Lecture number 8. Ways of word formation

The main ways of word formation are affix and non-affix.

К affixal include ways of forming derivatives by attaching word-building affixes (prefixes, suffixes) to generating bases.

Without affix methods are used primarily for the formation of compound words.

complex is a word consisting of more than one generating stem. A compound word is formed by the method of basic construction.

A word in the structure of which there is only one generating stem is called simple: for example, costoarticularis is a compound word, a costalis and articularis are simple words.

There are also mixed word-formation methods: prefixation + suffixation, addition + suffixation, the method of creating complex abbreviated words, etc.

1. Suffix

suffixation is called the attachment of a suffix to a generating (motivating) stem. The derivative obtained in this way is called suffixal. Suffixes perform an important classifying function.

Thanks to them, words correlate with the corresponding classes of concepts: for example, all nouns with the suffixes -ul-(-cul-), -ol belong to the class of so-called deminatives - words with a diminutive meaning (lobulus - "slice", tuberculum - "tubercle" , foveola - "dimple").

Verbal (derived from the stem of the verb) nouns with the suffix -io express the general categorical meaning "process", "action" (flexio - "bending", rotatio - "rotation", curatio - "treatment"). A verbal noun with the suffix -or has a common categorical meaning "a tool, an instrument that performs an action" or "a person performing an action" (m. flexor - flexor muscle, i.e. rotator - rotator muscle, prosector - dissector - "one who dissects ": the person performing the autopsy).

It is difficult to overestimate the classifying function of the term element-suffix, which correlates words with a certain terminological concept. So, all nouns with the suffix -itis express the general terminological concept "inflammatory disease, inflammation".

The suffix always exists only in a bound form, that is, as part of a derivative. For example, the suffix -itis only in combination with a generating stem acquires the above meaning, while the Latin inflammatio is an independent word meaning "inflammation".

When suffixing, the bases of different parts of speech - nouns, verbs, adjectives - are used as generators. Certain suffixes are combined with the stems of certain parts of speech.

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1. The attachment of a suffix starting with a consonant to the root of a word usually occurs with the help of the connecting vowel -i-, as a rule in Latin words, and -o- - in words of Greek origin: for example, lat. cruc-i-formis - "cruciform", tuberos-i-tas - "tuberosity"; Greek bronch-o-genus - "bronchogenic".

2. When forming adjectives, the suffix is ​​attached to the stem of the noun, determined from the gender form. p. units hours: thotax, acis - thotrac-ic-us; cartilage, inis-cartilagin-e-us.

3. As a rule, the generating stem and the suffix belong to the same language - either Latin or Greek. However, there are many specially "invented" hybrid words in the terminology, especially among adjectives: for example, brachi-al-is, acromi-al-is, pyramid-al-is, petr-os-us, arteri-os-us, where the basics of Greek , and suffixes of Latin origin. There are adjectives whose structure includes both Greek and Latin suffixes.

2. Frequency Latin and Greek suffixes

I.

Deminutives - nouns with a common derivational meaning "diminutive".

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A motivated diminutive noun (deminitive) retains the gender of the motivating word from which it is derived. These motivated words are inclined only according to the I or II declension, regardless of which declension the motivating word belongs to: for example, nodus, -i (m); nodulus; vas, vasis (n) vasculum.

1. Some artificially formed terms do not have a diminutive meaning; these are the designations of the stages of embryonic development: gastrula, blastula, morula, organella.

2. The nouns macula (spot), acetabulum (acetabulum) and some others also do not have a diminutive meaning.

II.

Nouns with the general derivational meaning "action, process".

1. Nouns of this very productive derivational type denote operations, examination methods, physiological functions, treatments, theoretical concepts in various disciplines: for example, auscultatio - auscultation, listening; percussio - percussion, tapping; palpatio - palpation, feeling. All three terms refer to methods for examining internal organs. There are derivatives in -io, denoting not only an action, a process, but also the result of this action, for example, decussatio - a cross (formation in the form of X); impresso - impression; terminatio - ending, end.

2. Among artificially formed words in -io, some do not come from a verb, but from a nominal stem, for example decapsul-atio - decapsulation, surgical removal of the shell of an organ; hepat-isatio - hepatization, compaction of lung tissue.

3. Nouns with a general derivational meaning "an object (organ, instrument, device) by which an action is performed; a person carrying out an activity."

4. Nouns with a common derivational meaning "result of action".

Adjective suffixes

I.

Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “characterized or rich in a feature indicated by the generating stem”.

II.

Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “belonging to or relating to what is called the generating base”.

1. If the generative stem ends in -l or -r, then the suffix -al-(-ar-) is dissimilated, for example: vertebralis, clavicularis.

2. Most often, the suffix -ё -us of Greek origin is added to the stem of a Greek noun, and the Latin suffix -ё -us is added to the stem of a Latin noun, usually meaning "characterized by a feature" or "consisting of what is called the base": oss- e-us - bone, cartliagin-e-us - cartilage.

