|
Arabic
Bengali
Chinese
English
French
German
Hebrew
Hindi
Italian
Japanese
Korean
Malay
Polish
Portuguese
Spanish
Turkish
Ukrainian
Vietnamese|
Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Latin for doctors. Introduction (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Lecture No. 1. Introduction Historical information Latin belongs to the group Italian dead languages. The formation of the literary Latin language took place in the II-I centuries. BC e., and it reached its greatest perfection in the XNUMXst century. BC e., during the period of the so-called classical, or "golden", Latin. He was distinguished by the richest vocabulary, the ability to convey complex abstract concepts, scientific-philosophical, political, legal, economic and technical terminology. The high development of various literary genres is characteristic of this period (Cicero, Caesar, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and others). This period is followed by post-classical, or "silver", Latin (I-II centuries AD), when the norms of phonetics and morphology were finally consolidated, the rules of spelling were determined. The last period of the existence of Latin of ancient times was the so-called late Latin (III-VI centuries AD), when the gap between written, bookish, Latin and folk colloquial began to intensify. As the Romans captured vast territories in the west and east, the Latin language spread among the tribes and peoples subject to Rome. However, the status and role of the Latin language was not the same in different Roman provinces. In the countries of the Western Mediterranean by the end of the II century. BC e. Latin won the position of the official state language, thereby contributing to the Romanization of the Celtic tribes living in Gaul (present-day France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland), and by the end of the XNUMXst century. BC e. - tribes of Iberians, Celts and Lusitans who inhabited the regions of the Iberian Peninsula (present-day Spain and Portugal). Starting from 43 AD. e. and until 407, the Celts (British) who inhabited Britain were also under the rule of Rome. If in the west of Europe the Latin language in its colloquial form spread, almost without encountering the resistance of tribal languages, then in the depths of the Mediterranean basin (Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt) it encountered languages that had a longer written history and had a level of culture much higher than Latin language of the Roman conquerors. Even before the arrival of the Romans, the Greek language became widespread in these regions, and with it the Greek, or Hellenic, culture. And the Latin script itself, which was used by the ancient Romans and which then formed the basis of the languages of many peoples of the world, goes back to the Greek alphabet. Perhaps it arose at the turn of the IX-VIII centuries. BC e. thanks to the contacts of the Italians with the colony cities of the Greeks in the south of the Apennine Peninsula. From the very first cultural contacts between the Romans and the Greeks and throughout the history of ancient Rome, the latter experienced in the economic, state, social and spiritual areas of life the ever-increasing influence of the highly developed Greek culture. Educated Romans tended to read and converse in Greek. Borrowed Greek words were included in colloquial and literary Latin, especially actively after being under the rule of Rome in the II-I centuries. BC e. Greece and Hellenistic countries were included. From the XNUMXnd century BC e. Rome began to assimilate the vocabulary of Greek science, philosophy and medicine, partially borrowing along with new concepts and terms denoting them, slightly Latinizing them. At the same time, another process also developed more actively - the formation of Latin words of scientific content, that is, terms. "The main method of using Greek scientific and philosophical terminology among the Romans is tracing, both word-production - the formation of a new Latin word according to the Greek model, and semantic - communication to the Latin word of those special meanings that the Greek has acquired" (I. M. Troysky). When comparing the two classical languages, their significant differences are visible. The Latin language was noticeably inferior in its word-forming potential to the Greek, which had a remarkable ability to clothe in linguistic forms newly discovered, described phenomena, facts, ideas of biological and medical content, to easily create more and more new names almost transparent in meaning through various methods of word formation, especially by bases and suffixes. 1. Term and terminology Word "term" (terminus) is Latin and once meant "limit, border". A term is a word or phrase that serves to unambiguously and accurately designate (name) a special, scientific concept in a certain system of special concepts (in science, technology, production). Like any common word, the term has a content or meaning (semantics, from the Greek semantikos - "denoting"), and a form, or a sound complex (pronunciation). Unlike the rest of the common lexicon, which denotes ordinary, everyday, so-called naive ideas, the terms denote special scientific concepts. 