Topic 11. SCHOOL AND PEDAGOGY IN RUSSIA (late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries)

11.1. The state of the education system in Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. In Russia, a national education system has fully developed, consisting of educational institutions of various levels with different departmental subordination. At the level of primary education, the school in Russia by the beginning of the twentieth century. It functioned as a multi-type one, for example, according to research, at that time there were about 60 types of primary educational institutions that had different charters and programs. The most common among them were rural one-class and two-class public schools (see 9.2), they assumed the level of elementary education, the content of education remained traditional. Realizing the need to modernize primary education, the Ministry of Public Education put forward new requirements for the organization of the pedagogical process in public schools: the requirements of consciousness, consistency and strength of memorization. Along with this, an early professionalization of education was introduced, expressed in the introduction of craft courses and various types of labor into school curricula. In 1902, the Ministry of Public Education established a commission to revise the plans and programs of public schools, but until the revolution of 1917 they were not changed.

Among the church schools subordinate to the Holy Synod, one-class and two-class parochial schools and literacy schools were most widespread during this period (see 9.2). The curricula and programs of these schools were approved by the Holy Synod, almost half of the teaching time was devoted to subjects related to the teaching of religion, the teachers were parish priests.

In cities, the main type of elementary school was urban schools, multi-class and one-class, the content and activities of which were determined by the Regulations of 1872 (see 9.2). At the beginning of the twentieth century. the classroom system in them was replaced by a subject system, which did not affect the quality of training, which continued to be low. As a result, in 1912 all city schools were transformed into higher elementary schools, which provided for a four-year course of study based on a one-class elementary school, the curriculum in them was expanded to include algebra, geometry and physics. These transformations were seen as an attempt to bring the curricula of primary and secondary schools closer, but it was only possible to move from higher primary school to secondary school in the first or second grade.

Among the primary schools that were subordinate to other departments, there were educational institutions that operated in the Cossack troops, and primary schools for the children of railway workers. The content of training in them consisted of elementary knowledge and the foundations of real subjects. Due to the lack of public schools, private schools remained in great demand, subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The curricula and programs of these educational institutions were approved by the trustees of the educational districts, and the choice of educational subjects was provided to their founders. In all primary schools, the academic year was short - from 90 to 180 days a year, in some rural schools there was repetition due to the short terms of education and its inefficiency.

At the level of secondary education in the late XIX - early XX century. traditional types of educational institutions functioned. The central place in the system of secondary schools in Russia was occupied by men's classical gymnasiums (8 years of study with an additional class), graduates of which enjoyed the preferential right to enter the university. The classical component of the content of education has undergone some changes, the importance of studying ancient languages ​​has decreased, natural science, natural history, jurisprudence, and the beginnings of philosophy have been introduced. The real schools had a lower status, the main purpose of which was "to provide the youth studying in them with a general education adapted to practical needs and to the acquisition of technical knowledge." At the end of the XIX century. General education in real schools was strengthened: preparatory classes were added to the main six classes. In many gymnasiums and schools, the classes were overcrowded (50-60 people each, with a norm of 40). In 1906, a new curriculum for real schools was approved, which provided for the possibility of entering the university upon successful passing of the Latin language exam.

In 1882, military gymnasiums were transformed into cadet corps, which were also one of the types of secondary educational institutions. Each corps consisted of seven classes and had the goal of "delivering to minors intended for military service in the officer rank, and mainly to the sons of honored officers, a general education and upbringing appropriate to their purpose." Pupils of the cadet corps were divided into companies under the leadership of commanders, the senior companies had a combat device. The curriculum included general education subjects, drill, dancing, gymnastics, fencing, and swimming. In the summer, special camps were organized for senior companies.

In order to more actively replenish the officer corps with nobles, in 1903 a new type of incomplete secondary school was created - noble cadet schools. They were boarding schools for boys aged 11 and over. Those who successfully completed the noble cadet school were admitted to cadet schools.

In women's education, the most common type of secondary school was the female classical gymnasium with a seven-year course of study. In addition, there were gymnasiums under the department of Empress Maria, diocesan women's schools, and institutes for noble maidens.

