Marketing. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Marketing. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Stages of marketing development
The concept and essence of marketing
Principles and functions of marketing
Goals and objectives of marketing
Marketing concept
Marketing classification
Types of marketing. Elements of the marketing mix
The concept and structure of marketing activities
Methods of marketing activity
External and internal marketing environment
Marketing management
The role of marketing in the activities of the enterprise
Enterprise Marketing Service
The concept of competition
Types of competition
Competitive Strategies
Key areas of research in marketing
Market Research Methods
Marketing representation of the market
Product positioning
The concept, essence and stages of market segmentation
Types and criteria for segmentation
Market Segmentation Strategy and Opportunities
Concept of a segment and a niche of the market. Multiple segmentation
Consumer classification
Characteristics of buyers that influence their buying behavior
Personal and psychological factors
Buying Behavior Model
Product. Consumer properties of goods
The concept of goods, classification of goods
Product range
Competitiveness and marketing strategy of the product
Product life cycle. New product development
Essence and meaning of commodity policy. Essence and channels of distribution
The concept and essence of a trademark. Packaging and labeling
Concept, essence, classification and role of services
Pricing: concept, essence, types
Importance of pricing in marketing. Pricing Methods
Marketing concept of price. Price determination
The process of setting the price of a new product. Pricing regulation
Marketing communications
Sales promotion
Features of the stimulation complex
The concept of advertising, its goals and functions
Forms of advertising
Advertising and product lifecycle
Principles for choosing an advertising distribution channel
Marketing control
Types of control in marketing activities
Marketing audit
Methods for assessing effectiveness. About marketing activities
The concept of international marketing. International Marketing Concepts
The essence and objectives of international marketing
Features of the transition to international marketing. Marketing research
World prices. Pricing policy in international markets
Segmentation of the international market

1. Stages of marketing development

Stages of marketing development how sciences are closely related to the stages of market development and the market orientation of the firm.

The first stage associated with a focus on production (lasted until about the 1930s), i.e., the activity of the company is aimed at using production capabilities. So, at this time, demand far exceeds supply, and therefore any manufacturer can sell his product (the quantity of the product, not its quality, plays an important role). There is competition between buyers.

Another characteristic feature of this period of time is the monopoly market. At a certain point, the monopoly of a particular product becomes a brake on the development of its market, so either the state intervenes (antimonopoly policy), or the company is forced to reorient its activities, preventing the fall in consumer demand. As a result, a marketing concept for improving production appears, where the main drawback is the narrowness of the product range.

The second stage associated with sales orientation (1930-1959). The main idea of this concept was that it is necessary to make significant marketing efforts in order for the product to be in demand. Firms began to use various methods of selling their products - from aggressive (forcing a one-time purchase) to focusing the consumer on long-term purchases. The task of the manufacturer was to produce as much product as possible and sell it as sophisticatedly as possible. All this has led to the fact that the market is oversaturated with a narrow product range, and increased competition has forced companies to apply the concept of "product improvement".

Subsequently, a "consumer concept" appears (late 1970s), based on the desires and preferences of the consumer. And sales will be successful if production is preceded by a study of the situation and market needs. The orientation of the firm to the immediate needs of the individual often conflicted with the long-term well-being of the whole society, which led to the need to focus on social and ethical marketing (1980s). This concept is characterized by the fact that if the production of a product causes negative processes in nature or somehow harms society, then such production should be eliminated or modified. All this is possible only in a society with a developed market that has gone through many years of mass orientation towards marketing.

Each of the above concepts has its pros and cons. The marketing concept proposed by J. McCarthy tried to connect the structural elements. This system includes five areas of market activity of firms:

1) sellers and buyers (people);

2) product (product);

3) price (price);

4) sales promotion (promotion);

5) product positioning on the market (place).

2. The concept and essence of marketing

Marketing (from the English market - "market") is the original unity of rigorous science and the ability to work effectively in the market.

Marketing is - this is a single complex of organization of production and marketing of goods (services), aimed at identifying and satisfying the needs of a specific group of consumers in order to make a profit.

Marketing is a relatively young science (about a hundred years), but this does not mean that before the recognition of this science, no one used its methods. Basically, this happened on a subconscious level: from the moment the product and the market appeared, each merchant was interested in selling his product using various promotion attempts (advertising, customer research, etc.). Naturally, this was all at a primitive level. And only in recent decades in the science of management a new trend has appeared, with clearly defined boundaries, functions, goals, methods, called "marketing".

This term appeared for the first time at the beginning of the 15th century. in the USA, and after only 20-1960 years it penetrated and began to be actively used in many countries of the world. Marketing begins its development in 1970-XNUMX, it is influenced by both external and internal factors:

1) increased standard of living;

2) increase in the part of disposable income;

3) improving the quality of social services provided;

4) the development of communication systems (people are actively starting to travel, bringing with them not only new goods, but also new needs); 5) the desire to use their free time to their advantage.

In this regard, entrepreneurs are beginning to explore these factors in order to improve their products, increase sales and maximize profits. In these marketing programs, firms include measures to improve the quality of the product, its assortment groups, the study of buyers, potential competitors, pricing policy objectives, methods and techniques for increasing demand, and much more.

In the very essence of marketing, certain concepts are laid down: need (need), request (demand), product and exchange. The initial component of human nature is need: the need for food, clothing, warmth, security, and so on, that is, need is a person's feeling of lack of something.

A need backed by purchasing power is called demand. Demand is a variable. It is influenced by such factors as the price level, income level, fashion and many others.

A product is something that can satisfy a need (need) and is offered to the market for the purpose of sale.

Exchange is the act of receiving something in return for something.

The commercial exchange of values between the two sides is a transaction.

To complete a transaction, certain conditions must be met:

1) the presence of the objects of the transaction;

2) the presence of subjects of the transaction;

3) determination of the terms of the transaction;

4) determining the time and place of the transaction.

3. Principles and functions of marketing

One of the foundations of any enterprise operating on the principles of marketing is the motto "to produce only what the market needs, what the buyer will demand." The main idea of marketing is the idea of human needs, which is the essence of this science. From this follow the main principles which include:

1) achievement of the final justified result of the company's activities;

2) taking over a certain market share in the long run;

3) effective sale of goods;

4) selection of an effective marketing strategy and pricing policy;

5) the creation of market novelty products that allow the company to be profitable;

6) continuous market research in order to study demand for further active adaptation to the requirements of potential buyers;

7) the use of an integrated approach to linking the set goals with the available resources and capabilities of the company;

8) search for new ways for the company to improve the efficiency of the production line, the creative initiative of the staff to introduce innovations;

9) improving product quality;

10) cost reduction;

11) organizing the delivery of the company's products in such a volume, at a place and time that would most suit the end consumer;

12) tracking the scientific and technological progress of the society;

13) the desire to achieve advantages in the fight against competitors.

Marketing functions.

The general functions of marketing are management, organization, planning, forecasting, analysis, evaluation, accounting, control. Specific functions are: studying the market, consumers and demand, studying the environment, implementing the company's product policy, organizing service maintenance, maintaining a pricing policy, merchandising, maintaining and stimulating demand, etc.

Marketing functions stem from its principles and are of the following types:

1) analytical - this is a comprehensive analysis of micro and macro environments, which includes an analysis of markets, consumers, demand, competitors and competition, as well as products;

2) production - this is the production of new goods that meet the ever-increasing requirements of consumers, and includes the organization of the production of a new product, the organization of supply and quality management;

3) marketing - this is a function that includes everything that happens to the product after its production, but before the start of consumption, namely: the organization of product distribution, the organization of service, the organization of demand generation and sales promotion, the formation of commodity and pricing policies;

4) management: search for possible ways to develop the activities of the enterprise, especially in the long term, i.e. organization of strategy and planning, information management, organization of communications;

5) control.

4. Goals and objectives of marketing

Marketing is a social science and therefore affects a great many people.

The main objectives of marketing are as follows.

1. Maximization of the highest possible level of consumption - firms are trying to increase their sales, maximize profits using various methods and methods (introduce fashion for their products, outline a sales growth strategy, etc.).

2. Maximization of consumer satisfaction, i.e. the goal of marketing is to identify existing needs and offer the largest possible range of homogeneous goods. But since the level of customer satisfaction is very difficult to measure, it is also difficult to evaluate marketing activities in this area.

3. Maximization of choice. This goal follows and, as it were, is a continuation of the previous one. The difficulty in realizing this goal lies in not creating branded abundance and imaginary choice in the market.

Yes, and some consumers with an excess of certain product categories feel a sense of anxiety and confusion.

4. Maximizing the quality of life. Many tend to believe that the presence of a range of goods has a positive effect on its quality, quantity, availability, cost, i.e., the product is "improved", and therefore, the consumer can satisfy his needs to the maximum, improve the quality of life. Proponents of this view recognize that improving the quality of life is a noble goal, but at the same time, this quality is difficult to measure, which is why sometimes contradictions are born.

Marketing objectives:

1) research, analysis, assessment of the needs of real and potential buyers;

2) marketing assistance in the development of a new product (service);

3) provision of after-sales service;

4) marketing communications;

5) research, analysis, evaluation and forecasting of the state of real and potential markets;

6) research activities of competitors;

7) sale of goods (services);

8) formation of assortment policy;

9) formation and implementation of the company's pricing policy;

10) formation of a strategy for the behavior of the company.

5. Concept of marketing

Thus, the starting point of the concept is the theory of consumer sovereignty. F. Kotler, conducting research, as well as relying on marketing concepts taken in a historical context, identified five global, basic concepts on the basis of which any company interested in making a profit has conducted (is and will conduct) its activities.

1. Improvement of production: the main idea of this concept is that consumers choose (buy) those goods that they know and that suit them at a price. Therefore, firm managers must first improve production, and then - increase the efficiency of the distribution system. This concept works in the following situations: when there is a shortage of a certain product on the market and when the cost price needs to be reduced to increase demand.

2. Improvement of the product: this concept begins to "work" only after the implementation of the first - the improvement of production.

The essence of the concept of "product improvement" is that consumers will purchase only those products that have the best properties, the best quality characteristics. And most importantly, the product should be improved according to the opinions and wishes of customers.

3. Increasing commercial efforts: this concept is that consumers will not buy goods in sufficient quantities for the organization until the latter takes appropriate measures to stimulate demand and sales. This is the situation when the product is present on the market in the required quantity and with the appropriate quality, but there is such an aspect as the factor of "intensification of commercial efforts", i.e. the company must make its product not only affordable and of high quality, but also show the consumer that the possession of this product is prestigious, distinguishes it from the surrounding reality.

4. The concept of marketing itself or target marketing: it consists not only in identifying the needs and requirements of customers, but the main thing is to ensure that satisfaction is more desirable for them than for competitors.

In the words of F. Kotler, this is explained in the aphorism: "Find needs or create a customer's need and satisfy them", i.e., in order to increase demand, it is necessary to come up with some kind of "know-how" for the product, it is necessary to distinguish it from the mass of goods in such a way that to make you want to buy it.

5. The concept of social and ethical marketing. F. Kotler considers it the most modern. The main goal of this concept is that for the company the main task should not be the fulfillment of all the conditions reflected in the above concepts, but should be the preservation and strengthening of social well-being, as well as the well-being of each individual client (consumer). The difference between social and ethical marketing from previous concepts is that any company, satisfying any needs, must act with regard to the long-term benefit of society.

6. Classification of marketing

The main classification of marketing by priority tasks.

1. Differentiated - this is the activity of the company in several market segments with the production of a separate product for each of the segments. An increasing number of firms are beginning to use differentiated marketing.

2. Undifferentiated - this is the activity of the company, aimed at addressing the entire market at once with one offer, i.e. the company is not focused on individual needs, but is looking for a common thing in these needs. Strives to develop a consumer product by creating an image of superiority in the minds of customers.

3. Concentrated is the focus of marketing efforts on the largest share of one or more submarkets.

Thanks to this marketing, the company can secure a fairly strong market position in those market segments in which it operates, since it knows the needs of the buyers of this niche better than others and enjoys a certain reputation. And with the specialization of production and the use of measures to stimulate sales, it can achieve cost reduction in many areas of its activity.

Depending on the breadth of market coverage, mass marketing is distinguished, which is characterized by mass production, mass distribution and sales promotion of a single product for all buyers.

This marketing is aimed at selling a large amount of a homogeneous product at an affordable price, i.e., the main goal is maximum sales. There are also vertical and horizontal marketing.

Vertical - this is marketing focused on a vertical niche of the market, in order to find such ways of selling a given product that will allow you to find a new buyer.

It is quite an expensive way to develop, produce and produce a different product (one assortment group) for each sales market. It is much more profitable to produce goods of general use, so to speak, but capable of performing different tasks depending on the characteristics of the areas of use, thanks to the availability of software and (or) other parameters.

