is occupied with didactics, which he divided into general (for all subjects) and particular (methodology of a particular subject). He interpreted learning as the movement of a student from ignorance to knowledge. Ushinsky elaborated in detail the basic principles of didactics in Russian pedagogy and proposed clear and precise rules for their implementation in practice. The teacher directly associated the success of training with its accessibility, which is the key to the conscious development of knowledge. Knowledge must be built in a certain system and sequence, since "only a system, of course, reasonable, coming out of the very essence of objects, gives us complete power over our knowledge." Developing the principle of the strength of knowledge, the teacher described the method of repetition of knowledge, giving preference to active repetition and exercises. In interpreting the principle of visibility, Ushinsky called for taking into account the specifics of the subject and the age of the students: the younger the child, the more visibility the teacher should use in the lesson. In the organization of the learning process, according to the teacher, it is worth adhering to the class-lesson system. Based on the didactics of Ya.A. Comenius and I.F. Herbart, K.D. Ushinsky identified clear conditions for the organization of learning, described the organizational structure of the lesson and identified its types. Ushinsky managed to express theoretical provisions in the methodology of primary education. So, he developed a new method of mastering literacy, called for the use of all types of lessons, merged in unity, at the initial stage of education, a methodology for the formation of general ideas and the simultaneous development of children's thinking and speech. K.D. Ushinsky demanded creativity from teachers in everyday activities, recalling that "pedagogy is not a science, but an art." Investigating the upbringing and education of Western European countries, he was one of the first in Russian science to undertake a comparative pedagogical study. Thus, almost all aspects of pedagogical theory and practice are reflected in Ushinsky's pedagogical heritage. Educator and educator Nikolai Fyodorovich Bunakov (1837-1904) was a theoretician and practitioner of the public school, created a number of textbooks for elementary school. He saw the main task of primary school education in the harmonious development of the physical, mental and moral forces of children. For this, in his opinion, it is necessary to strengthen the real component of the content of children's education. Educator, public figure, teacher Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin (1826-1888) created works on the history of pedagogy and education: "The development of pedagogical ideas in Russia in the 19th century", "The education of a Russian woman", "From the history of education in Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century", "Our family and its historical fates. In the upbringing of a child, he called for focusing on the high ideals and true morality inherent in the Russian people, believed that in the practice of teaching the influence of Western methods is strong and this negatively affects the teaching of Russian history, native language and literature. One of the prominent places in the theoretical and practical heritage of the teacher is the issue of women's education. According to V.Ya. Stoyunin, his contemporary family lacks an educated and morally pure mother who could understand the new, better aspirations of her children. "The Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium in St. Petersburg from the first days discovered how strong the need was for poor families to educate daughters on an equal basis with sons. It was the first call of all urban classes for the education of women and future mothers of families, and, consequently, for the moral exaltation of the Russian family without which it was impossible to expect the improvement of public morality," the teacher wrote about the importance of education for a woman. With the abolition of serfdom, it would seem that there should have been hopes for the resumption of spiritual development in family relations, the improvement of society as a whole. It was at that time that V.Ya. Stoyunin wrote about the possibility of the rebirth of the Russian family under new conditions, noting that education should not be one-sided, closed only within the family. He ardently defended the closest connection of the family with the school, with the teacher, experience, observations, the conclusions of which "would bring life to the family-educational business, so that it would not be a soulless, machine-made affair, but a living and reasonable one." Teacher Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov (1856-1919) advocated the need to create a truly Russian national school based on the cultural traditions of the people. At the same time, he was far from a narrowly national interpretation of the role of the school and defended the idea of a harmonious combination of universal, national and individual in the formation of personality. Biologist, public figure, teacher and educator Sergei Alexandrovich Rachinsky (1833-1902) created a religious and pedagogical concept of a rural folk school based on deeply national traditions of Orthodox spirituality. At the same time, Rachinsky's religiosity did not contradict his natural scientific research. S.A. Rachinsky believed that moral education is a priority for the Russian people, therefore, in a rural