In the 1900s In terms of the organization of education in Russia, the issues of creating national schools, expanding the scope of women's education, and the legal and financial situation of teachers are of particular relevance. In 1896, a new type of secondary school appeared - commercial schools, which were established by sectoral ministries. There were no strict regulations in the organization of training in commercial schools, so there was room for the teacher's creativity. New educational institutions appear, organized along the lines of reformist experimental schools in Western Europe and the USA, for example, the already mentioned school of E.S. Levitskaya in Tsarskoe Selo (1900), gymnasium E.D. Petrova in Novocherkassk (1906), O.N. Yakovleva in Golitsyn (1910). A system of technical education is taking shape, consisting of primary vocational schools, lower and secondary technical schools. A characteristic feature of the development of the school of this period was the emergence of "free" schools with self-government of children and parents and "rural" gymnasiums. Unfortunately, the emergence of new types of educational institutions based on advanced pedagogical ideas was in the sphere of private and public initiative.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in Russia, educational institutions are being created that differ from the traditional school in the content of education and training and its organization: "The House of the Free Child" by K.N. Wentzel, "The Settlement" by S.T. Shatsky and A.U. Zelenko. So, in the "Settlement" ("Cultural Village") by 1906, a whole system of children's institutions was created - a kindergarten, an experimental elementary school, a school club, in which classes were held with teenagers who graduated from city schools, craft workshops, where children along with with the mastery of locksmithing, carpentry, sewing, bookbinding, they received general education training. In 1908, the "Settlement" was closed, but by 1909 this society was revived under the name "Children's Labor and Recreation". An important place among the institutions of the society was occupied by the colony of S.T. Shatsky "Cheerful Life", on the basis of the activities of which the teacher derived his theory of creating a team through labor. Already in 1912, the teacher had the idea of ​​creating an Experimental Station for Children's Education, which included "all age groups of children and the main types of work with them, from kindergarten to secondary school, along with the work of clubs, workshops, and a children's library and a children's labor colony.

Higher school in Russia at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. was a complex system consisting of various types of educational institutions. By January 1917, there were 124 state, public and private institutions of higher education in Russia. State higher schools included educational institutions that formed the foundation of domestic higher education: universities and university-type schools (legal, medical, pedagogical, oriental studies). The largest among them were Warsaw, Kazan, Kyiv, Moscow, Odessa, Perm, St. Petersburg, Saratov, Tomsk, Kharkov, Yuriev universities. Higher education during this period was in crisis, practically no new universities were formed (with the exception of Saratov and Perm), the structure of faculties remained unchanged. Legal lyceums, various language universities, the Military Medical Academy, etc. were equated to the university level of education. There were various higher theological academies, higher military schools, technological and polytechnic universities.

11.2. The development of pedagogical thought in Russia in the late XIX - early XX centuries

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in domestic pedagogy, a variety of ideas were productively developed. At this time, there is an interest in considering the methodological foundations of pedagogical science, for example, the essence and content of such global pedagogical categories as "upbringing", "education", "training" are being rethought. New concepts are introduced into scientific circulation - "pedagogical process", "learning process", "educational process", etc., methodological ideas are actively developed, a lot of scientific and popular literature on topical pedagogical topics is published. Science, having accumulated vast empirical material over the past time, is trying to comprehend it and, on this basis, formulate new approaches and theories.

In the pedagogical thought of Russia in this period, three main directions are distinguished, in line with which views on upbringing and education are developing:

1) development of classical pedagogy (N.F. Bunakov, P.F. Kapterev, etc.);

2) philosophical understanding of the problems of education and personal development (P.F. Vakhterov, V.V. Zenkovsky, V.V. Rozanov, etc.);

3) a movement similar to reformist pedagogy in the West (K.N. Ventzel, P.F. Lesgaft, A.P. Nechaev, etc.).