Horizontal - this is marketing focused on a horizontal niche of the market in order to satisfy the need of the buyer for the whole range of products and services that the latter can only need. The fundamental difference between this classification and the previous one is that the company tries to produce as many homogeneous goods as possible, even if there is no close functional relationship between them, in order to meet growing needs.

One of the main problems of this classification is the inability to translate existing needs and demand from the language of specific requests and preferences into the language of specific goods (services).

7. Types of marketing. Elements of the marketing mix

Types of marketing.

1. Conversion. This type is associated with negative demand. Negative demand is a situation where all or many consumers on the market reject a particular type of product (service).

The main task of this type of marketing is to develop a specific plan that contributes to the emergence of demand for such products, with a possible development perspective.

2. Stimulating. This type is associated with the indifference of consumers to certain goods. The indifference of the lack of demand occurs, firstly, when the product loses its value in the eyes of buyers; secondly, the goods have no value in this market; thirdly, when the market is not ready for the appearance of this product. The main task of marketing is to stimulate demand through certain methods.

3. Developing. Associated with the beginning of the formation of demand for goods.

The main task is to identify potential demand and create an appropriate product.

4. Remarketing is the search for new ways of marketing in order to create a new life cycle for a product that has fallen in demand.

5. Synchromarketing is designed to change the structure of demand.

6. Supporting - this is marketing focused on maintaining the existing full demand by maintaining the required sales volume, stimulating sales activities, and controlling costs.

7. Demarketing is marketing that solves the problem of excessive demand by raising the price of a product, stopping sales promotion, etc.

8. Opposing is designed to eliminate or reduce the demand for goods that harm public welfare (alcoholic beverages, tobacco products).

Elements of the marketing mix.

The marketing complex is a whole system of market relations and information flows that unite the company with the markets for its products. The two main elements of the marketing mix are the firms and the market. These two elements are connected by four significant flows. The firm establishes links with the market and delivers its products to it, and in exchange receives money and information.

The marketing mix applies to both commercial and non-commercial activities. The marketing mix includes a fairly large number of elements that affect the methods, methods and results of the company.

The first group of elements is represented by suppliers, competitors and marketing intermediaries.

The second group is public and state organizations, such as the press, financial institutions, government and legislative bodies, and the general population.

The third group is such factors as legislation, politics, economics, science, culture, demography, technological progress, etc.

8. The concept and structure of marketing activities

The philosophy of marketing is quite elementary - the company must produce such a product for which demand is provided in advance and which will lead the company to the intended level of profitability and maximum profit.

The essence and content of marketing activities are to ensure the fulfillment of the main goal of any organization - commercial.

The consumer makes his own specific requirements for each product: the required quality, quantity, delivery time, technical characteristics, etc.

As a result, competition is growing, which forces manufacturers to purposefully set tasks for scientific and technical developments, determine production technology, improve sales service, and much more.

Marketing activity is just focused on identifying and accounting for market demand and organizing the production and marketing activities of the company. The task of marketing activities is to reflect and constantly strengthen trends towards improving production in order to increase the efficiency of the company by defining specific current and long-term goals, ways to achieve them, as well as determining the product range, its quality, production structure and the level of possible profit.

Structure of marketing activity is a set of elements to achieve the set goals and satisfy the target market.

The structure includes a product (service), product distribution (sales), promotion and pricing. For the specific goals of the firm and their achievement, the marketer must choose the best combination of the above elements. For this, a number of solutions are possible:

1) in relation to a product (service), it is necessary to determine what to introduce to the market, what quality, in what quantity, sales conditions, promotion;

2) in relation to the movement of goods (sales), choose the type of sale, the number of places of sale, the type of control or cooperation, and much more;

3) in relation to the promotion of goods - the definition of promotion tools (advertising, personal selling, sales promotion), the definition of promotion agents, methods for measuring effectiveness, level of service, choice of media, volume and forms of advertising, etc.;

4) in relation to pricing - the choice of price level, range, relationship with quality, degree of importance of the price factor, type of pricing.

Importance in developing the structure of marketing activities - maintaining integrity, harmony and integration.

9. Methods of marketing activities

In carrying out its activities and achieving its goals, the company can operate with several methods of marketing.

1. The method of orientation to the product, service. Producing a good product (service, product) is only half of what a firm can do.

The second half is bringing the product to the end consumer. And not just to convey information, but to make every effort so that the buyer appreciates and wants to buy it. All this is much more difficult to do if the product is fundamentally new, unparalleled. Consequently, approaches to marketing activities should be fundamentally new. One of the main directions of the company should be not just the creation of a fundamentally new product (service), but the creation of such a product that could stand at the origins of the formation of a new industry.

2. consumer orientation method.

This marketing method is preferred for small companies. The point of the consumer orientation method is to find a buyer, determine what product he needs, and satisfy this need. But finding a buyer is not enough. The main thing is to single out from the whole mass of goods only the goods that a given circle of consumers is ready and willing to buy.

3. Integrated Marketing.

Since the industrial era, it has been believed that the cause always precedes the effect, that is, it is enough to find the cause and the result will not be long in coming.

Thus, within the product-oriented marketing method, it is clear that the firm will not be able to sell what it does not already have. And until the moment the consumer learns about the product (service), you will incur large costs of money and time. Here the product is the root cause, and consumer demand is the consequence. All this was natural in the era of industrial development. But in our time, when the world of industries is not stable, the market for goods is not standard, it no longer works. As needs become more and more diverse and unlike each other, manufacturers must constantly offer the market more and more perfect products, seeking and inventing innovations and improvements, with the sole purpose of satisfying these needs more fully.

4. Marketing of open systems.

The main difference between an open system and a closed one is exchange. An open system (like a living organism), in order to exist, must perform exchange processes with the external environment and other economic entities. The exchange can take place with different resources: material, labor, information, etc., otherwise it will not receive development and death is inevitable.

In the process of an exchange in an open system, each party must receive some benefit, for which this exchange exists. Moreover, the value of the result obtained must be higher than that which was paid. But this is all purely subjective and depends on the individual value system of each of the participants.

10. External and internal marketing environment

External marketing environment is the macro environment of the firm. It includes the main factors affecting the activities of the company in a particular area (segment) of the market:

1) demographic, i.e. it is important for an enterprise which group of the population purchases its product, which contingent produces this product, etc.;

2) economic, i.e., management must necessarily take into account the economic situation in the country in order to be able to rationally adjust its policy;

3) political and legal, i.e. it is necessary to be aware of the legislation on the regulation of entrepreneurial activity, to be well aware of the political side of society;

4) scientific and technical, i.e. to introduce the latest R&D work into production, monitor scientific and technological progress, be aware of state control over the quality and safety of goods;

5) natural, i.e. this is the shortage of certain types of raw materials, and the growth of problems associated with environmental pollution, as well as the actions that the state is taking on the problem of regulating natural resources;

6) cultural, i.e. this is the attitude of people to society, nature, to the universe, an individually personalized attitude to certain types of goods, the presence of cultural traditions, habits.

When conducting marketing research, it is necessary to take into account all factors of the internal (macro) environment.

Internal marketing environment. The marketing environment of a company is a set of subjects and facts that influence the successful operation of the entire company.

The marketing environment can be both external (macro environment) and internal (micro environment).

In the microenvironment, there are external forces that are directly related to the firm itself and its business opportunities: suppliers, customers, intermediaries, consumers, competitors and the public. In order to have a clear understanding of the internal environment, it is necessary to give concepts to its components.

Suppliers - these are firms and individuals that supply the company with the material resources necessary for the implementation of its activities.

Intermediaries - these are organizations that help the company in promoting, marketing, distributing its products on the market.

Firms-specialists - these are organizations that help the company in the movement of goods from the place of their direct production to the destination.

Warehouses - this is the place chosen by the company for the accumulation and preservation of its goods on the way of their movement to the next destination.

Credit and financial institutions - These are banks, credit, insurance companies that help the company on financial and insurance issues.

Client - These are persons or organizations that have a business relationship with the company.

Public is the public outside the firm itself.

Internal contact audiences are the entire staff of the company.

11. Marketing Management

In the industrial era with a characteristic bureaucratic management system, it was justified for a company to entrust all management to narrow specialists in a particular area of management, forming management teams from them, headed by vice presidents responsible for a certain area of activity. And at the head of the company was a general manager. The structure of such companies was approximately the same and consisted of four main areas of activity: engineering, production, sales and financial services. This division of management functions was quite justified for that period of time and corresponded to the tasks ahead: to come up with a product, produce it and sell it at a profit. If a question arose that required a joint decision of employees from two functional areas, the intervention of the general manager was necessary.

It was observed that the staff of the sales departments is most focused on the needs of people, and the engineering departments - on the solution of exclusively technical issues when creating a product. The task was to force employees to equally approach the study of consumer needs and the improvement of the technical level of products. To do this, companies are beginning to unite the staff of different structural divisions into teams, involuntarily forcing them to engage in marketing. The effective work of such teams in meeting the needs was noted. And also this style of work allows you to identify the skills of leaders in the staff. In the end, everyone benefited from this form of organization.

But in the modern world (a world of rapid change), where the ability to think outside the box and the ability to respond quickly to the situation in the market (in society) plays an important role, a wider range of human qualities plays a more important role for marketing. After all, the production of goods should be at minimal cost, and therefore, production workers should also become an integral part of the marketing team. Thus, the idea of reorganization according to the product (project) principle was implemented, where brigades (teams) were created to solve specific problems in the development of a specific product.

This form of intra-company management is very quickly able to respond to changes in the external environment. Such companies are engaged in constant improvement and improvement in all areas of their activities. And they judge the results of work not by the share of a rapidly changing market, but by the main indicators: the amount of profit and the level of costs (the number of costs).

In general, the marketing management process can be represented as follows:

1) analysis of market opportunities: conducting marketing research and collecting information about the marketing environment, consumer markets and enterprise markets;

2) selection of target markets: study of demand volumes, market segmentation, choice of company strategy;

3) development of marketing policy: development of goods, determination of pricing policy, identification of distribution channels, sales promotion;

4) implementation of marketing developments.

12. The role of marketing in the activities of the enterprise

The efficiency of the enterprise is determined by the method of production and its effectiveness. There are different ways to improve production efficiency:

1) the introduction of new technologies will allow the company to reduce costs, which will increase profits;

2) modernization of equipment and resource saving;

3) attraction of investments and their rational use;

4) improving product quality;

5) the effectiveness of ongoing research, development and company policy (marketing).

So, what role does marketing play in a business? Firstly, with the help of marketing research, different aspects of the market with which the company interacts are analyzed; secondly, it develops and embodies the tactics of the company's behavior in the market.

In today's world, a company can only succeed if it "listens to its customer". And by satisfying the maximum number of needs, it will be able to thereby increase its efficiency. Marketing is the study of consumer behavior. In practice, marketers have identified six rules of behavior with a client:

1) know the buyer better than he knows himself;

2) pay great attention to the design of the store;

3) constantly think about customers;

4) improve service by stimulating wages;

5) constantly train the company's staff;

6) care for employees.

The application of these rules in working with clients allows companies to increase their sales, and therefore profits.

The innovation of world marketing is franchising. The bottom line is that firms are invited to produce products under the trademark of some large company with the provision of equipment, technologies in exchange for a part of the profits. The company "Dovgan" works according to this scheme. With the help of professional marketing research and its correct application in practice, firms can significantly increase their profitability, and therefore efficiency.

At present, when the world's population is constantly increasing, the number of sellers and buyers is also increasing, which is becoming increasingly difficult to find each other. In this they come to the aid of promotion tactics - an integral part of marketing activities.

13. Marketing service at the enterprise

A firm's marketing can be carried out either by a specialized intermediary (a third-party organization directly involved in marketing activities) or by the firm's own marketing service (if any). This choice depends on the size and objectives of the firm in the market.

In large or medium-sized companies, the marketing services included in the structure are clearly structured. It is usually headed by a vice president of marketing who reports directly to the head of the firm. It is entrusted with the functions of coordinating units, the service subordinate to it, contacts with other services, setting marketing goals and objectives, as well as monitoring their solution.

The smaller the company, the less specialized marketing, the more often there is a combination of positions.

The structure of marketing services can be built according to the following principles.

1. Functional. The simplest and most common among small firms. Here, divisions are created depending on the marketing functions (advertising, sales, pricing, service, etc.). This organization is distinguished by ease of management and low costs, and on the other hand, it loses its effectiveness with an increase in the product range and entry into new markets.

2. Divisional. All departments of the service perform the same type of functions, but are divided according to any of the signs:

1) geographic - used in companies trading throughout the country, as well as abroad. Allocate a planning department, a marketing research department, a public service sales department (salespeople and sales agents living in the service area, so they can work effectively with customers with minimal time and money spent on travel);

2) market - a company can build its work in relation to consumers that make up specific market segments. This organization will be successful for firms selling their products in different markets;

3) commodity - used in firms with a wide product range. The advantage is the quick reaction of the product manager to emerging problems, and the negative side is that the company incurs high costs for the maintenance of such a service.