school, it is necessary to lay the foundations for a holistic and harmonious worldview based on the values of Christianity and humanism. The teacher considered it unacceptable to give too much information in a rural school; in his opinion, the center of education should be the communication of practical knowledge to schoolchildren. Philosopher, writer, educator, educator Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) saw the ideal of education in the development of a spiritual, moral, creative, active person. For this, he said, each school should become "a laboratory of creative work of teachers and students," and "only on these facts, observations and conclusions, and not on armchair theories, can the building of our future public education be built." In interpreting the development of a person, interconnected with the evolution of culture, Tolstoy used the concept of activity and formulated the hypothesis that the child's consciousness is formed as a result of a comprehensive disclosure of all his creative forces, personal properties in various types of joint activities of a teacher and a student. He noted that "reason in itself does not mean anything. It is a big mistake to think that a person is perfect and the mind can reveal everything to him - the mind cannot see anything outside of time and space." L.N. Tolstoy noted that traditional authoritarian education and upbringing hinder the creative development of children and lead to the fact that "all higher abilities - imagination, creativity, reason - give way to some other semi-animal abilities - to pronounce sounds regardless of imagination, to count numbers at once_ to perceive words , not allowing the imagination to substitute any images for them; in a word, the ability to suppress in oneself all the higher abilities in order to develop only those that coincide with the school state - fear, memory tension and attention. until he falls into the rut of this semi-animal state.As soon as the child has reached this state, has lost all independence and independence, as soon as various symptoms of the disease appear in him - hypocrisy, aimless lies, dead end, etc., so he no longer constitutes disparas at school, he fell into a rut, and the teacher begins to be pleased with him ... " In the philosophical and pedagogical views of L.N. Tolstoy, a prominent place was occupied by the problem of freedom in the upbringing and education of children. The thoughts of the great teacher about the freedom of the child in the process of education and upbringing were a protest against the existing official practice of Russian and foreign education. Free education, according to Tolstoy, is education, which is a process of creating favorable conditions that contribute to the maturation of the personality of the pupil and the development of his natural inclinations. Defending the principle of free education, Tolstoy attached exceptionally great importance to the careful attitude of teachers to children's thinking and speech of students, in which he greatly appreciated the originality of the language of children, reflecting the immediacy, brightness and clarity of their thinking, thereby developing the natural inclinations of children. According to Tolstoy, free education will contribute to the development of the natural inclinations of the child and will help him independently develop moral convictions. At the same time, he emphasized that "freedom cannot be given to a person by a person. Each person can only free himself." In Tolstoy's interpretation, freedom in education depends on the highest religious and moral values. Religion and morality should be learned by students as the two main subjects of teaching. The task of the teacher is not to forcibly shape the personality of the child, but to promote his free development. If a teacher consciously or unconsciously exerts an educational influence on students, he does not have the right to insist that students learn his views without fail. L.N. Tolstoy as the basis of education put forward the principle of serving the good and self-improvement. According to the teacher, the task of education is to educate children in relation not to the present, but to the future, better state of the human race, therefore the main thing in raising a child is to develop his spiritual powers, "freeing him from the superficial, conditional." Teaching a pupil of life means helping him to build himself as a person in accordance with conscience and reason, to minimize the discrepancies between word and deed, to ensure that an active life position becomes the norm of life. In understanding the educational process, the teacher proceeded from the leading role of education. Emphasizing the active creative principle in a person's personality, L.N. Tolstoy said: "Knowledge is only knowledge when it is obtained by the efforts of one's own thought, and not by memory." Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V. << Back: Education and pedagogical thought in Western Europe and the USA in the XNUMXth century (Development of education in Western Europe and the USA in the 80th century. Formation of ideas of educational and developmental education in the pedagogical thought of Western Europe until the XNUMXs of the XNUMXth century) >> Forward: Foreign school and pedagogy in the late 19th - early 20th centuries (Development of pedagogical thought at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Main trends and outstanding figures of pedagogy of the 19th-20th centuries)
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