LECTURE No. 17. Economic development of Russia in the XNUMXth century.

1. The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century.

The reasons for the Crimean War, which began in 1853, were the clash of the territorial interests of Russia, England, France, Austria in the Middle East and the Balkans. Russia sought to oust Turkey from the Balkan Peninsula and from the Black Sea straits. England and France sought to spread their influence in Turkish possessions, to oust Russia from the shores of the Black Sea. Turkey counted on revenge for the defeat in the wars with Russia.

In the first period of the war, the Russian army achieved significant success. Fearing the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, in March 1854 England and France declared war on Russia. Austria and Prussia also took a hostile stance.

On March 18 (30), 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed between Russia, Turkey, France, England, Austria, Prussia and Sardinia. Under its terms, the Black Sea became "neutral", the Russian fleet was reduced to a minimum, its bases and arsenals were destroyed. Russia lost the southern part of Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube, Turkey received Kars in exchange for Sevastopol. Russia has lost influence in the Balkans.

The defeat of Russia was also due to the political miscalculations of Nicholas I, who did not expect to face almost all of Europe. The Russian army suffered from a lack of weapons, ammunition, and equipment. There were few military factories, they were equipped with primitive technology and were serviced by unproductive serf labor. The smooth-bore weapons of the Russian army were inferior to long-range rifled weapons, the sailing fleet was inferior to steam-powered armored ones. The primitive state of the transport system had a detrimental effect on the combat capability of the Russian army. Russia lost prestige on the world stage, but the defeat prompted Alexander II, who came to the throne in 1855, to carry out a number of cardinal reforms.

In 1802-1811 A reform of the highest government bodies was carried out: instead of the old Peter's collegiums, 8 ministries were created, later their number increased to 12.

Some changes have taken place in the field of education. At the lower levels in all educational institutions, the principle of classlessness and free of charge was proclaimed. Universities opened; the university charter of 1803 provided higher educational institutions with broad rights and independence of their inner life: the election of the rector and professorship, their own court, etc.

Alexander I instructed to prepare a project for the abolition of serfdom on favorable terms for the landowners. But the nobles were categorically against this and the emperor did not dare to implement this project.

Gradually, Alexander I began to move from a fairly liberal to a tough domestic policy. An event of this period is the creation of military settlements (1816). This step was caused by the great financial difficulties of the state. The military settlers themselves repeatedly opposed this form of combining agricultural and military affairs, therefore, in the 1830s. the government of Nicholas I abandoned such settlements.

Since 1820, the serfs were again forbidden to complain about the landowners, the exiles of peasants to Siberia resumed. The army had a particularly strict discipline, corporal punishment was resumed there. Increased censorship in the press. The self-government of universities in St. Petersburg and Kazan began to be limited, progressive professors were fired, recalcitrant students were handed over to the soldiers.

Such a sharp turn in domestic politics is associated with the name of the first minister of the government, A. Arakcheev. All civil and military administration was concentrated in his hands.

Having been abroad during the war of 1812 and the capture of Paris in 1814, Russian officers returned to their homeland, where Arakcheev already ruled. This prompted them to create secret societies (Northern and Southern), which aimed to spread the ideas of morality and education in society, to carry out political and social reforms. Their uprising on December 14, 1825 on the Senate Square in St. Petersburg was suppressed.

The reign of Nicholas I was also controversial. This inconsistency was that he tried to carry out some reforms without changing the entire system. A policy of state guardianship over the political, economic, social, and cultural life of the country was pursued. In the sphere of public education, the principle of strict class was laid down. In 1826, an extremely strict censorship charter was developed. Connections with Western Europe were limited. In 1826-1832 codification of laws was carried out (systematization of Russian legislation), starting with the Council Code of 1649 and including the current code. Numerous decrees and laws of Nicholas I only softened the oppression of serfdom, but they were not binding on landowners.

In 1837-1838 reform of the state village was carried out. It streamlined the situation of state peasants and contributed to the development of market relations in the countryside. In 1847-1848 Inventory reform took place in Right Bank Ukraine and Belarus. In its course, a description of the landowners' estates took place, where the size of peasant plots and the volume of duties were established, which could no longer be changed. This caused great discontent among both landowners and peasants, whose plight never changed.