3. Problematic. To solve the problem, a group of specialists from different departments is formed. The result of their work is often quite effective.

4. Mixed organization. Used by large companies. Based on the use of dual subordination. The disadvantages of such an organization are high costs, actions often require coordination, and the risk of conflicts. Plus - the coverage of their attention to goods and markets.

Each company approaches the process of organizing marketing services independently. Only the main requirements can be singled out: efficiency, flexibility, cost-effectiveness and high qualification of specialists.

14. The concept of competition

Competition (from lat. concurrere - "collide") - this is the struggle of economic market entities independent of each other for the right to possess limited resources.

In other words, it is such a process of interaction between firms in the market in order to achieve better sales opportunities for their product by satisfying the various needs of buyers. Competition is constantly present in the market between producers. And in order for the company to be successful, it needs to constantly increase its competitiveness.

There is no way to unambiguously define competition. However, one can single out the main essential feature - rivalry in the properties of commodity production and methods of development. And also competition acts as a spontaneous regulator of social production.

Thanks to this phenomenon in the life of society, there is an aggravation of production and market relations, an increase in the efficiency of economic activity, and an acceleration of scientific and technological progress. Competition refers to such factors that have an impact on the activities of the firm, and there is no feedback.

Competition is the rivalry for the best conditions for existence in the market between its participants. This is generated by objective conditions: firstly, the complete economic isolation of each market participant; secondly, its complete dependence on market conditions, and thirdly, the struggle for the greatest income.

The main unspoken law of the market is the struggle of firms for survival and prosperity. For the existence of competition in the market, certain conditions are necessary:

1) the number of operating firms in the market;

2) freedom of entry and exit of enterprises to the market;

3) product differentiation;

4) joint control of firms over the market price. The goal of competition is to get the buyer to buy the product.

The main tool is the formation of demand and sales promotion (fosstis).

The buyer gives his preference to any product, only making sure in practice of his choice, and he receives the necessary information from the manufacturer through advertising. As a rule, competition occurs between goods, not firms.

15. Types of competition

There are the following types of competition.

1. Perfect (or free): many independent firms participate in the market, independently deciding what to produce and how much.

Requirements:

1) the volume of production of an individual firm is insignificant and does not have a significant impact on the price of goods;

2) goods are homogeneous;

3) buyers are well informed about prices;

4) sellers are independent from each other;

5) the market is not limited, that is, free access is possible for anyone who wishes to become an entrepreneur.

Perfect competition forms a market mechanism for price formation and self-adjustment of the economic system.

This kind of competition is only theoretical, although it is the key to understanding more realistic market structures. Therein lies its value.

2. Imperfect: this type appeared in connection with the formation of monopolies. And it is characterized by the concentration of capital, the emergence of various organizational forms of enterprises, the strengthening of control over natural, material and financial resources, as well as the impact of the scientific and technological process.

Subspecies are: monopoly and omegapoly. A monopoly is an exclusive production right owned by one person, a group of persons or a state.

Allocate: natural (legal) and artificial, as well as pure and absolute.

Monopoly firms create barriers to new firms entering the market; restrict access to sources of raw materials and energy resources; use a high level of technology; use larger capital, etc.

Artificial monopolies form a number of specific forms - cartel, syndicate, trust, concern.

An oligopoly is the existence of several firms, usually large, that account for the bulk of the industry's sales.

Penetration of new firms into the market is difficult due to high capital costs.

Price - this is an artificial knocking down of prices for goods. Price discrimination is widely used here under certain conditions: the seller is a monopolist; the company has a strong marketing policy; the impossibility of reselling the goods from the original buyer. This type of competition is especially common in the service sector.

Non-price - this is competition carried out by improving the quality of products and the conditions for its sale.

Non-price competition can be carried out in two ways.

1. Product competition.

2. Competition on sales terms.

16. Competitive strategies

To achieve superiority over competitors, it is necessary to achieve superiority in all commercial characteristics and the means of their promotion in the market. In theory this is possible, in practice it is not. When competing, it is necessary to choose priorities, strategies that best use the strengths of the company and correspond to the trend of the market situation.

Competitive strategy is used to provide advantages over competitors in the long term (3-5 years).

The main stages of competitive analysis:

1) identification of the main competitive forces in the industry;

2) definition of variants of competitive strategies. The leader in the development of competitive analysis, the formulation of basic models for identifying competitive forces and options for competitive strategies is Professor M. Porter of the Harvard Business School.

Competitive Strategies.

1. New competitors.

To prevent their appearance in the industry, they use differentiation of products and services (reliance on trademarks), the need for capital, reorientation costs, the need to create new distribution channels, and government policy.

2. Substitute products.

The emergence of new products that effectively meet the same needs and requirements can also intensify competition.

3. Intra-industry competition.

Inside and outside the industry, competing firms can exist peacefully, or they can use tough and rude methods of survival.

The Russian economist A. Yu. Yudanov proposed the method of comparative advantage. He divided the competitive strategies of firms operating in the same market into 4 types: commuters, patients, violets, explerents. Each type is compared with a specific biological behavior.

Commutators (gray mice) are small firms that easily adapt to changes in market demand. Produce imitation goods, counterfeit goods.

Patients (cunning foxes) are firms that are highly specialized and have mastered one of the market niches well.

Violents (elephants, lions) are large companies that control a significant share of the market.

Explerents (swallows, moths) - the competitive advantage of such firms is innovation, new technologies and products.

4. The strength of the influence of suppliers. Competition with competing suppliers.

5. The strength of the influence of the buyer. Buyers can:

1) demand a price reduction;

2) demand higher quality;

3) demand service improvement;

4) push intra-industry competitors, etc.

17. Main areas of research in marketing

The main areas of marketing research are:

1) study of market capacity;

2) study of potential and real consumers;

3) study of the level of sales of competitors;

4) conducting a comparative analysis of the goods of competitors;

5) study of the distribution of market shares between firms;

6) analysis of sales of products;

7) analysis of advertising campaigns of competitors;

8) study of the possibility of expanding the range of services offered;

9) study of the consumer's reaction to the emergence of a new product;

10) analysis of pricing policy;

11) study of internal marketing;

12) long-term forecasting.

When resorting to marketing research, company managers should be well acquainted with the technology and specifics of such research, so that in the future, when making a decision, they should not make mistakes based on inaccurate information.

Marketing research includes:

1) identifying problems and setting goals;

2) the choice of sources of information (here the research sites are determined, research tools are selected, a plan is drawn up);

3) collection of information (with the help of various marketing methods, the primary collection of information occurs);

4) analysis of the collected information (tables, graphs are compiled; information is processed using statistical methods; methods and methods for solving the problems are formed);

5) presentation of the result of the work.

The effectiveness of marketing research is confirmed by the fact that new products appear on the market, in the field of production - new production processes, in the field of management - new organization systems. However, many companies still spend a huge amount of money on research and development. And the marketing service gets a ready-made new product with an order for its sale.

The main principles of marketing research are as follows.

1. Objectivity.

2. Accuracy.

3. Thoroughness.

Thus, conducting marketing research is a complex set of activities aimed at studying an object in order to obtain information about it for further coordination of the activities of one's company.

18 Market Research Methods

Marketers use certain methods to collect information.

Primary research - data collection - is carried out as they arise using the following methods.

1. Observation is a way of obtaining information through circumstances perceived by the senses without any impact on the object of observation.

Observation can take place in laboratory, field conditions with or without the personal participation of the observer.

According to the degree of standardization, standardized observation and free observation are distinguished. The advantages of this method are:

1) the possibility of obtaining the necessary information, regardless of the desire of the object to cooperate;

2) ensuring higher objectivity;

3) the possibility of observing unconscious behavior;

4) taking into account the surrounding reality. The disadvantages of this method will be high costs, the subjectivity of the observer, the effect of observation (i.e., with open observation, the behavior of the object may differ from natural).

2. A survey is a way of obtaining information by asking people's opinions. This is the most common form of information gathering in marketing and approximately 90% of marketers use this method.

The survey can be both oral and written.

Interviews are divided into:

1) according to the circle of interviewed persons (students, employees, etc.);

2) by the number of simultaneously interviewed (it can be group or single);

3) by the number of topics included in the survey (one or more);

4) by the level of standardization (sometimes free or standardized);

5) by frequency (single or reusable).

3. An experiment is a research method in which one or more factors are changed under controlled conditions and track how this affects the dependent variable.

The advantages of this method are the vision of cause, effect and structure, and the experiment is systematized.

4. A panel is a computer-assisted method of recreating the use of various marketing factors on paper rather than in real life. This method consists in creating a model of controllable and uncontrollable factors that the firm faces. Then their possible combinations are put into the computer in order to determine the impact on the overall marketing strategy.

The choice of one or another type of panel method is determined by the tasks set and the amount of allocated funds.

19. Marketing representation of the market

The concept of "marketing" is based on the term "market" - market, therefore, it is necessary to dwell on the consideration of the market and its main characteristics.

The market is not an unambiguous concept.

The market is defined both as a sphere of exchange, and as a set of buyers and sellers with their interests, and as a real place for transactions, etc.

From a marketing point of view, the market is a collection of individuals and organizations with their needs and needs that must be satisfied.

There is the following classification of markets.

1. By content: these are markets for goods, services, labor, know-how, securities, land. Depending on the degree of geographical centralization, on the number of buyers, on the volume of purchases, on sales for advertising, on service requirements, on motives, etc., the goods market is divided into consumer and enterprise markets.

2. By scale of activity: internal (national) and external (international). These types of markets also have significant differences in terms of risk level, cost, legal regulation, etc.

3. According to the degree of development of competition: the market of perfect competition, imperfect (monopolistic), the market of omegapoly and monopoly.

4. In relation to supply and demand: "seller's market" (demand is higher than supply) and "buyer's market" (supply is higher than demand).

The subject of the commodity market - sellers and buyers. The object of the commodity market is a commodity (product, work, service).

Market boundaries are understood as product and geographical boundaries of the market.

Determining the product boundaries of the market is the procedure for determining the product, substitute products and the formation of a product group.

It takes into account the opinion of buyers about the equivalence or interchangeability of goods that make up one product group.

The geographical boundaries of the market are determined by economic, technological, and administrative barriers. Geographical boundaries - this is the territory in which the buyers of the selected group purchase or can purchase goods.

The boundaries of the market are defined in the same way as the product group: on the principle of recognition by buyers of equal availability of goods sold in different regions. So, for example, if buyers consider a product sold in one region to be a substitute for a product sold in another region, then those regions are the geographic risk of that product.

Market capacity is a quantitative characteristic of the commodity market, showing the fundamentally possible volume of sales of the company's goods.

20. Product positioning

Product positioning is a set of measures and techniques by which, in the minds of target consumers, this product occupies its own place, different from others, in relation to competing products, including the formation of a competitive position and a detailed marketing complex.

Positioning in theory is considered in two aspects.

1. With the help of the desire to bring the product as close as possible to the consumer, to find the most optimal placement of the product on the market.

2. Selection of the most advantageous position of the goods in the product display.

The main positioning strategy is to identify such a group of consumers in which the company can take advantage, and in the future, position itself in this market.

The first step of positioning is the differentiation of the company's marketing offer, i.e., this product of the company should be more valuable to the consumer than the product of competitors.

Competitive advantage is the offering of a product of greater value or at lower prices, or benefits that offset higher prices. Thus, with the help of positioning methods, consumers need to be convinced that this product is created especially for them and that it is identified with the ideal of the latter.

Positioning methods:

1) on the basis of certain advantages of the product, on the basis of satisfaction of certain (specific) needs;

2) with the help of stable ideas about the product.

Positioning strategies:

1) strengthening the brand in the minds of consumers;

2) finding a new unoccupied position;

3) repositioning, i.e., crowding out or ousting competitors from the minds of consumers.

Distinctive features that it is desirable for a company to consider when positioning a product:

1) significance (value);

2) characteristic (specificity);

3) superiority (advantages);

4) visibility (obviousness);

5) security against counterfeiting;

6) availability;

7) profitability.

21. The concept, essence and stages of market segmentation

After the firm has conducted a comprehensive and thorough analysis of the market, the desires and characteristics of consumers, it must choose the most profitable market segment for it.

Market segment - this is the part of the market that the company can effectively serve.

Market segmentation - this is the process of dividing a single consumer market into a number of segments according to some factor (attribute).

Market segmentation is one of the main elements of a firm's market strategy.

The goal is the most complete satisfaction of the needs and requirements of customers, and as a result, the successful functioning and prosperity of the company.