The theorist and historian of education and upbringing, perhaps the largest figure in pedagogical science of the period under review, Petr Fedorovich Kapterev (1849-1922) continued the traditions of anthropological substantiation of education and upbringing. He enriched domestic pedagogy with fundamental works on the theory of learning, pedagogical technology, the history of education and pedagogical thought. P.F. Kapterev developed the problems of the theory of general education, determined the essence and content of the educational process, forms and methods of general education. He considered anthropology (primarily physiology and psychology) to be the general basis of pedagogy, on this basis he substantiated the need for variability in a general education school, differentiation of training courses and the entire structure of the educational process, as well as the expediency of dividing schools into classes based on the proposition that there are different "types of mind" ( productive, unproductive, mixed) and, accordingly, the life vocations of youth. He singled out the signs of a good lesson and the right teaching method, paying special attention to the heuristic teaching methodology.

Analyzing the status of the school, P.F. Kapterev put forward the idea of ​​the autonomy of the pedagogical process, free from the pressure of the state and the church. He considered the necessary conditions for such freedom to be school self-government, the independence of teachers, that is, the concentration of school management in the hands of the pedagogical council, and not the director, freedom of associations and meetings for teachers, and the improvement of the financial and legal status of teachers. From these positions, the teacher developed the key issues of the theory of the pedagogical process, revealed its role in shaping the personality of a free citizen and public figure. According to the scientist, the universal content of the pedagogical ideal should prevail over social values, which are different for each estate. In addition, P.F. Kapterev analyzed the relationship between biological and social, age and individual in upbringing and education.

A prominent place in the work of Kapterev is occupied by issues of family and social preschool education. The first 3-4 years of a child's life are, according to the scientist, the most important time of the entire educational process, it is during this period that the foundations of all further development and education are laid. Therefore, an essential condition for initial education is the study of mental processes in the first days, weeks, years of a child's life. Edited by P.F. Kapterev published "Encyclopedia of Family Education and Training" - the first popular science publication addressed to parents.

An analysis of the psychophysiological facts known to science of that time regarding the life of a uterine and newborn child leads Kapterev to the conclusion that the upbringing of children should begin from the moment they are born. But ignorance and inability of parents lead to the fact that they cannot consciously influence the spiritual development of the child, their concerns are limited to the physical side of education. The possibility of any kind of upbringing is determined by prior knowledge of the processes that take place in the child. The preparation and holding of the first All-Russian Congress on Family Education in the winter of 1912-1913 is associated with the name of the teacher. In Petersburg.

Highly appreciating family education, P.F. Kapterev believed that it has an independent meaning, and is not "like a definition of a school: either it prepares for school, or it helps to pass school lessons." The teacher consistently contributed to clarifying the foundations of family education, its goals, objectives, nature, content and forms. He believed that parents and educators should be initiated into issues of psychology, pedagogy and hygiene.

As a historian of pedagogy P.F. Kapterev made a significant contribution to science, considering the most important period in the history of Russian pedagogy and school - the fate of public education in Russia after the abolition of serfdom, characterized the general periods of development of the Russian school and pedagogy during the existence of the Russian state, analyzed the sources of movement in the theory and practice of school education and the entire system of public education, pointed out the reasons for this movement - the struggle between traditional and innovative pedagogy.

Teacher, figure of public education Vasily Porfirovich Vakhterov (1853-1924) developed the theory of evolutionary pedagogy, biologizing education and training. Pedagogy was interpreted by him as a spontaneous, biologically predetermined process, during which it is necessary to identify the child's innate evolutionary principle and encourage it.

Developing didactics as an independent branch of pedagogy, V.P. Vakhterov understood the learning process as a simultaneous development of the mind, feelings and will, where the main place belongs to the mind, insisted on the need to comprehend the empirical data on the learning process. "Methodology has recently taken a huge step forward. Experimental psychology, didactic experience have given us many facts and generalizations that were completely unknown to teachers of the past," he wrote.