3. A number of adjectives with the suffix -al-(-ar-) have a non-standard general meaning "similar": circularis - circular, reticularis - mesh, pyramidalis - pyramidal.

III.

Adjectives with a general word-formation meaning “similar to what is called the stem of the word”.

Most adjectives of this type were artificially created in the XNUMXth century. anatomists. Some of them, like m. arytaenoidcus (arytenoid muscle), m. mastoideus (mastoid muscle), m. pterygoideus (pterygoid muscle), are not at all like the objects called motivating bases. The same "contradiction" marks the term vena mastoidea (mastoid vein), since it does not look like a nipple, its name is explained by the fact that it refers to the processus mastoideus (mastoid process). The term venae sigmoldeae has a similar explanation. The veins referred to by this term are not at all similar to the Greek letter sigma, but they refer to the colon sigmoideum (sigmoid colon).

IV.

Adjectives with a general derivational meaning "carrying what is called the generating basis".

V.

Adjectives with a general derivational meaning:

1) "generating, producing, causing what is called the basis" (active meaning);

2) "generated, caused, conditioned by what is called the basis" (passive sense).

3. Foundation

If there are two or more generating bases, then the derivative is a compound word. Addition is the most productive way of forming terms of Greek-Latin origin. Compound words can be formed in two ways: pure addition or addition combined with suffixation. With pure addition, the latter - the supporting part - is represented by an independent word. It is called a support because it introduces it into a certain grammatical class (nouns or adjectives), forms a word in a grammatical sense. For example: glossopharyngeus: 1st component of the addition glosso- + 2nd, supporting, component pharyngeus (adjective of the 1st group); rhinencephalon: 1st component rhin- + 2nd, supporting, encephaion (II declension noun of Greek origin in -on).

Among ancient Latin words, compound words are rare, for example: orificium - hole (os, oris - "hole" + associated root from facio, -ere - "to make"); homicida - murderer (homo + related root from caedo, -ere "to kill").

In the modern anatomical nomenclature, there are very few compound words derived from the bases of primordially Latin origin. These are artificial formations created in post-antique times: for example, lymphonodus - a lymph node, fibrocartilago - fibrous cartilage, corticopontinus - cortical bridge.

There are many hybrids among artificial additions: one of the components is of Latin origin, the other is of Greek origin: for example, neocortex (Greek neos - "new" + Latin cortex - "bark") - new bark; myoseptum (Greek mys, myos - "muscle" + Latin septum - "partition") - muscular septum.

There are a lot of complex nouns among the anatomical names of the unit, there are a lot of complex adjectives, while the generating stems can be monolingual - either only Latin, or only Greek: for example, lat. tibiona-vicularis, septomarginalis; Greek pterygopharyngeus, thoracoacromialis. At the same time, there is a significant number of hybrid structures: musculoperoneas, zygomaticofnrotalis, etc.

Some features of the foundation

1. As the most common derivational tool, with the help of which two or more generating bases are combined into a single word, it is used interfix, or connecting vowel. In medical terminology, the most common interfix is ​​-o-, less often -i- is used. In the original words of the ancient Greek language, only the interfix -o- is used, Latin - -i-: for example, lat. aur-i-scalpium (auris - "ear" + scalpo - "scrape, cut") - ear cleaning; viv-i-ficatio (vivus - "live" + facio - "to do") - revival.

However, in artificial neologisms, this linguistic regularity has ceased to be observed. Regardless of origin, the interfix -o- is used (neur-o-cranium, cary-o-lysis, lept-o-meniux, lat. aurepalpebraiis, lat. nasolacrimal, etc.). The first addition components are usually indicated in dictionaries and reference books along with the interfix: thoraco-, spondylo-. Interfixless connection of components usually takes place, although not always, if the first component ends with a vowel or the second component begins with a vowel: for example, the term elements brady- (Greek bradys - "slow"): brady-cardia; brachy- (Greek brachys - "short"): brachy-dactylia; rhin- (Greek rhis, rhinos "nose"): rhin-encephalon.

2. Variation of the generating basis. In Latin and Greek, there are nouns and adjectives (III declension), in which the stems of word forms of the nominative and genitive cases differ: for example, cortex, cortic-is; Greek som-a, somat-os - "body"; Greek meg-as, megal-u - "big"; Greek pan, pant-os - "everything", etc. The basis of the genitive case acts as the generating basis of Latin words: pariet-o-graphia, cortic-o-visceralis; in Greek words, the stem of the genitive case also more often turns out to be the stem. At the same time, sometimes the generating stem appears in a variant form - either nominative or genitive, for example: pan-, pant - "everything" (pan-demia, pant-o-phobia), mega- - "big" (megacolon, megal -o-biastus).

There are also three-variant forms of the same term element: initial - haemo-, haemato-, final -aemia with the general meaning "related to blood" (haemo-globinum, haemato-logia, an-aemia).