The well-known marketer S. Madjaro noted that a marketing specialist who is able to offer a new way of market segmentation for his product can enable a company to avoid intense competition. Consequently, the success of the company in the competition will largely depend on how well the market segment is chosen.

The main segmentation of the market is the position of the company in a competitive environment, when it is not able to satisfy all the needs for a particular product, and therefore must focus only on those segments that are most preferable in terms of the production and commercial capabilities of the company. The objects of segmentation of the sales market are groups of consumers, goods (services), as well as enterprises (competitors).

segmentation steps.

There are (distinguish) the main stages of segmentation:

1) identification of the requirements and main characteristics of the consumer to the product (service) offered by the company;

2) analysis of similarities and differences of consumers: there is an analysis of the collected information; identification of similarities or differences should influence the developed marketing plan;

3) development of profiles of consumer groups: consumers with similar characteristics and needs are allocated into separate profiles that define market segments;

4) choice of segment (segments) of consumers: follows from the previous stage;

5) determination of the company's place of work in the market in relation to competition;

6) creation of a marketing plan: after the company has collected and analyzed information about consumers, defined its market segment (or segments), it must study in detail the properties and images of its competitors' products, and subsequently determine the position of its product in the market; as a result, the company develops a marketing plan, including: product, distribution, price, promotion.

22. Types and criteria for segmentation

Segmentation is divided into the following types depending on its nature and on the type of consumer of goods (services).

1. Depending on the nature of segmentation:

1) macro-segmentation;

2) microsegmentation;

3) segmentation in depth - the segmentation process begins with a wide group of consumers, and then it is gradually deepened (narrowed) depending on the classification of end consumers of any group of goods (services);

4) segmentation in breadth - the segmentation process begins with a narrow group of consumers and gradually expands depending on the scope and use of the product (service);

5) preliminary segmentation - the study of the maximum possible market segments;

6) final segmentation - the final stage of market research; here the most optimal segments for the market for the company are determined, in which it will develop its market strategy in the future.

2. Depending on the type of consumers:

1) the process of segmenting consumers of consumer goods (services);

2) segmentation of consumers of goods for industrial purposes;

3) segmentation of consumers of two types of goods. However, in practice, each type of market segmentation is not used separately. As a rule, market marketers use a combination of these types in their analysis.

Criterion It is a way of assessing the choice of a particular segment by a firm. Market segmentation criteria.

1. Segment capacity.

2. Availability of the segment.

3. Materiality of the segment.

4. Profitability.

5. Protection from competition.

6. Experience of the firm's personnel.

7. Accessibility of the media.

8. Impact of business structure.

9. Legal aspects.

10. Demographic characteristics.

11. Lifestyle.

12. The attitude of consumers to this brand.

13. Expected risk.

14. Importance of buying.

15. Geographic, i.e. urbanization, relief, climate.

16. Demographic.

17. Economic (property).

18. Social.

19. Cultural.

20. Psychological, etc.

23. Strategy and opportunities for market segmentation

After the segmentation of the market, the firm needs to make a decision on how many and what segments it will work on. It is also important to choose a strategy.

There are three types of strategies:

1) An undifferentiated marketing strategy is a firm's strategy that focuses on the commonality of interests and preferences of buyers, and not on differences in needs and attitudes. The goal is to develop products and a marketing program that will satisfy as many customers as possible. In other words, the goal of the firm is achieved by finding a line of compromise. The company adheres to the standardization and mass production of goods. This strategy is very economical. However, it is not recommended to use it for enterprises of the same industry, since there may be fierce competition in large segments.

2) A differentiated marketing strategy is a company strategy that simultaneously targets several market segments with the development of separate offers. This strategy more fully reflects the market situation, and therefore, provides large sales volumes and a low level of risk. On the other hand, large investments, production and management costs are necessary, therefore the strategy of differentiated marketing is feasible mainly for large companies.

3) A concentrated marketing strategy is a strategy for focusing a firm's efforts on one or more profitable market segments. Especially, it is attractive in cases where the resources of the enterprise are rather limited. This strategy is preferred for small and medium-sized firms. It consists in the fact that one or more products are offered to the market, which are accompanied by targeted marketing programs. At the same time, it is necessary to pay great attention to the reputation of your company, the prestige of your product, constantly analyze selected segments, monitor the dynamics of market share, and take measures to prevent the emergence of new competitors.

The main arguments in favor of market segmentation are:

1) the possibility of providing a better understanding of not only the needs and requirements of buyers, but also knowing your potential or real consumer "in person" (personal characteristics, motives for behavior in the market, etc.); result - the product is more in line with the requirements of the market;

2) the possibility of a better understanding of the nature of competition;

3) the emergence of the possibility of concentrating limited resources and organizational capabilities on more profitable areas of their use;

4) study of the most promising buyers;

5) the ability to take into account the characteristics of various market segments.

24. The concept of a segment and market niche. Multiple segmentation

Segment- This is a certain group of consumers that has one or more stable features that determine their behavior in the market.

The success of firms in the market depends not only on finding their segment, but also on finding an unoccupied place in the market - a market niche. For a company to find its market niche means to find "its own home", i.e., a niche is such a part of the market where the company has secured a dominant position. It is believed that an enterprise operating in niches knows and knows how to satisfy the needs and requirements of buyers of its niche so much that the latter are willing to pay even higher prices for the goods (services) of this enterprise.

Occupying your niche is a chance to survive the competition by focusing your resources on serving narrower market niches that do not arouse interest or that are not paid attention to by larger companies-competitors.

Multiple segmentation - this is one of the methods for determining the target market, characterized by the scale of activities.

The scale of the activity lies in the involvement of several market segments in the process of buying and selling, which indicates certain production and marketing capabilities of the company.

The advantages of multiple segmentation lie in an expanded assortment, which enables the company to significantly increase its turnover by involving several market segments in the production and sale of goods, which allows for potentially higher profits, and also conducting parallel work with several segments can actually reduce the threat of deterioration performance of the company in connection with the emergence of a powerful competitor or a change in consumer preferences. The loss of one segment of the market will not be so painful for the entire company.

At this time, you can successfully work in other market segments and carry out technical re-equipment or reconstruction of production, update the range or improve quality. This method is used mainly by large companies that have the necessary material, financial and labor resources.

The method of multiple segmentation involves the study of potential market segments where the company is going to work. A thorough study of the needs of consumers in different segments is quite expensive. However, in case of successful research and making the right decision, the company receives significant advantages over competitors, and, consequently, impressive results.

25. Classification of consumers

One of the main goals of marketing is to conduct a competent strategy for promoting goods on the market, where it is very important to identify the most significant, large target groups of consumers who differ from each other, but have common intra-group interests (needs, needs).

Five types of consumers are defined.

1. Individual - these are consumers who purchase goods only for their personal needs.

Items for individual use are clothes, shoes, personal items (except for purchases as a gift). First of all, these consumers are interested in the consumer qualities of the goods: usefulness, price, appearance, packaging, service, guarantees.

2. Families or households are a group of buyers of food and non-food items, excluding personal effects. Decisions are made jointly by the spouses or the head of the family.

3. Intermediaries are a type of consumers who purchase goods for subsequent resale. Intermediaries are not interested in the consumer qualities of the goods, they are concerned with exchange characteristics - price, demand, profitability, speed of circulation, shelf life, etc.

4. Suppliers or representatives of firms, i.e. buyers of industrial goods. They buy goods for their further use in production, so everything is taken into account: price, quantity, speed of delivery, transport costs, completeness of the assortment, the company's reputation in the market, the level of service, and much more.

5. Officials or government workers.

The peculiarity lies in the fact that when purchasing this or that product, the official manages not his own money, but state money, and, therefore, this procedure is bureaucratized and formalized.

There is also a traditional classification of consumers according to the following criteria.

1. Sex.

2. Age.

3. Income.

4. Education.

5. Socio-professional criterion.

6. Responsiveness to new information or the emergence of a new product on the market. It is customary to divide consumers into the following groups:

1) "innovators";

2) "adepts";

3) "progressives";

4) "skeptics";

5) "conservatives".

7. Personality type: there are four main psychological types - sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic. The practical application of this classification in marketing is rather difficult, since it is difficult to determine the type of personality using 10-12 test questions.

8. Lifestyle: analysis of values, relationships, rhythm of life, personality behavior.

26. Characteristics of buyers that influence their buying behavior

One of the main tasks of a marketing specialist is to identify those who make the decision to make a purchase.

The decision to purchase this or that product is made by a person (or a group of persons) who has a common goal and shares the risk associated with making this decision.

For certain types of goods (services), it is relatively easy to identify such persons. For example, a man usually decides for himself which brand of cigarettes to buy, and a woman decides which brand to prefer when choosing lipstick. Decisions related to determining the place of family vacation or buying an apartment are likely to be made by a group of people, consisting of a husband, wife and adult children. Therefore, the marketing specialist should determine as accurately as possible the role of each family member in decision making, which will help him in developing product characteristics.

There are several roles that a person plays in the process of making a decision to purchase a product:

1) offer initiator;

2) the decision maker;

3) a person exerting influence;

4) the buyer;

5) user.

So, in the process of deciding to acquire a computer, the proposal may come from a child (teenager). Each family member can have some influence on the decision or any of its components. Husband and wife make the final decision and, in fact, become buyers. All family members can be users.

To determine the roles of buyers, marketing specialists conduct research on various participants in the decision-making process. Mostly a survey is used. It is important to determine the relative influence of different family members on the buying process. For example, J. Herbst identifies four types of families.

1. Each family member makes an equal number of independent decisions.

2. Families where the husband makes most of the decisions.

3. Dominance of the wife's decisions.

4. Joint decision-making (syncretic). Another important characteristic of the buyer is

family life cycle. Seven periods have been identified:

1) bachelor period, unmarried;

2) young families;

3) young families with a child under the age of 6;

4) young families with children under the age of 6;

5) married couples living with minor children;

6) elderly couples living separately from their children;

7) elderly loners.

27. Personal and psychological factors

There are four groups of factors that have a direct impact on purchasing behavior: personal, psychological, social and cultural.

Let's take a closer look at the first two.

Personal factors include: age, gender, income of a person, stage of the family life cycle, nationality, profession, lifestyle, personality type, etc.

Life style refers to a person's life stereotypes (his interests, beliefs, personal opinions). Sometimes it is quite difficult for marketers to study this factor. For this, special marketing programs are specially developed, within the framework of which research is carried out.

A person is a person, therefore, over a relatively long period of time, his reactions to the influence of the external environment are practically constant. The type of personality is characterized by such traits as self-confidence, independence, sociality, activity (or passivity) of behavior, adaptability, etc.

Psychological factors include: motivation of human behavior, perception of the surrounding world.

The study of motivations (or motives) is necessary, since this is what motivates a person to make a purchase.

When studying the motives of human behavior, motivational analysis is used, based on the theory of Z. Freud and A. Maslow.

Z. Freud studied the process of making decisions about the purchase by the consumer. He believed that important consumer motives are embedded in the subconscious and that the buyer cannot always justify this or that choice.

According to Z. Freud, a person from birth is under the pressure of many desires that he is not able to realize and control, that is, the individual is never fully aware of the motives of his behavior.

A. Maslow in his theory of motivation developed a hierarchical system of needs and explained why people at a certain point in time have different needs.

He built the system of needs according to the principle of importance:

1) physiological (need for food, clothing, housing);

2) self-preservation (protection, safety);

3) social (belonging to a certain social group, the need for love);

4) in self-affirmation (the need for self-development, self-realization).

A person satisfies needs according to their importance.

Perception - this is how a person interprets the information received from the outside.

Beliefs is a person's idea of something.

Relations - these are various assessments, feelings in relation to specific objects and ideas.

28. Model of buying behavior

The buying behavior model includes the following categories.

1. Motivating factors of marketing (product, its price, methods of distribution and sales promotion).

2. Other irritants (economic, political, cultural, social, scientific and technical).

3. Consciousness of the buyer (his characteristics and the process of making a decision to buy).

4. Responses of the buyer (choice of product, brand, supplier, time of purchase).

The process of purchasing a particular product includes the following steps.

1. The emergence of a need: a need arises under the influence of external and internal factors. For a person to undertake specific actions, his need must reach a certain level of intensity, i.e., displace or suppress other desires. The marketing specialist must find out what needs the buyer satisfies by purchasing this product, and also with the help of what activities the intensity of the need can be increased.

2. Search for information: in order to satisfy a need that has arisen, a person needs relevant information about a particular product. Depending on the intensity of the need, two states of a person are distinguished: the state of increased attention (increased attention to the information that is associated with the satisfaction of his need) and the state of active information search (when the intensity of the need becomes aggravated, a person deliberately begins to look for information about the product of interest to him). Sources of information:

1) personal (friends, family, acquaintances, neighbors);

2) commercial (exhibitions of goods, advertising, sellers, packaging);

3) public (media);

4) empirical (use of goods, experiment, test).