An important place in the pedagogical work of V.P. Vakhterov was occupied with the problems of forming the content of education. In his opinion, the first place among the studied sciences should be occupied by subjects that study nature - descriptive, experimental and natural sciences. Their pedagogical value lies in the fact that in them the student will see how provisions and general conclusions are born from observation and comparison of general facts. The most valuable subject for the development of deductive thinking is mathematics. Aesthetic development is served by the contemplation of nature, works of art and modeling, singing, music, manual labor. The teacher considered it necessary to include the history of philosophy in the school curriculum, since it allows one to achieve a system of knowledge that forms the basis of the students' worldview. In moral education, the teacher saw the goal in the development of the feelings, will and mind of the child in accordance with the universal ideal, based on his natural qualities. V.P. Vakhterov advocated the general educational nature of the school, capable of ensuring the comprehensive development of the child.

Doctor of Medicine, teacher Petr Frantsevich Lesgaft (1837-1909) was a representative of the anthropological trend in pedagogy. The central part of the ideas of P.F. Lesgaft was the development of the theory of physical education and education of children, in which he singled out the principles and conditions: naturalness, consciousness during performance, gradualness and sequence of physical exercises. The teacher did not limit the task of physical education to the development of sports skills; in his theory, physical education is closely connected with the tasks of mental, moral, aesthetic and labor education. This relationship follows from Lesgaft's interpretation of the general goal of education, by which he understood the harmonious, all-round development of the activity of the human body.

The comprehensive development of the personality requires systematic, ever-complicating physical and mental exercises, which will automatically entail the moral and aesthetic education of the individual.

Based on numerous studies of physiologists, hygienists, doctors, psychologists, teachers P.F. Lesgaft tried to establish objective patterns of development and upbringing of a child in a family, upbringing from the first day of birth. The whole system of means and methods of education, according to the teacher, should be aimed at the formation of an "ideally normal type" of a person who harmoniously combines good physical development and the best human spiritual qualities. However, the influence of organized and unorganized, positive and negative factors affecting the child in the preschool years is so strong that by the age of 7-8 a certain type of schoolchild is formed, different from the "ideal-normal type". Based on the position that the image of a child is directly dependent on temperament, the degree of his moral and mental development, the influence of the environment, on living conditions and the nature of life, Lesgaft identified the following types of students: hypocritical, ambitious, good-natured, downtrodden-soft, downtrodden - malicious, oppressed, ideal-moral. He showed the most diverse external manifestations of the characteristics of children of each type, the characteristic signs of their psychological make-up, mental development and moral qualities, revealed the dependence of the formation of a particular type on family conditions and on the nature of education.

P.F. Lesgaft advocated pedagogical literacy and upbringing of parents, believing that only under this condition is success in raising children possible. Pedagogically literate parents do not turn a child into a toy, but they do not consider him a burden in their lives either. Respecting the personality of the child, raising him reasonably, helping to manifest his abilities, they ensure the success of family education. The teacher expressed ideas about the meaning of children's play: "Children's play is not fun," wrote Lesgaft. In the play of children, he saw a peculiar form of activity through which they prepare for life, acquire certain skills and habits, assimilate social experience, and form the traits of their future character. The teacher singled out the psychological features of the games of preschoolers, found that their games are imitative in nature, a preschooler imitates the speech and behavior of an adult during the game. “We can say,” wrote P.F. Lesgaft, “that the child receives his first education in the family through imitation games, in which he repeats everything from the life around him that leaves the deepest imprint on him and that is more consistent with his ability ". He was critical of F. Fröbel's theory (see 8.2), proposing to use only individual games from his system. Lesgaft was a supporter of the education of an active independent personality, his pedagogical concept excluded drill and template. Without denying nurseries and kindergartens, the teacher nevertheless emphasized that education in them should be like family education. He believed that the family is the most favorable natural environment in which the initial upbringing of the child is carried out.

One of the central themes of pedagogical thought in this period is the problem of the freedom of the child. Companion S.T. Shatsky in the organization "House of the Free Child" teacher Konstantin Nikolaevich Wentzel (1857-1947) believed that the principle of freedom should become basic in the "pedagogy of the future". The task of the educator is not to declare the child free, but to help him actually become one. In the view of K.N. Wentzel, neither the child should obey the educator, nor the educator - the child. Only under such conditions can the will of each reach the fullness of its manifestation both in the sphere of setting goals and in the field of their implementation. The child and the educator are represented here as two equal subjects, between which a connection is established, this connection can be called educative communication. According to the teacher, the elimination of the compulsory beginning does not in the least mean that the educator refuses to actively intervene in the matter of education and does not lead to passivity. Instead of acting directly on the pupil, "the educator acts on the environment, using the method of indirect influence."