2. Economic prerequisites for the elimination of serfdom. Abolition of serfdom. The stratification of the Russian village. The main types of agricultural holdings and their characteristics

Among the prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom, publicity must be considered the most important. Various publications began to appear. Glasnost denounced, but at the same time carried a charge of hope. The emancipation of the spiritual forces of society was not only the most important prerequisite, but also an indispensable condition for the success of the reforms.

The decision to abolish serfdom was made by tsarism, taking into account the complex and other circumstances. Among them, not the last place was occupied by the results of the Crimean War. Because of the military defeat, an understanding arose first of the inconsistency of the foreign policy of the empire, and then of the entire Nikolaev system as a whole. It is indicative that the first application of the government for reforms was set forth in the Manifesto of March 19, 1856 on the Peace of Paris. The desire to maintain the shaken status of a great power, to overcome post-war isolation in the international arena, forced the liberal bureaucracy and Alexander II himself to look for new ways and make non-standard decisions.

The fact that free labor is more effective than forced labor, and serfdom is an institution that hinders the development of the country, an anachronism that should be said goodbye to, was clear to the government and the educated nobility back at the end of the 1816th century. Options for resolving the peasant issue were worked out in the quiet of numerous secret committees both during the reign of Alexander I and during the reign of Nicholas I. Milestones of this process: the liberation of peasants in the Baltic states in 1819-1803, decrees on free cultivators (1842) and on obligated peasants (XNUMX), etc. But the implementation of these measures depended on the will of the nobility.

The overwhelming majority of nobles in the first half of the XIX century. was for the preservation of serfdom, because the serf economy was by no means in a critical state. It brought profit to the owner even at the lowest level of market prices for products and therefore survived the agrarian crisis of the 1820s, which turned out to be fatal for the few innovative landlords who founded the economy on the principles of free enterprise.

The country's economy did not collapse on the eve of 1861, but the symptoms of the failure of the existing economic system manifested themselves in the financial and banking sector, which was sensitive to the government - an increase in the budget deficit, inflation, and a sharp reduction in cash in bank cash desks. This circumstance not only stimulated the preparation of the reform, but also predetermined the conditions of redemption that were extremely difficult for the peasantry. The peasantry tensely, although outwardly and relatively calmly awaited the promised liberation. The peak of his speeches came only in the first months after the announcement of the will. However, the peasant movement left its mark on the preparation of the reform. Thus, in 1858, prolonged peasant unrest broke out in Estonia, where serfs were liberated without land 40 years ago. The government reform program provided for the allocation of arable land to the peasants for ransom. Thus, although there was no immediate threat of a new Pugachevism at that moment, the memory of the previous peasant wars, of the participation of peasants in European revolutions, forced the liberal bureaucracy to attach particular importance to guarantees of socio-economic stability in a reformed Russia.

Zemstvo statistics already in the 1880s. showed a significant property stratification of the peasants. First of all, a layer of wealthy peasants was formed, whose farms consisted of their own allotments and allotments of impoverished community members. The kulaks stood out from this stratum, they ran an entrepreneurial economy, using hired laborers, sent a large volume of products to the market and thereby increased the degree of marketability of their production. But this group of peasants was still small.

The poor part of the peasantry, having their own economy, often combined agriculture with various crafts. From this stratum, a group of "spread" households stood out, which gradually lost their economic independence, leaving for the city or hiring as farm laborers. By the way, it was this group that created the labor market for both kulaks and industrialists. At the same time, this part of the peasants, receiving payment for their work, also began to show a certain demand for consumer goods.

The formation of a layer of prosperous peasants led to the creation of a stable demand for agricultural machinery, fertilizers, seeds and thoroughbred livestock, which also influenced the country's market economy, since an increase in demand led to the development of various industries.

3. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their consequences

The abolition of serfdom led to other reforms. Bourgeois reforms of the 1860-70s. - the era of the Great Reforms, when the alliance of the tsar, nobles and bourgeoisie began to take shape. The reforms were supposed to promote the development of capitalism and use the bourgeoisie in their own interests. Since the 1860s The process of industrialization began in Russia, so a new state and social structure was needed.