3. Evaluation of information: a person correlates the information received with his capabilities and forms an appropriate attitude towards this product.

4. Making a purchase decision: evaluation of the received information about the product, as well as taking into account the influence of various factors on the behavior of the buyer regarding the purchase. A marketing specialist must provide the consumer with the necessary information and draw his attention to those factors that will help motivate him to buy, that is, help him buy a particular product.

5. Impressions after purchase. The impression of the purchase of goods can be different: from complete satisfaction to complete negativity for this purchase. The marketer must do everything so that the buyer is not disappointed in his choice.

29. Goods. Consumer properties of goods

Product It is the centerpiece of the entire marketing mix.

In marketing, a product is considered from two sides.

1. A product is a means by which it is possible to satisfy specific needs.

2. A product is a product created for sale. There is an opinion that the product is produced on

factory, plant, and the goods are created by marketers. This means that in order for the product of labor to become a commodity, it must go a long way. The path of product development in marketing can be represented as a "marketing bulb" of a product, consisting of three levels:

1) item as intended;

2) the actual performance of the goods;

3) goods with reinforcements.

In the process of creating the first level of a product, the specialist must determine what specific needs the consumer will be able to satisfy and what benefits he can receive when buying this product.

The second level includes the direct creation of goods, ensuring delivery to the destination, storage, safe use.

The third level is characterized, in fact, by the market itself and the requirement from the company to rationally use the entire marketing mix in order to meet the needs of customers (flexible pricing strategy, sales promotion methods, advertising, service, etc.). It is at this level that modern business is characterized by the most intense competition.

Consumer properties of the goods.

From the point of view of marketing, the consumer first of all acquires not a product, but those benefits that he can provide to him. Therefore, it is important to identify the main characteristics of the product:

1) functionality;

2) reliability;

3) durability;

4) design;

5) ergonomic abilities (ease of use, maintenance, repair, etc.);

6) accompanying documentation;

7) prestige.

Before starting to produce a product, it is necessary to analyze its consumer properties, including identifying the reasons why competitors' products are purchased.

Consumer value is understood as the totality of consumer properties of a product.

The latest survey data shows that 8 out of 10 buyers prefer the consumer value of the product, rather than its cost. 20 years ago the ratio was 3 out of 10.

Allocate the following list of consumer properties of goods: quality; convenience and ease of use; compliance with price, quality and consumer value; brand prestige; delivery reliability; after-sales service; choice, etc.

30. The concept of goods, classification of goods

Goods are physical objects, services, places, organizations, ideas, labor, or anything that is meant to be exchanged. However, before being included in the exchange process, he must arouse the interest of a potential buyer, i.e., have the ability to satisfy specific needs.

In marketing, a product is a complex of properties that are significant for the consumer (correspondence of price and quality; necessary dimensions; functional, aesthetic, social characteristics; significance; prestige; packaging, and much more) that can satisfy his need, and therefore he is ready to purchase it at a reasonable price. a certain price and in the right quantity.

There are several ways to classify goods.

1. Export - the product meets the requirements of that market segment of the country (group of countries) where it is planned to be sold:

1) market novelty (pioneer products);

2) mass (actual).

2. By purpose: goods for individual (personal, wide) consumption - the purchase by the final consumer of goods for personal use.

In turn, goods are divided into:

1) non-durable goods;

2) goods of long-term (durable) use;

3) services: some actions that bring benefits or useful results to a person;

4) goods of an exclusive assortment: these are goods that the consumer waits for on the market, and if he does not wait, the other does not receive;

5) consumer goods;

6) pre-demand goods: before purchasing a product, the consumer compares it with existing analogues according to various indicators;

7) goods of special demand: goods of general demand with the presence of certain characteristics, for the acquisition of which significant efforts are spent;

8) goods of passive demand: goods that the consumer either does not know about, or knows, but does not think about buying them;

9) industrial goods (for intermediate use);

10) materials and components: raw materials, semi-finished products, parts, blanks;

11) capital property: equipment, structures;

12) auxiliary goods and services: business services, auxiliary materials.

3. Services:

1) household: food, housing, service, rest;

2) business: technical, intellectual, financial;

3) social: education, healthcare, security;

4) industrial purposes: operation, repair.

31. Product range

After the company has determined what type of product it will produce, it needs to determine the range and range of these products. An assortment position is a model, brand, which is offered to the market for the purpose of sale. Typically, a firm produces and sells a set of related products of the same assortment group.

A product range is a collection of product groups that are closely related to each other. For each product range, separate strategies must be developed to obtain maximum efficiency.

A commodity unit is an integrity characterized by price, appearance and a number of other indicators.

A commodity nomenclature is a set of all assortment groups, as well as commodity units, that the seller offers to the market.

The range is wider than the range.

Principles of assortment formation:

1) functional (proximity of functions performed) - household appliances, furniture, etc.;

2) consumer (depending on consumer groups) - goods for newborns, teenagers, men, etc.;

3) household (according to the style of sales) - through shops, kiosks, personal sales;

4) price (by price level) - expensive goods, cheap, discounted, goods of the same price.

The main characteristics of the range:

1) breadth: this is the number of assortment groups of goods produced and sold by the company. For example, dishes: pots, pans, plates, glasses, glasses. Or sets: tea, coffee;

2) depth: these are different variants of models of each individual product of one assortment group. For example, skis: for professional athletes, for amateurs, for children;

3) saturation: the total number of its constituent individual goods;

4) harmony: this is the degree of relative proximity of goods of various assortment groups in terms of their final consumption.

The classic assortment analysis is the ABC analysis. It consists in determining the proportions of covering total costs and ensuring profits by different groups of goods that make up the assortment.

So, if the assortment consists of 30 items, where the first 5 make up 80% of sales, the next 5 are another 10%, respectively, all the rest are another 10%. This picture is quite typical for modern business.

32. Competitiveness and marketing strategy of the product

A product can be competitive, i.e., take a worthy place in the market among analogues, only if it is of high quality.

In the simplest sense of the word, the quality of the goods is understood as the absence of defects in the goods. But this is clearly not enough. A product can be successful in the market only if it meets the expectations of consumers - the price level, technical, operational, aesthetic properties, prestige, etc.

The quality of a product is the level of satisfaction of the needs and requirements of buyers.

Consumer parameters of product quality:

1) regulatory: according to its characteristics, the product should not go beyond rigidly established standards (level of toxicity, fire hazard, etc.), which is regulated and controlled by law;

2) "hard": parameters measured in specific units (size, energy consumption, performance, etc.);

3) "soft": evaluated by an expert in points (repairability, level of design, prestige, ease of use, etc.).

The consumer usually subconsciously compares these parameters and makes a choice in favor of a particular product.

The competitiveness of a product is a relatively generalized characteristic of a product that reflects its advantageous differences from competing products in terms of consumer satisfaction.

Stages of product competitiveness:

1) market research and analysis, identification of the most competitive sample product for further comparison with the company's products;

2) determination of a set of comparable indicators (parameters) of common goods;

3) calculation of the indicator of the competitiveness of the goods. Product marketing strategy

The marketing strategy provides what the marketing structure should be in order for the firm to achieve its goals. The main directions in the decision on the marketing structure are product planning, sales, promotion, prices. The company's strategy must be very clear.

There are four approaches to strategy planning:

1) a matrix of opportunities for goods (markets);

2) matrix "Boston Consulting Group";

3) the program of the impact of market strategy on profits (PIMS);

4) Porter's strategic model.

Let's consider the first approach. It includes four alternative strategies:

1) market penetration;

2) market development;

3) product development strategy;

4) diversification strategy.

33. Product life cycle. New product development

A typical product life cycle consists of several stages: development and implementation; growth; maturity; saturation; decline.

After the company has developed and created its product, it brings it to the market. Takes all possible measures to generate demand for it and tries to win the trust of buyers. At this stage, the company incurs high costs.

growth stage It is characterized by the perception of the product by the market, the growth of demand for it, the growth of sales and profits.

maturity stage - this is the achievement by the company of the maximum volume of sales and profit due to the fact that the product is perceived by buyers and there is a demand for it; competing products appear.

Saturation and decline - this is a sharp decrease in sales and profits, the product is removed from production and (or) replaced by a more perfect one; leaving the product from the market.

It is rather difficult to determine where one stage ends and another begins, therefore it is customary to distinguish a certain stage by the pronounced indicators of each stage, that is, when, for example, sales, profits, etc. increase or decrease.

The development of a new product includes seven stages:

1) idea generation;

2) evaluation of products;

3) proof of concept;

4) economic analysis;

5) product development;

6) trial marketing; 7) commercial implementation.

At the first stage, the company is looking for opportunities to create new products by searching for new ideas and methods for their creation. Sources of new ideas can be the market or the laboratory. Methods of new ideas - brainstorming, analysis of existing products and conducting surveys. After receiving the results, the firm selects the new product idea that suits it.

Concentration testing consists in presenting the intended product to the consumer in order to study his attitude and intention to make a purchase. This verification is mainly carried out by conducting various types of surveys.

Environmental analysis - this is an analysis of forecasts of demand, costs, possible competition, proposed investments, profitability.

At the stage of product development, the company embodies a new idea about the product in physical form, determines the marketing strategy, develops packaging, trademark, etc.

Trial marketing consists in the sale of a new product to the consumer of the selected market segment and monitoring the development of events.

Commercial implementation - this is the stage of implementation of the product life cycle, including the implementation of the company's marketing plan and full-scale production. This stage is characterized by high costs and speed of decision making.

34. Essence and value of commodity policy. Essence and channels of distribution

Commodity policy is a complex multi-stage activity of the company.

The main condition for the survival and prosperity of the company is the launch of a new or modified product on the market.

The essence of product policy lies in the four characteristics of the product range (breadth, saturation, depth, harmony), which give the company a chance to win in a competitive environment.

Formation of commodity policy.

Commodity policy is an integral part of the marketing policy of the enterprise. It includes research of the market, consumers, competitors; development of a program of action of the company in the field of production; forecasting the life cycle of a product, as well as its analysis.

Thus, with the help of this policy, issues and tasks of creating a new product are solved, marketing is being developed that allows management to avoid many mistakes of this stage, which can significantly increase the efficiency of the company.

The essence of merchandising.

In the marketing policy of the enterprise, the marketing policy or the organization of product distribution is of great importance. Management specialist J. Bolt defined it this way: "Insufficient efficiency in sales activities endangers the existence of the company as a whole."

Merchandising - this is a whole system with the help of which the delivery of the necessary goods to consumers at the point of sale at a certain time with a high level of service and minimal costs is ensured.

The main directions of commodity circulation include: the choice of the most optimal distribution channels, the choice of methods for the sale of goods.

An effective marketing policy (goods movement) can significantly increase the company's profit.

Merchandising channels.

The channel of distribution of goods is the path of movement of goods from the seller (manufacturer) to the buyer, as well as organizations or individuals involved in bringing goods from the manufacturer to the consumer.

Distribution channels are divided according to the number of its constituent participants (levels):

1) zero-level channel: producer - consumer;

2) single-level channel: manufacturer - retailer - consumer;

3) two-level channel: manufacturer - wholesaler - retailer - consumer.

The presence of a large number of levels in the company reduces its ability to control the activities of participants in the distribution of goods.

35. The concept and essence of a trademark. Packaging and labeling

Trademark is a mark (or part thereof) protected by law, which gives the seller the exclusive right to use the brand name or mark.

Mark - this is a kind of term, symbol, sign or drawing, designed to distinguish a product from the entire mass of commodities.

The brand includes:

1) the brand name is a part of the brand, presented in the form of letters, words;

2) a brand mark is a symbol, drawing, color, sign;

3) trademark.

Often, consumers, based on their judgment about the company's product, form an opinion about its trademark, thereby creating its image.

Trademark meaning.

It has been noticed that the presence of a trademark can increase the price of a product by 10-20%. However, the creation of a prestigious sign is within the power of fairly large companies that can produce high-quality goods, supply them to various markets, and also incur significant costs in their promotion.

A trademark is considered successful if it is readily bought by consumers and trade organizations. It is able to increase the market share for the firm by increasing sales volumes.

Packaging and labeling of goods.

Trademarks appeared in the Middle Ages as a need for artisans and merchants to designate their goods in order to control the volume and quality of products, that is, brands acted as a kind of quality standard when sold on the market. Building brand loyalty means creating and maintaining a strong brand image and, consequently, maximizing sales.

A good brand is associated with the merits and quality of the product; it is easy to remember; legally protected.

Therefore, product labeling is one of the important marketing tools of a company.

Packaging - this is an additional service (convenience), and for the manufacturer - a means of stimulating sales, a source of information about the product, advertising, product protection.