2. Special scientific concept. Definition The Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary defines notion so: "A thought that reflects in a generalized form the objects and phenomena of reality and the connections between them by fixing general and specific features, which are the properties of objects and phenomena and the relationship between them." The concept has content and scope. The content of a concept is a set of the features of an object reflected in it. The scope of a concept is a set (class) of objects, each of which has features that make up the content of the concept. Unlike everyday everyday concepts, a special scientific concept is always a fact of a scientific concept, the result of a theoretical generalization. The term, being a sign of a scientific concept, plays the role of an intellectual tool. With its help, scientific theories, concepts, provisions, principles, laws are formulated. The term is often a herald of a new scientific discovery, a phenomenon. Therefore, unlike non-terms, the meaning of a term is revealed in a definition, a definition that is necessarily attributed to it. A definition (lat. definitio) is a formulation in a concise form of the essence of the concept being terminated, that is, denoted by the term, the concept: only the main content of the concept is indicated. For example: ontogenesis (Greek on, ontos - "existing", "being" + genesis - "generation", "development") - a set of successive morphological, physiological and biochemical transformations of the body from its inception to the end of life; Aerophiles (lat. aёr - "air" + philos - "loving") - microorganisms that receive energy only from the oxidation reaction of oxygen in the environment. As you can see, the definition does not just explain the meaning of the term, but establishes this meaning. The requirement to determine what this or that term means is tantamount to the requirement to give a definition of a scientific concept. In encyclopedias, special explanatory dictionaries, in textbooks, the concept (term) introduced for the first time is revealed in definitions. Knowledge of the definitions of those concepts (terms) that are included in the curriculum in the disciplines is a mandatory requirement for the student. 3. System of concepts and terminological system A special concept (term) does not exist by itself, isolated from other concepts (terms). It is always an element of a certain system of concepts (system of terms). Vocabulary - this is a set of terms within a certain professional language, but not a simple set, but a system - a term system. Each term in it occupies its strictly defined place, and all terms together in one way or another, directly or indirectly interconnected or interdependent. Here are some examples of definitions that support this assertion. "Serotonin is a biologically active substance from the group of biogenic amines; it is found in all tissues, mainly the digestive tract and central nervous system, as well as in platelets; it plays the role of a mediator in some synapses and in the development of some allergic reactions." "Nondisjunction of chromosomes - a violation of the process of meiosis, or mitosis, which consists in the departure of homologous chromosomes or chromatids during anaphase to the same pole, can cause chromosomal aberration." To understand the meaning of a term means to know the place of the concept correlated with it in the system of concepts of a given science. 4. Medical terminology - system of systems Modern medical terminology is a system of systems, or a macroterminological system. The entire set of medical and paramedical terms, as noted, reaches several hundred thousand. The plan of the content of medical terminology is very diverse: morphological formations and processes characteristic of the human body in normal and pathological conditions at various stages of their development; diseases and pathological conditions of a person; forms of their course and signs (symptoms, syndromes), pathogens and carriers of diseases; environmental factors that positively or negatively affect the human body; indicators of hygienic regulation and evaluation; methods of diagnostics, prevention and therapeutic treatment of diseases; operational accesses and surgical operations; organizational forms of providing medical and preventive care to the population and the sanitary and epidemiological service; devices, devices, tools and other technical means, equipment, medical furniture; medicinal products grouped according to the principle of their pharmacological action or therapeutic effect; individual medicinal products, medicinal plants, medicinal raw materials, etc. The macroterminological system consists of many layers. Each layer is an independent sub-term system serving a separate medical, biological, pharmaceutical science or field of knowledge. Each term is an element of a certain subsystem, for example, anatomical, histological, embryological, therapeutic, surgical, gynecological, endocrinological, forensic, traumatological, psychiatric, genetic, botanical, biochemical, etc. Each subterminological system reflects a certain scientific classification of concepts adopted in this science. At the same time, terms from different subsystems, interacting with each other, are in certain semantic relationships and connections at the level of the macroterminal system. This reflects the dual trend of progress: the further differentiation of the medical sciences, on