3. Phonetic-graphic variation of the bases. Some Greek foundations experienced varying degrees romanization. In some cases, the pronunciation was preserved, close to the Greek language, in others there was a convergence with the norm of the Latin language. As a result, the same morpheme can be spelled differently: Gr. cheir - "hand" - cheir and chir; Greek koinos - "general", "joint" - coenosis, koino-. Various transcriptions of the Greek word neuron are used - "nerve" in Russian terms: neurology, but neurosurgery; neuritis (axon) and neuritis (inflammation of the nerve).

4. Prefix

Prefix, i.e., attaching a prefix morpheme (prefix) to the root does not change its meaning, but only adds to this value a certain component indicating localization (above, below, front, back), direction (approach, distance), flow in time (before something, after something), the absence or denial of something.

Prefixes developed mainly from prepositions, so their direct meanings coincide with the meanings of the corresponding prepositions.

Some consoles based on direct values ​​developed secondary, Portable. So, the Greek preposition-prefix para- (“near, near”) developed a figurative meaning “retreat, deviation from something, inconsistency of external manifestations of the essence of this phenomenon”: for example, para-nasalis - paranasal, but para-mnesia (Greek mnesis - "memory") - paramnesia - the general name for distortions of memories and deceptions of memory; paratyphus - paratyphoid - the general name of human infectious diseases caused by certain bacteria of the genus Salmonella, characterized by some clinical manifestations similar to those of typhoid fever.

In descriptive names used in morphological disciplines, prefix term elements have a direct meaning. In terms expressing the concepts of pathological conditions, diseases, impaired functions of organs, and the like, prefix term elements are often used with secondary meanings.

In various subsystems of medical terminology and in biology, Greek and Latin prefixes are extremely widely used. At the same time, Latin prefixes predominate in the anatomical nomenclature, and prefixes of Greek origin prefixes in the terminology of pathological anatomy, physiology, and clinical disciplines.

As a rule, Latin prefixes are attached to Latin roots, Greek - to Greek roots. However, there are exceptions, the so-called hybrids, for example, in the words epi-fascialis - suprafascial, endo-cervicalis - intracervical prefixes are Greek, and the producing stems are Latin. When prefixing, the whole word acts as a generating basis: intra-articularis - intra-articular.

Antonymous prefixes. An important role in the functioning of medical terms is played by antonymous prefixes, i.e. those whose meanings are opposite: for example, Lat. intra- - “inside” and extra- - “outside”, “outside”, etc.

Latin-Greek doublet prefixes. The meanings of a number of Latin prefixes coincide with the meanings of certain Greek prefixes or are very close to them:

lat. media- - Greek. meso- "in the middle", "between".

When prefixes are attached to the stems, changes in the prefix may occur under the influence of the initial sound of the stem. This is mainly manifested in assimilation (lat. assimilalio - "similarity", "similarity"): the final consonant in the prefix is ​​fully or partially likened to the initial sound of the producing stem. Some Latin prefixes may have elision, that is, the loss of a final consonant. In the Greek prefixes ana-, dia-, cafa-, meta-, para-, and-, epi-, apo-, hypo-, meso-, elision is manifested in the disappearance of the final vowel before the initial vowel of the stem. This eliminates the possible gaping (vowel with vowel).

5. Prefix-suffix derivatives

Words formed by the simultaneous addition of a prefix and a suffix to the root (base) are called prefix-suffix derivatives. Thus, in ancient Greek terminology, the terms hypo-gastr-ium (Greek hypogastrion) - the lower part of the abdomen, mes-enter-ium (Greek mesenterion) - the mesentery, arose. Subsequently, the terms mesogastrium, epigastrium and the names of all mesentery (mesometrium, mesovarium, etc.) were formed according to the same model. In the same way, perichondrium, periodontium, paracolpium, endocardium, pericardium, epineurium, etc. arose. First, the term epithelium was created to refer to the thin skin above the breast nipple (Greek thele - "nipple"), then the meaning of the term expanded and according to its model the terms mesothelium, endothelium were created.

Compound words

1. If one or more generating stems are not entirely part of the derived stem, but in a shortened form, such a word is called compound abbreviated. So, if the first component is derived from the stem of an adjective, which contains the suffixes -(o)ld-, -al(-ar-), -os-, -ic-, then the generating stem is usually shortened to this suffix. The shortened stem matches the root of the corresponding noun. Many derivatives are formed with the root morpheme thyr (e) o (Greek thyreos - "shield"), cut off from the stem of the adjective thyr (e) oideus, which is part of the motivating phrases glandula thyr (e) oidea - thyroid gland or cartilago thyr (e) )oidea - thyroid cartilage: for example, thyreotropus - thyrotropic - acting on the thyroid gland; thyreotomia - thyrotomy - dissection of the thyroid cartilage; thyreotoxicosis - thyrotoxicosis.

2. If the motivating word is complex, then one of the root morphemes can be omitted. Thus, in terms of pathology, functional disorders of the blood, the root morpheme cyt(us) is usually omitted: for example, leucocytus, but leucopenia (instead of the more complete leucocytopenia).

Author: Shtun A.I.

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