Packaging is understood as containers (boxes, bags, containers, barrels, bags, etc.), which allow you to protect the goods from damage.

The task of the marketing service in this direction is to develop the most convenient and acceptable packaging, create its design, study customer reviews about it and take the necessary measures in case of bad reviews.

The components of the packaging are a label and an insert.

Label - this is a kind of "piece" of information on the product, containing the brand name, company symbol, composition, codes, addresses, instructions.

Insert - these are detailed instructions on how to use and precautions, or these are coupons, brochures, prizes, etc.

36. Concept, essence, classification and role of services

Service Marketing - this is the rental of goods, the repair of goods belonging to consumers, as well as personal services.

Sometimes goods and services mix. For example, when we pay for a hotel room for accommodation, we do not take anything with us except memories. Or buying a book, we first of all acquire mental abilities, and not paper with ink.

Service classification:

1) by tangibility: tangible (assumes the presence of a real object - equipment rental) and intangible (for example, the level of service);

2) by the level of qualification of specialists: consumers use greater selectivity when choosing a service that requires high qualification;

3) non-commercial services: services that are of a public nature and, as a rule, do not bring profit;

4) according to the degree of regulation: from the side of legislation, moral principles, religion, way of life;

5) in terms of labor intensity: automated and manual services. Labor intensity increases with the involvement of highly qualified personnel;

6) according to the degree of contact with consumers: close or insignificant.

Intangibility, inseparability and volatility of service quality

Characteristics of services that distinguish them from goods:

1) intangibility - the impossibility of demonstration, transportation, storage, packaging. For example, repair and maintenance services. It is only possible to describe what benefits the product will have as a result;

2) inseparability, i.e. the quality of the service directly depends on the level of qualification of the specialist;

3) variability means that the quality may vary even if the service is provided by the same firm.

The role of services in the marketing system.

The main role of services is sales promotion. When providing services, there is direct contact with the buyer. Service acts as an additional means of increasing the competitiveness of goods.

For example, for firms trading in industrial goods, maintenance comes to the fore. The profit from this type of service may exceed the profit from the sale of the goods themselves. Therefore, in the marketing strategy of complex industrial mechanisms and machines, the principle is important: first, the organization of after-sales service, and then the sale of goods itself.

37. Pricing: concept, essence, types

Pricing It is one of the most important components of the marketing activity of any enterprise.

From how competently and thoughtfully pricing is built, and therefore how well thought out the pricing policy of the company, its commercial results depend.

The essence of pricing is to determine what prices need to be set for goods (services) in order to capture a part of the market, ensure the competitiveness of this product in terms of price indicators and determine the amount of profit.

For producers operating on the market (regardless of the form of ownership), the question of the price of a product (service) is of great importance. Price is closely related to many determinants of marketing. The company's profitability, financial stability and viability depend on it.

By pursuing a certain pricing policy, the company actively influences both the volume of sales and the amount of profit received. Usually, an organization does not aim to obtain momentary "profit" by selling a product (service) at the maximum price.

The price is influenced by external factors (the consumer sector, the market environment, the level of competition, suppliers and intermediaries, the economic situation in the country (region), government price regulation) and internal factors (company goals, marketing policy strategy, pricing policy).

The general goals of any commercial organization that affect pricing are: obtaining maximum profit, "capturing" the maximum part of the market, leadership in product quality.

Types of pricing.

1. Discriminatory education is the sale of goods (services) at different prices, regardless of costs. The establishment of discriminatory prices is carried out depending on:

1) the consumer segment, i.e. different buyers are willing to pay different prices for the same product;

2) product variant, i.e. different versions of the product (service) are sold at different prices, regardless of costs;

3) the location of the goods, i.e., the prices for the goods in different places are set differently, even if the costs are the same;

4) time, i.e. the price depends on the season.

2. Pricing according to the psychological principle is the determination of the price not only from the economic side, but also taking into account psychological factors.

3. Promotional pricing is a price reduction (even below cost) for some time in order to increase sales in the short term. Used to reduce inventory.

4. Pricing on a geographical basis is the establishment of a different price level depending on the distance from the manufacturer. This is mainly used to cover transportation costs.

38. The value of pricing in marketing. Pricing Methods

Pricing is a crucial marketing tool, and price level is a kind of indicator of the functioning of competition. Price competition exists not only between producers, but also among traders. The manufacturer wants to control two prices: wholesale and retail, since its revenue largely depends on the first price, and the positioning of the goods depends on the second. However, at the level of law (in many states) the right to determine the retail price is reserved for retailers, which limits the ability of the manufacturer, who can only guess what price the seller will charge based on his wholesale price and markup.

There are four main methods for determining the base (initial) price.

1. Costly method. This is the simplest method in pricing. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined on the basis of all costs plus a certain fixed percentage of profit. Here, the goals of the entrepreneur, not the buyer, are taken into account.

2. Aggregate method. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined as the sum of the prices for the individual components of the product, as well as the price of the aggregate (general) block and the allowance (discount) for the presence or absence of individual components.

3. Parametric method. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined taking into account its quality.

4. Pricing based on current prices. The essence of this method is that the price of a product is determined on the basis of prices for similar products, and this price can vary - be more or less.

The manufacturer's problem is to determine the "correct" price, but also to ensure that this price "revenues". And since the market affects the entrepreneur, the latter must constantly monitor the price level for his product and adjust it by various methods. There are the following main methods:

1) setting flexible and long-term prices: setting a flexible price depending on time and place;

2) pricing by market segments: here prices vary depending on which market segment the product is in;

3) depending on the psychological factor;

4) the method of stepwise differentiation: here such intervals (or steps) are distinguished between the price level in which consumer demand does not change;

5) redistribution of assortment costs;

6) redistribution of nomenclature costs: here, initially, a low price is set for the main product, and a high price for related products;

7) franking method: transport costs are taken into account here;

8) method with discounts: this method is used for the purpose of sales promotion.

39. Marketing concept of price. Price determination

Price is the most important element of the marketing mix. Firms do not just set a price, but develop a specific pricing policy.

Historically, price has been the primary determinant of a buyer's choice. However, it should be noted that recently non-price factors have begun to significantly influence the choice of the buyer: the quality of the goods, advertising, service, etc.

Price is the ability of a product expressed in monetary units.

Price is the ability to determine the competitiveness of a product, taking into account the amount of costs necessary for its acquisition and operation.

Price determination.

In the market, setting the right price for a product is a very complicated procedure, since the price level is influenced by many factors, such as: production costs, competitors' prices, prices of imported analogues, the level of demand, transportation costs, various duties and fees, advertising and various elements of promotional sales, etc.

To determine the optimal price level, a wide-ranging analysis of the above factors is required.

The price of consumption or the cost of acquiring a product is made up of many components. The composition and structure of these costs are determined taking into account the functions of the product, the availability of additional services (service), their cost, remoteness and other factors.

The price also depends on the duration of the product's life cycle at the consumer (service life, shelf life, etc.).

As market research shows, consumers of different social groups rank the price and quality of goods differently. And this means that when solving the problem of determining the level of competitiveness of a product (service), it is necessary to take into account different typical consumer groups and different market segments.

Solving the above questions, marketers determine the most optimal price for the product.

Depending on the implementation chain, the following are distinguished types of prices.

1. Wholesale - these are the prices at which the goods are sold to the wholesale buyer. This price includes the cost of production and the profit of the company.

2. Wholesale trade prices are the prices at which goods are sold from a wholesale buyer to a retail one. This price is equal to the cost of the goods + profit + supply and marketing cape.

3. Retail price is the price from the retailer to the end customer. And this price is equal to the wholesale trade price + trade margin.

40. The process of setting the price of a new product. Pricing regulation

The pricing process is relatively complex and consists of the following steps.

1. Defining the goals of the company and the objectives of the pricing policy.

2. Identification of all factors that may influence the pricing process.

3. Analysis of the level of sales for a certain period.

4. Determining the level of demand for the future.

5. Estimation of all costs of the firm.

6. Research and analysis of prices of competing products.

7. Determination of the pricing method.

8. Development of a pricing strategy.

9. Setting the final price.

10. Identification of the reaction of end consumers and intermediary firms to the set price.

Also, marketing specialists should take into account the psychological factor:

1) many consumers perceive the price as an indicator of the quality of the goods;

2) setting the price taking into account the prestige (typical for expensive goods);

3) the strategy of unrounded amounts (for example, 100 rubles is perceived to be much more than 99 rubles).

Pricing regulation.

Pricing is influenced by various factors of external influence: state policy, type of market, number of participants in the distribution channel, competitors, buyers.

The state exerts influence by fixing the price, its regulation by establishing the "rules of the game" at free market prices.

Methods of state influence.

1. Entering state list prices.

2. "Freeze" prices for a certain time.

3. Fixing the prices of monopoly companies.

4. Establishment of marginal allowances for fixed prices.

5. Establishing a price limit for specific goods.

6. Establishing a specific level of one-time price increases for certain goods.

In the system of free market prices, the state can:

1) introduce a ban on horizontal and vertical price fixing;

2) prohibit price discrimination;

3) prohibit dumping prices.

Prices are also determined by the type of market: pure competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly.

Prices also depend on the number of participants in the distribution channel and can be: wholesale, purchasing and retail.

When determining the final price, it is necessary to take into account the influence of competitors' prices, as well as their number.

41. Marketing communications

Marketing communications is the process of transferring data about your products to the target audience.

The target audience - this is a group of current or potential consumers who can receive this information and are able to respond appropriately to it.

The purpose of marketing communications is to provide various target audiences with information about the company's marketing strategies by sending specific messages about their product, its cost, methods of sale, thereby causing consumers to become interested in this product.

There are five basic elements of marketing communications.

1. Persuading and informing consumers. Any company is interested in conveying the maximum amount of information to the largest number of consumers as quickly as possible and convincing them that this product is exactly what they need. To achieve this goal, a variety of methods are used, for example, indicating on the package the telephone number of a single information service and the postal address so that consumers can express their opinion about the product; holding presentations or tastings (if we are talking about a food product), etc.

2. Goals. As a rule, the goals of marketing communications are to create a positive opinion about the organization and the product it produces, bring information to consumers, improve the market culture, etc. And of course, the ultimate goal of any marketing strategy is the most effective sale of goods and maximum profit.

3. Places of contacts. To successfully operate in the market, the firm must send its information to places where contact between the manufactured product and consumers is most likely. Such places can be very diverse: these are shops that directly sell this product, stalls in pavilions, and even rooms in houses where the consumer, sitting in front of the TV screen, can call the "hot line" and thus receive information that interests him. In any case, it is necessary that the appeal in any contact point works in such a way that the buyer decides to purchase this particular product.

4. Participants in the marketing process. Absolutely any people who contribute to the promotion of the product in any way can be participants in the marketing process. In a word, it can be sellers, promoters, employees of the organization, dealers, suppliers, and even an ordinary buyer who bought a product and shared his joy with a neighbor.

5. Communication appeals. Communication calls can be planned and unplanned. Planned communications include advertising, service, franchising, personal selling, souvenirs, sales promotion, public relations. Unplanned appeals include all the rest, not provided for by the marketing plan.

42. Sales promotion

Sales promotion is a marketing activity aimed at encouraging consumers to purchase this product, but is different from advertising, personal selling or propaganda.

Sales promotion is used in situations where it is necessary:

1) increase sales in a short period of time;

2) keep the consumer's attachment to the product;

3) to promote a new product to the market;

4) interact with other promotion elements.

Consider the advantages and disadvantages of sales promotion.

The advantages are:

1) high probability of direct contact with buyers;

2) a large number of stimulation methods;

3) increasing the likelihood of impulsive purchases, etc.

The disadvantages include:

1) sales increase only for a short period of time;

2) there is the greatest positive effect in conjunction with other methods of promotion, etc.

We can distinguish the following main methods of sales promotion.

1. Distribution of product samples. distribution of free samples of goods for testing.

2. Coupons. They give their owner the right to a discount.

3. Preferential price for multiple packs. The consumer is offered a small savings when purchasing multiple packs.

4. Prize. This is a product that is offered to the buyer as a reward for purchasing another product.

5. Souvenirs - small presents for customers.

6. Demonstration of goods.

7. Contests.

8. Establishing a deadline - the offer remains valid only for a certain amount of time.

9. Alternative "yes" - "no". In this case, a question with a deliberately positive answer is pasted onto the package, and the word "yes" is printed in large colorful letters, and the word "no" in small and nondescript ones.

10. Free entry to the club.

11. Attracting customers by consumers - a client who has purchased a product is offered to involve his acquaintances, friends, relatives in the purchase for a certain fee.

12. Negative answer. Goods, catalogs, branded souvenirs are sent to the consumer by mail until the client agrees to this.

13. Lottery. Among consumers who have purchased goods in a certain period of time, a lottery is held.

43. Features of the stimulation complex

When developing a sales promotion package, organizations should adhere to certain rules.