In the organization of the upbringing process, K.N. Wentzel insisted that nothing be given to children ready-made. The activities of the educator should minimize the bad influence of the environment, create conditions for conscious moral activity, put children in the need to act for others. True morality, the teacher believed, is not the starting point of education, but the result of the child's own experience and his activities. Thus, the role of the educator, the scientist emphasized, is not belittled, but is even more exalted and complicated, acquiring a new character.

K.N. Wentzel argued that the child develops according to its own laws, determined by its individuality, therefore, there cannot be a single, identical system for the entire education system. For each individual, the educator must find his own individual system of education. To comprehend the laws of development of the child's individuality is the task of the educator. In education, the teacher singled out moral development as the most difficult area of ​​the teacher's activity and believed that his goal should be the awakening of the best aspirations in a person. In the foreground in this process, Wentzel put forward the education of the will and activity of the individual. The main tool for the development of the will, according to the teacher, is productive creative work. He associated labor education with mental and physical: "Productive labor is such a factor in the upbringing and education of children, which should radically change the entire existing system of upbringing and education."

Prominent representative of experimental pedagogy and psychology Alexander Petrovich Nechaev (1875-1943) was the initiator of the creation in 1901 of the first in Russia Laboratory of experimental pedagogical psychology, participated in the organization of congresses devoted to the consideration of the problems of pedagogical psychology. The central place in the theory of A.P. Nechaev was assigned to the development of pedagogical and psychological methods for studying the personality of a child. In particular, the scientist explored the possibility of using the experimental method in the study of pedagogical problems in combination with other scientific methods, the relationship between laboratory and extralaboratory methods of psychological and pedagogical research.

Teacher and psychologist, a prominent representative of Russian religious thought Vasily Vasilyevich Zenkovsky (1881-1962) managed to comprehend the Orthodox traditions of education in terms of Western European philosophy and pedagogy. Showing the importance of a conscious religious life for influencing the mysterious life of the spirit, drawing attention to the importance of religious education as a real help in solving problems that arise in children, V.V. Zenkovsky paid special attention to the disclosure of the concept of spiritual life.

Spiritual being is pivotal in human life, as the most free from the influences of the outside world and closely connected with the personal principle. According to the scientist, it manifests itself in the spiritual area, primarily in the religious sphere, then moral, aesthetic and intellectual. For the teacher, the religious side of the child's soul is the central essential manifestation of the spiritual life in the child, with the help of which he establishes the existence of higher meanings and guidelines in the world. The intuitive search for God by the child's mind is expressed, for example, in the ability to experience unreal collisions as real. The presentation of a religious feeling to itself, without its "cultivation" in the religious tradition, complicates its development and manifestation, and becomes the cause of painful difficulties for a person in the future. As V.V. wrote Zenkovsky in his work "Problems of Education in the Light of Christian Anthropology", the main task of Orthodox pedagogy should be the "churching" of the individual: "...gradually, through the process of inner life and through the grace-filled fusion with the Church in the sacraments, in prayer, we begin little by little to know the original consubstantial, which can only be realized in the Church ... "The scientist says that, having children, parents cannot expect that once, having become mature, the children themselves will understand that their path lies to the church, but "they may not understand, they may become hardened, the path to the Church may forever be obscured and closed." According to Zenkovsky, children should be led to the church from early childhood, although the process of churching a person, in essence, can begin only in adolescence.

11.3. Development of family pedagogy

A feature of the development of pedagogy during the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in Russia is the fact of the rapid development of the human sciences, which allowed scientists and teachers not only to focus on the study of the personality of the child as a complex developing system, but also to take into account the interests, needs, inclinations of the children themselves, their natural abilities and talents. This approach led to an understanding of the need to use new methods in pedagogy.