the one hand, and their increasing interdependence and integration, on the other. In the XX century. the number of highly specialized sub-terminal systems has significantly increased, expressing concepts related to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases that affect mainly individual organs and systems (pulmonology, urology, nephrology, sexual pathology, arthrology, gastroenterology, abdominal surgery, neurosurgery, etc.). Over the past decades, highly specialized dictionaries of cardiology, oncology, radiology, immunology, medical virology, and hygienic sciences have reached an impressive size. Within the framework of the macroterminal system, the following subsystems play an almost leading role: 1) anatomical and histological nomenclature; 2) a complex of pathological-anatomical, pathological-physiological and clinical term systems; 3) pharmaceutical terminology. It is these subsystems that are the objects of study in the course of the Latin language and the basics of medical terminology. 5. Pharmaceutical terminology Pharmaceutical terminology - these are the names of dosage forms, means of plant and chemical origin. Each new drug receives both Russian and Latin names. The latter is used by the doctor when writing a prescription in Latin. The arsenal of medicines used today in the world, produced in Russia and imported from abroad, has tens of thousands of names. These are the names of chemicals of inorganic and organic origin, including synthetic and semi-synthetic, the names of medicinal plants, etc. 6. General cultural humanitarian significance of the Latin language Studying a Latin language course at a medical institute pursues a purely professional goal - to prepare a terminologically competent doctor. However, in order to master any language, it is necessary to improve one's cultural and educational level, to broaden one's horizons. In this regard, Latin aphorisms are useful, sayings that express a generalized, complete thought in a concise form, for example: Fortes fortuna juvat - "Fortune helps the brave"; Non progredi est regredi - "To not go forward is to go back." Proverbs like: Omnia mea mecum porto - "I carry everything with me" are also interesting; Festina lente - "Hurry slowly", etc. Many aphorisms are separate lines, statements of famous ancient writers, philosophers, politicians. Of considerable interest are aphorisms in Latin belonging to the scientists of the New Age: R. Descartes, I. Newton, M. Lomonosov, K. Linnaeus and others. Most of the Latin aphorisms, sayings and proverbs included in the material of individual lessons and presented in a list at the end of the textbook have long become popular expressions. They are used in scientific and fiction literature, in public speaking. Separate Latin aphorisms and sayings deal with issues of life and death, human health, and the behavior of a doctor. Some of them are medical deontological (Greek deon, deonios - "due" + logos - "teaching") commandments, for example: Solus aegroti suprema lex medkorum - "The good of the patient is the highest law of doctors"; Primum noli nocere! - "First of all, do no harm!" (the doctor's first commandment). In the international vocabulary of many languages of the world, especially European ones, Latinisms occupy a significant place: institute, faculty, rector, dean, professor, doctor, associate professor, assistant, graduate student, laboratory assistant, preparator, student, dissertator, audience, communication, credit, discredit, decree, creed, course, curator, supervise, prosecutor, cadet, cruise, competitor, competition, excursion, excursionist, degree, gradation, degradation, ingredient, aggression, congress, progress, regression, lawyer, legal adviser, consultation, intellect, intellectual, colleague, board, collection, petition, appetite, competence, rehearsal, tutor, conservator, conservatory, conserve, observatory, reserve, reservation, reservoir, valence, valerian, currency, devaluation, invalid, prevail, equivalent, statue, monument, ornament, style, illustration, etc. Only in the last few years, on the pages of newspapers and magazines, in the speeches of deputies, words of Latin origin, new to our political life, flashed: pluralism (pluralis - "multiple"), conversion (conversio - "transformation", "change"), consensus (consensus - "consent", "agreement"), sponsor (sponsor - "trustee"), rotation (rotatio - "circular motion"), etc. Author: Shtun A.I. >> Forward: Alphabet. Phonetics. Reading vowels. Features of reading consonants. Pronunciation of letters. Stress Rules
▪ The main dates and events of domestic and foreign history. Crib
The existence of an entropy rule for quantum entanglement has been proven
09.05.2024 Mini air conditioner Sony Reon Pocket 5
09.05.2024 Energy from space for Starship
08.05.2024
▪ 1 Tbps or higher wireless data antenna ▪ LT1990 Micro Power Differential Amplifier
▪ section of the site Intercoms. Article selection ▪ article I know when I see. Popular expression ▪ article What are the rules for chess and boxing competitions? Detailed answer ▪ article Bengali proverbs and sayings. Large selection
Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews
www.diagram.com.ua |
We recommend interesting articles Section 
See other articles Section 
Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:
All languages of this page