1. Determine the stimulus budget. Currently, there are many ways to determine the budget. The most common of these are:

1) "from cash" - the company allocates as much for stimulation as it sees fit, without commensurate budgetary funds with sales volume;

2) "from interest to sales volume" - the incentive budget is calculated based on the amount of the planned profit, which makes the costs of marketing activities as "transparent" as possible;

3) "competitive parity method" - manufacturing firms track the amount of incentives from their competitors and set similar costs for themselves;

4) "planning goals and objectives" - the incentive budget is determined based on the planned goals, the established tasks for their implementation and the analysis of the costs of achieving these goals.

2. Choose incentives. When making a choice, it is necessary to remember that each incentive is individual, they have their own unique qualities, as well as their own costs.

Advertising - let's try to define its specific properties:

1) the ability to induce;

2) expressiveness;

3) impersonality.

Personal Selling - Personal selling techniques are characterized by:

1) personal character;

2) formation of relations;

3) a call for a response.

Propaganda has three characteristic qualities:

1) reliability;

2) the most complete coverage of the audience;

3) catchiness.

Purposes of advertising.

1. Determine the type of market or product and choose the most appropriate means of promotion for them, whether it be advertising, propaganda or personal selling.

2. Define a product promotion strategy and methods to attract consumers.

3. Determine the degree of readiness of the buyer and determine the stage of the product life cycle.

44. The concept of advertising, its goals and functions

The modern development of all spheres of society in almost every state is characterized by intensity and dynamics, qualitative changes are taking place everywhere. Renovation processes affect politics, economics, and social infrastructure. The transition from a planned economy to a market economy required entrepreneurship to form and develop the organization of complex marketing activities. Advertising a product or the company itself - this is one of the most important components of a complex of marketing actions, information delivered directly to the consumer.

With a good and competent organization, the effect of advertising is very high and contributes to the constant sale of products, increasing demand for goods and services. At the same time, the turnover of the financial resources of the organization increases, its pace accelerates, new business contacts between the manufacturer and the consumer appear. Advertising of goods is a necessity dictated by modern economic conditions. The oversaturation of the market with identical goods has set quite definite tasks for advertising. Organization of the implementation of a complete and effective set of promotional activities is a difficult task. Its implementation requires the knowledge and skills of highly qualified specialists of the sales departments, marketing and advertising departments of the company.

Advertising has its own rules and regulations. The basics of popular psychology, sociology and market research are used to increase the profit of the enterprise.

Advertising contributes to the popularization of the goods sold, influences the formation of demand, introduces the buyer to the quality characteristics of the product (sometimes the information is distorted). Not only goods and services can be advertised, it creates the image of the organization, forms a brand, distributes information about events and promotions.

Advertising includes all methods of campaigning, exhibition and fair events with presentation elements, stylized packaging, printed materials (leaflets, brochures, catalogs, posters, etc.) and other methods of sales promotion in trading activities.

Advertising is public. It is understood that the advertised goods or services are legal and do not contradict the norms of society. Advertising messages are composed in such a way that the seller can repeatedly repeat his appeals to the consumer. The buyer also has the opportunity to accumulate and compare data from different competitors. Large-scale advertising often indicates the success of the seller. Advertising allows you to reach a wide range of consumers with identical interests, even separated from each other (geographically, by gender and age structure, etc.). Advertising can also be viewed as a kind of benchmark in the market.

45. Forms of advertising

Advertising forms can be very different. In reality, everything depends on the goals of the advertising campaign, the budget of the organization, the experience and imagination of the advertising agency or the marketing department.

There are the following forms of advertising.

1. Informative advertising.

As a rule, informative advertising is widely used mainly when a product is released to the market, when it is necessary to lure a buyer, create primary demand, show the consumer features, product novelty, and interest. The tasks are to inform the market about an innovation or change in the use of an existing product, inform about the price level, explain the principles of operation or use of the product, get acquainted with the services provided, muffle the buyer's fears, and create the company's image.

2. Persuasive advertising.

The importance of persuasive advertising increases during the growth stages of production and sales. At this point, the firm is faced with the task of creating selective demand. Partially persuasive ads are shifting towards comparative advertising, which serves to assert the advantages of one brand over another on the principle of direct comparison in the area of the trade sector. Such advertising is used for consumer goods that are in constant demand, the competition from these manufacturers is always very tough.

3. Emotional advertising.

Emotional advertising also includes reinforcement advertising. This form seeks to prove to the current buyer the correctness of his choice. These advertisements often feature satisfied customers, a cheerful or calming atmosphere, comic moments aimed at creating positive emotions, and, on a subconscious level, a good opinion about the product. 4. Reminder advertising.

Reminder advertising is extremely important at the stage of completion of the production cycle, it is necessary to remind the consumer about goods or services. The purpose, as a rule, of expensive advertising campaigns of previously well-purchased products of organizations with a good image and well-established recognition, is to remind the consumer of their place in the market, information or persuasion does not apply to them.

Tasks include:

1) a reminder to the buyer about the places of sale of goods;

2) retention of certain products in the memory of consumers during the off-season;

3) maintaining the level of awareness about the product.

In real market conditions, the boundaries between forms of advertising are blurred, since one advertisement can have or combine both an informational component and, for example, an exhortational one.

46. Advertising and product life cycle

Product life cycle - this is the period of time for the circulation of a product on the market from the concept of a product to its removal from production and removal from sale.

The concept of the product life cycle includes the sale of products, sales revenues, a complete marketing strategy from the moment the product is launched to the market until it is discontinued.

The life cycle of a product is understood as a certain sequence of stages of its existence on the market, which has its own boundaries. The dynamics of a product's life reflects sales volumes in different periods, changes in demand for it.

The first stage of the life cycle is implementation.

The second stage is growth. The third stage is maturity.

The fourth stage of the life cycle is saturation.

At the fifth stage, there is a decline.

At the stage of entering the product on the market, it is necessary to take into account the complete ignorance of buyers about the new product, while main objectives of advertising:

1) the formation of interest in the existence of goods and brands;

2) informing the market about the benefits of a new product;

3) encouraging the consumer to purchase a new product;

4) motivation of buyers to turn over the goods. Thus, there is an initial acquaintance

consumer with the proposed product. Advertising at this stage is large-scale and requires significant financial injections, which adversely affects profits, but in the long run it is justified.

In the growth phase, the level of sales increases significantly. Most buyers make repeat purchases. Many already know about the product and the brand of the manufacturer. Since there are competitors in the market, the fundamentally important goal of advertising is no longer just informing, but creating a preference for a brand of goods. All advertising objectives can be reduced to:

1) creating a strong, competitive brand image;

2) formation of brand preference;

3) to stimulate the purchase of goods.

At the stage of maturity, new buyers are rare, and sales occur mainly through repeat purchases. The maturity phase is the peak of advertising activity. The competition is intensified. The market is not expanding, therefore, the main purpose of advertising is to prevent the decline and even the growth of a part of the advertised product on the market.

An important advertising factor is a variety of sales, discounts when purchasing goods, additional warranty conditions, service and further quality improvement.

Campaign advertising remains the main type of advertising.

At the recession stage, sales are falling rapidly and advertising is inappropriate. The product is leaving the market. However, if large consignments of goods have been preserved in warehouses, then entrepreneurs continue to advertise their products until they are completely eliminated.

47. Principles for choosing an advertising distribution channel

Departments of organizations involved in the distribution of advertising should take into account the breadth of coverage, frequency and strength of the impact of advertising techniques.

Advertising should carry out full coverage of the target audience. Each media has its own characteristics that must be taken into account and used.

Features of the press and print advertising for newspapers and magazines.

This type of advertising allows you to use the possibility of a flexible system of options in size, volume, design, placement on the page and in the heading and time of publication.

Printed texts should be easy to read, not contain clichés and hackneyed expressions, give complete information about the product required by the buyer, contain a catchy headline that attracts attention and arouses interest.

radio features.

The coverage of the consumer market is determined by the broadcasting area, while the potential consumer audience is diverse, directly related to the time of broadcasting, the features of the radio station format. The most rational way to advertise in this way is for firms selling consumer goods. The advantage is a large coverage of a specific audience, and the disadvantages include the need to repeatedly broadcast a commercial.

It is necessary to use the airtime as efficiently as possible, giving the most important information about the product.

The professionalism of the announcer is of decisive importance, which other factors on the radio cannot compensate for.

Features of television.

This type of advertising is designed for the general population, depending on the channel and the specifics of the programs. Here, sellers of consumer goods and services with a large turnover of products can develop. Despite all the advantages of advertising on television, the cost of airtime is very high, and the production of commercials also requires significant costs.

By placing ads at a certain television time, you can convey it to specific groups of the target audience.

Features of outdoor advertising.

Outdoor advertising includes all types of posters, canvases, billboards, banners, etc. Such advertising should instantly attract attention and be remembered. To concentrate attention, highlighting keywords and symbols with color and font, punctuation marks, and design elements is used.

Today, in this form, advertising is used on roads, on land transport, huge posters on buildings, etc.

Each organization independently chooses a way to influence a potential consumer, taking into account specific features, which makes it possible to make advertising more effective and reduce costs.

48. Marketing control

Marketing control is a comprehensive, consistent, objective and regular study of the marketing environment, its objectives, strategies or current activities, with the aim of detecting emerging problems and opportunities and issuing advice on an action plan to improve marketing activities.

Marketing control is an analysis of the results of the implementation of the marketing plan and the approval of the necessary measures to correct it.

Control allows you to detect positive and negative sides in the competitive potentials of the organization. It is also very important to pay increased attention to the control over the implementation and the analysis of sales opportunities. Equally important are the control of profitability and the analysis of marketing costs, as well as long-term planning. Control in the field of the sale of goods involves strict accounting of actual sales and trends of their increase relative to the planned indicators for certain types of goods and their groups, separate sales divisions and directly to sellers, sales methods, as well as types of consumers, pricing policy, periods of time.

Implementation control includes providing up-to-date information about problems that arise during the implementation of assigned tasks, as well as products, segments and markets where there are difficulties in selling the goods, or about favorable marketing opportunities that have appeared and previously not considered. In the event of a drop in sales, possible solutions to avoid a crisis situation are immediately presented. At the same time, measures are being prepared to eliminate a possible shortage in the market.

Analysis of the costs of marketing activities and control over the profitability of the organization affect such a side of the activity as the profitability of individual products and their assortment groups, market segments, sales channels, advertising costs, etc. The profitability of sales activities is analyzed, as a rule, by product groups , by market segments or consumer groups.

Further, marketing control provides for an analysis of the total costs for the production of goods and its sale, the costs of advertising, transportation, etc. Then the costs are analyzed individually for each of the distribution channels, the profit or loss is determined in order to identify the most profitable options and, if necessary, adjustments are made organization policy.

Analysis of the relationship between product sales and marketing costs allows you to identify the effectiveness of marketing activities and the expediency of the funds spent, helps to save money in achieving marketing goals.

49. Types of control in marketing activities

In modern practice, there are four types of marketing control (according to F. Kotler): analysis of annual plans, control of profitability, control of efficiency and strategic control.

1. Analysis of annual plans includes:

1) sales analysis is expressed in the volume of actually sold products in relation to the planned volume, the analysis also draws attention to markets in which sales are higher than in others;

2) market share analysis - this indicator is analyzed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the company in relation to competitors;

3) analysis of the ratio of sales to costs - helps the organization determine the effectiveness of marketing costs and find the most acceptable value. Marketing costs include wages, advertising costs, sales promotion, marketing research, etc. The increase in this indicator is carried out:

a) by increasing profits by increasing sales / reducing costs;

b) by improving the turnover of capital by increasing the volume of sales / reducing assets;

4) analysis of consumer opinions;

5) financial analysis - has long been used not only to create effective sales relationships, but also to develop profitable strategies.

2. Profitability control - is carried out by analyzing the organization's balance sheet by making adjustments to ensure the profitability of various types of products, improving the functioning of the organization in various markets.

3. Efficiency control - determines the most favorable ways of organizing the work of the sales service, conducting advertising campaigns, and the activities of the logistics service.

4. Strategic control. High performance can be characterized by the fact that the company effectively implements marketing policy on a strategic scale. As a rule, surveys of managers and marketing audits are used in this case. When conducting a survey, such aspects as consumer orientation, completeness and timeliness of marketing information, focus on achieving real results, efficiency of marketing activity management are singled out. The essence of a marketing audit includes:

1) comprehensiveness;

2) systematic;

3) independence;

4) periodicity.

50. Marketing audit

Marketing audit - this is a complete, permanent, independent and periodically conducted verification of the marketing environment, goals, plans, strategies and individual forms of marketing activities of an organization or its structural divisions. It is one of the means of strategic control of the marketing of the enterprise.