In the 1880-1890s. in Russia, public and pedagogical interest in the problems of raising children in the family has increased significantly, since the formation and development of the new bourgeois system entailed a "crisis of the family as an organ of education" (M.M. Rubinshtein). A new branch of pedagogical knowledge began to take shape - family pedagogy. Noting the mistakes of family education, the pedagogical theory of the period under review was ready to provide the practice of education with scientifically based methods, techniques, content, forms and rules for raising children in the family.

In Russian pedagogy of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Several areas of family education are being formed and developed, which include the following:

1) nationality in family education (D.D. Semenov, M.I. Demkov);

2) free family education (L.N. Tolstoy, K.N. Ventzel);

3) anthropological theory of family education (P.F. Lesgaft, P.F. Kapterev);

4) religious and moral family education (V.V. Zenkovsky, V.V. Rozanov);

5) natural science direction in family pedagogy (V.M. Bekhterev, V.V. Gorinevsky). Let us briefly describe the main ideas of family education that were developed by teachers and scientists in these areas.

The theory of nationality in family education provides for reliance on folk culture, native language and Orthodox spirituality in the course of education. Representatives of this trend considered the issue of the relationship between family and public education, arguing, following K.D. Ushinsky that "public education is family education for the people", dealt with the issues of interaction between the family and the school.

One of the areas of experimental pedagogy, where the mistakes and problems of raising children in the family were analyzed, was free education. The requirements of free education in Russia were reduced to the concept of the spontaneous development of the child's creative forces and abilities in a family atmosphere. According to K.N. Wentzel, the freedom of children's creativity implies the freedom of relations with parents and teachers.

The construction of family pedagogy on the basis of the anthropological principle goes back to the heritage of K.D. Ushinsky. In modern historical and pedagogical literature, it is noted that the anthropological trend in family pedagogy at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. was the most authoritative and recognized. Representatives of this direction developed in detail the principles, means and methods of raising children in the family, studied the methods of pedagogical stimulation of children's behavior and the general conditions for the success of family education.

In some works of the historical and pedagogical plan, the ideas and theories of V.M. Bekhterev, V.V. Gorinevsky, A.A. Bernstein, A.N. Dernov-Yarmolenko and others are characterized as the development and continuation of the anthropological direction in family pedagogy. However, N.S. Davedyanova convincingly proves that these scientists have created a natural-scientific theory of family education within the anthropological direction. Teachers - adherents of the principles of the so-called medical pedagogy dealt with hygiene in the family and school, for the first time proposed a scientifically based theory of sexual education and child rearing.

An important place in family pedagogy of the period under review is given to religious and moral family education, where religiosity is understood as the improvement of the individual on the basis of moral knowledge. So, V.V. Rozanov suggested that education and training at school and other public institutions be built on the principles of family education.

Of course, in addition to the named trends in family pedagogy, in Russian pedagogical thought of the late XIX - early XX centuries. There were also other points of view on the upbringing of children in the family. Of interest is an attempt to study the socialization of the individual in the process of family education, made in the works of P.F. Kaptereva, M.M. Rubinshtein and others. In addition, the work of outstanding Russian teachers, with rare exceptions, cannot be definitely attributed to any one of the listed areas in pedagogy, since many scientists have studied the process of family education from various angles.

Development of problems of family education in Russian pedagogy of the late XIX - early XX century. It was against the backdrop of close interest on the part of the public to education in the family. At this time, numerous magazines were published addressed to mothers ("To Help Mothers", "Family Education", "Pedagogical Leaflet", "Education", "Women's Education"), on the pages of pedagogical periodicals ("Bulletin of Education", "Family and School "," Free education") and in other magazines ("Russian Starina", "Russian Archive"), articles are published on the state and problems of family education. A certain genre appears - "letters to an intelligent mother", within the framework of which pedagogical education of women is carried out, ideas about the correct upbringing of children are given, problems and ways to solve them are formulated.

Thus, in the late XIX - early XX century. pedagogical thought in Russia fruitfully developed the problems of family education in its various aspects.

Authors: Mazalova M.A., Urakova T.V.

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