Marketing audit includes the collection of essential information about the activities of the company. The audit is divided into two main parts: internal and external audit.

External audit (in other words, an audit of the marketing environment) works with the macro environment and the general tasks of the company. Internal audit controls all forms of the organization's activities.

When conducting an audit on its own, the organization can solve all emerging problems quickly and efficiently. In addition, it is significantly cheaper than an external marketing audit. The specialists of their company maintain confidentiality, better understand all the intricacies of the organization's work processes, but when conducting large-scale and in-depth audits, difficulties may arise due to a lack of staff. Evaluation can be somewhat subjective.

Specialists-analysts and consultants "from the outside" work out the problem more deeply, their conclusions are objective and impartial, and they also select effective recommendations for the area they worked with. Such services are not cheap. The difference between an external marketing audit lies in the integrated approach of expert analysts to the development of an organization's marketing strategy, the development of opportunities for consolidating the company's position in the market. The main objectives of the audit are:

1) assessment of the organization's compliance with certain market conditions;

2) improve production efficiency, marketing and sales business operations, timely identification of problem areas.

Determination of marketing costs consists of three stages:

1) detailed acquaintance with the financial statements of the enterprise, determination of the ratio of gross income and costs;

2) recalculation of expenses for marketing activities in accordance with its effectiveness;

3) division of functional expenses by individual types of products, methods of sale, sales market segments, etc.

Marketing audit involves periodic monitoring of the company's marketing activities. Strategic inspection involves an assessment of priority tasks, the effectiveness of the chosen strategy, and the development of recommendations for the preparation of subsequent work plans.

An audit is recommended:

1) during structural changes within the company or in the market;

2) when the first signs of a decrease in the level of sales that are not related to market conditions appear;

3) when introducing new products into production or on the market, before starting a new direction.

51. Methods for assessing effectiveness. About marketing activities

Some scientists believe that the effectiveness of marketing policy in relation to a particular enterprise or industry is found by summing up the results of improving production and marketing activities, taking into account the optimal use of market opportunities, increasing the reliability of forecasts used, identifying a market segment for certain products, etc.

Others believe that marketing effectiveness should be evaluated by such indicators as the number of buyers, marketing integration, the adequacy of information, strategy, although there is no calculation algorithm.

Many argue that the effect of marketing activities is to increase sales and increase profits. But these are the final results, and they are influenced, in addition to marketing, by other factors of the organization's work - the qualifications of employees of different management departments, production forces (equipment, technology), financial potential, so this assessment is too simplified and not very objective.

You can evaluate the effectiveness of marketing activities as a set of marketing costs. At the same time, economic and statistical methods are used to study the relationship between marketing costs and financial results. In this case, the evaluation of cost effectiveness is better than that of marketing activities.

Science has not yet developed a unified methodological basis for a complete and comprehensive assessment of marketing effectiveness, available for practical use in real, widespread analytical work of organizations.

At the heart of evaluating the effectiveness of marketing should be answers to three main questions: for what purposes the methodology is used, what benefits the results will bring and who needs it.

1. The purpose of evaluating a mobile marketing audit is to determine its effectiveness, conduct a comparative analysis by organization, and also determine the competitiveness of enterprises.

2. Assignment of results. The results of the assessment can be used by employees of enterprises to plan marketing activities, directions of work and competitiveness, improve the management of the organization, and improve the skills of employees of marketing services.

3. For whom it is intended. The concept is necessary for independent experts, specialists of audit services, marketing centers.

Marketing activity in practice is carried out by performing marketing tasks, such as market research, identifying market segments and selecting priority ones, positioning products, developing an attractive product range for the consumer, introducing new products to the market, pursuing a flexible pricing policy, finding and selecting effective distribution channels, communication activity. The main functions of management are considered competent planning and organization, since the success of all marketing activities depends on the quality and objectivity of marketing plans.

52. The concept of international marketing. International Marketing Concepts

International Marketing carried out as an expression of the business activity of companies operating in markets with the aim of generating income in more than one country.

The main goal of marketing - making a profit through the sale of goods, pricing and distribution of products in existing markets.

Feature of foreign marketing lies in a group of unfamiliar problems, for the solution of which it is necessary to select a whole range of strategies, methods and techniques suitable for foreign markets.

Marketing is aimed at combating such negative factors as competition, legal restrictions, weather and climate conditions, and consumer volatility. Solving the difficulties created by the different conditions of different countries is the most important task of marketers dealing with international marketing problems.

International Marketing Concepts

Differences in international focus and approaches to international markets can fall under one of three international marketing concepts:

1) the concept of expanding the domestic market;

2) the concept of a multi-internal market;

3) the concept of global marketing. The concept of expanding the domestic market. The concept of expanding the domestic market involves considering its international operations as secondary, and the initial operation is the expansion of the set of operations performed in the domestic domestic market. The primary motive is the sale of surplus products. Entrepreneurship in the domestic market is a priority, and activities abroad are a profitable increase in the number of operations in the domestic market. Companies are looking for segments of the international market where the demand for products is similar to the demand in the domestic market.

The concept of a multi-domestic market. Companies use this concept when working in foreign markets is of great importance and it is necessary to modify foreign business in terms of organization.

The products (goods) of these firms adapt to each individual market, regardless of the branches of their organization in other foreign countries. Each branch develops its own marketing program corresponding to the market data, i.e. it seeks to adapt to the local market of a foreign country.

Global marketing concept. Marketing activities - global marketing, covering the whole world. The company develops high quality standard products that will be sold at a reasonable price in the global market. The main postulate of the global marketing concept involves the orientation of the world market to the people to the buyer to meet their needs and desires.

53. The essence and objectives of international marketing

The challenges facing international marketing are more complex than in domestic markets, as it faces at least two levels of uncertainty. The firm has to overcome many barriers (political, economic, customs, trade, etc.). It is more difficult to gain a foothold in such a market, since it is necessary to maintain a high competitiveness of products, master new technologies, look for partners and consumers, and establish transportation channels.

The managed elements of marketing are product quality, prices, promotion, distribution channels. They ensure the firm's adaptability to ever-changing market conditions.

The internal environment consists of domestic aspects that affect the success of the enterprise in the external (foreign) market (political forces, legal regulations and the economic climate).

Political decisions relating to foreign policy can have a significant impact on a company's marketing success in a foreign market.

The internal economic environment is an uncontrollable factor that strongly affects the competitiveness of the company in the external market. For a number of economic tasks, the exchange rate is the most important for making marketing decisions.

A feature of international marketing is that organizations have to work in a complex market economic environment, which is not characterized by homogeneity and integrity, in which the factors of the internal environment are influenced by the external environment of each country.

Companies operating in their own country, of course, feel more confident in market forecasting and business decision making. The most well-thought-out international marketing program often cannot foresee the course of events and possible crises in the cultural or political life of a foreign country, especially in the economy.

The set of uncontrollable factors of the international environment consists of:

1) political (legal) aspects;

2) economic aspects;

3) competing forces;

4) the level of technology;

5) distribution structures;

6) geographical location and infrastructure;

7) cultural aspects.

Thus, a strategy that is successful in one country may fail or even fail in another due to differences in politics, the economic climate, levels of technology, or other commercial, scientific, technological and cultural areas.

54. Features of the transition to international marketing. Marketing research

If a company decides to enter the international market, then it must choose how to enter the external environment, and outline the appropriate stages of marketing tasks. The organization needs to do some preparatory work. Decisions made should be the result of research and analysis of the market potential and capabilities of the enterprise.

Indirect foreign marketing. In this phase, there are not yet active contacts with customers or consumers outside national borders. Sales can be made through trading companies.

Irregular foreign marketing. Temporary production surpluses or demand may be the cause of irregular foreign marketing. At the same time, the organization may have an interest in continuing to work in the foreign market. As domestic demand rises to absorb the surplus, foreign activity is curtailed. In this phase, there are practically no organizational changes in the enterprise or product range.

Regular foreign marketing. In this phase, the firm has a constant production capacity that allows it to produce goods for sale in foreign markets over a long period of time. The company may engage foreign intermediaries or form subsidiaries of trading companies in foreign markets. The main tasks for the company are to meet the needs of the domestic market. Investments in marketing and production abroad usually start in this phase. Pricing, policy and other tasks of the organization in the external market are equal in importance to the same tasks for the internal market. The company is increasingly dependent on profits in foreign markets.

International Marketing. In this phase, the enterprises are fully involved in the international marketing work. These companies are looking for markets around the world. Products are manufactured for sale abroad. From this point on, the organization becomes an international marketing firm.

Global Marketing. At the global marketing level, firms operate in the global marketplace. The world is no longer viewed as a collection of markets of various countries, but becomes a single system for which marketing strategies are being developed.

Marketing research of world markets.

Conducting marketing research is a necessary condition for the successful operation of a company in international markets at all stages of its activities and product life cycle. The more detailed the boundaries and objectives of the study are, the more useful the information will be, the higher the accuracy of the calculations. They help to better understand and adjust to the needs of the buyer, determine the optimal ratio of price and quality of goods, find new consumers, find a way to draw attention to your company and products. Market conditions are constantly changing, so there is a need to carry out such work constantly, which significantly increases the efficiency of operations in international markets.

55. World prices. Pricing policy in international markets

The prices of goods on world markets differ from domestic prices. These prices are based on the international value generated by the leading exporting countries. Domestic prices are based on national costs and reflect the costs of national producers. Often the domestic price is less than the world price. The gap between them can reach up to 30%, while for finished products it is greater than for raw materials, which is associated with different levels of tariff and non-tariff barriers when importing finished goods. The domestic price most often does not predetermine the last level of the world price. The transition from domestic to world prices is based on a chain of additional payments, which are added upon import (duties, countervailing fees) or deducted upon export (tax, depreciation, transport and other benefits, subsidies).

Another feature of world prices is their multiplicity, that is, the existence of several series of prices for the same commodity.

Plurality of world pricesIt is characterized by the quality of the goods, terms of delivery, factors of a trade transaction, delivery time, packaging.

With all the multiplicity of prices for the same product, the choice of a reference point, the basis for calculating the transaction price, i.e., the world base price, is of particular importance. Prices relating to the concept of the world reference price must be accessible to any seller or buyer and be representative of world trade.

It must be recognized that the quantitative volume of turnover, that is, the total purchase at the price in question, is of great importance for its representativeness not in all conditions. Sometimes it is the price in a market that is smaller in volume than other markets.

In practice, export or import prices of the main suppliers and buyers of the relevant goods are taken as world prices. In the international commodity exchange, the last leveling of prices and the formation of the final price in relation to the product occur with a focus on the buyer. Therefore, in order to form a price, it is necessary to use the prices of the largest importers of this product.

World prices for individual goods and commodity groups can form an information array on prices.

As far as possible to get price information can be divided into:

1) published;

2) received from special sources, i.e., upon requests or calculations.

All published prices and prices obtained from special sources complement each other. Consequently, the turnover of any product can be provided with price information.

For all goods involved in world trade, there are several types of prices, which allows for a full verification of price information in order to increase the reliability and objectivity of competitive materials.

56. Segmentation of the international market

The international market is similar to the regional one, but has its own characteristics. It consists of buyers (this concept is more ambitious), each of which is the bearer of distinctive features, depending on which a company operating in the world market chooses a method of splitting into segments.

Segmentation - is the marketing activity of the organization, aimed at the most effective selection of a suitable market.

By means of segmentation, target markets of four levels are determined:

1) segments;

2) niches;

3) regions;

4) individuals.

Segment Marketing involves the choice of a market segment, which is a large group of consumers identified by certain characteristics within the market. Companies that use segment marketing techniques in their activities recognize that it is more expedient to develop packages of offers of goods and services for each separate group of buyers with similar needs, purchasing power, region of residence and priorities. They try to divide the market into several large segments and focus their attention on them.

Segmenting is based on the fact that all consumers in a particular segment have the same wants and needs, although there are some differences.

Niche Marketing considers a market segment as a large group of customers who share some common characteristic (non-smokers, occasional smokers, regular smokers, heavy smokers).

Niša - a narrower group of consumers whose desires are not fully satisfied by competitors. In order to identify a niche, it is necessary to divide the segment into smaller components and identify a group of buyers who are willing and able to pay for a particular combination of benefits.

Since the international market segments are quite large, they are easily recognized by competitors. Niches are much smaller than market segments, therefore, they are less competitive.

Region marketing is engaged in the development of specialized marketing programs aimed at meeting the needs of populations of consumers in a particular region, country, trade zone, target marketing acquires the features of a regional one.

Critics are inclined to believe that regional marketing leads to an increase in production and marketing costs. In addition, companies involved in the supply of goods to international markets face acute problems associated with the transportation of both small and large consignments of goods.

Authors: Egorova M.M., Loginova E.Yu., Shvaiko I.G.

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