1. Zemstvo reform (1864) established local self-government in provinces and districts: zemstvo assemblies and their executive bodies (uprava). They elected nobles, rural intelligentsia, the bourgeoisie, rich peasants. Zemstvos did not have political rights, they were engaged in solving local issues (fighting epidemics, opening first-aid posts, schools, roads, land management, etc.).

2. City Reform (1870) created the city self-government, the city duma and the council, which solved communal issues (fighting fires, sanitation control, the affairs of schools, shelters, hospitals, etc.). The wealthiest townspeople were elected to the Duma, headed by the mayor.

3. Judicial reform (1864) established a classless court with jurors, publicity of legal proceedings, competitiveness of the parties (advocacy was introduced), partial independence of the court from the administration. In Russia, a notary has been created to conduct inheritance cases, certify transactions, documents.

4. Military reform (1874) replaced recruitment with universal military service. Service life was made dependent on education: from 6 months to 6 - 7 years; the training of officers has improved, rearmament has been carried out.

5. Educational reforms. In 1863, a university charter was introduced, which approved a certain autonomy and democracy of these educational institutions. The school charter of 1864 provided formal equality in education and expanded the network of schools. Since 1870, women's gymnasiums began to open, and higher courses for women appeared. Thus, in Moscow, Professor Guerrier in 1872 opened historical and philological higher courses for women.

6. Financial reform was carried out in 1862-1866. The right to dispose of all the country's financial resources was given to the Minister of Finance, whose activities were subject to accounting by the State Audit Office. In 1860, the State Bank was organized, lending to commercial and industrial enterprises. Wine taxation was abolished (1863), and patent fees and a special excise tax were introduced instead. Locally, special excise departments have been created to collect them. The main result of the transformation of the financial system is the establishment of budget transparency, financial control and progressive changes in the tax sphere.

Results of the reforms of the 1860-70s:

1) reforms, of course, corresponded to the main directions of development of the leading world powers. They have significantly advanced Russia along the path of modernization. But the political structure of the country was not perfect. Russia still remained an autocratic monarchy. Society could not influence government policy;

2) the reforms were mostly in the nature of a compromise. The radicals, who perpetrated a bloody terror in society and staged a real hunt for the reformer tsar, and conservatives, who were dissatisfied with the very fact of any transformations, were also dissatisfied;

3) most historians believe that since the mid-1860s. Conservative-protective tendencies begin to dominate in the activities of the government, and the reform potential is practically exhausted. A more objective point of view seems to be that the policy of Alexander II should not be unambiguously divided into reformist and conservative periods, since the mechanism of its formation was quite complex. The nature of certain transformations, specific decisions depended on many objective and subjective factors: the opinions of the emperor's inner circle, the balance of power in the camp of "reformers" and "conservatives", the position of the revolutionary camp.

4. Basic provisions of the legislation on peasants

The reform on the emancipation of the peasantry was carried out on February 19, 1861 - Alexander II signed the Manifesto "On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants and on the arrangement of their life", as well as "The highest approval by His Imperial Majesty of the position of peasants who have emerged from serfdom ". With the adoption of the Manifesto, Alexander II and his government stopped the development of the revolutionary situation that had matured in Russia, and Alexander II managed to reduce the wave of mass discontent.

The reform on the emancipation of the serfs could not be called "the gift of freedom." According to the provisions of the Manifesto, the peasants received personal freedom, the serfs could no longer be sold, dispose of their time, and appropriate the results of labor. Former serfs were endowed with the rights to own property, could receive education, etc. The poll tax from the peasants was not removed, and recruitment duty continued to apply to former serfs.

All the lands of the landowners remained in the ownership of the former owners, with the exception of allotments (plots), which the landlords had to allocate to the peasants after the former serfs paid the appropriate ransom. When selling land to peasants, land prices were inflated, and former serfs did not have the means to buy land even at real prices, nobles or officials were world mediators who resolved disputes that arose between the peasants and their former owners.

Since the peasants were not able to redeem the allotments provided to them, the state provided the peasants with loans that paid the landowners 80% of the land value, the peasant himself had to pay 20% of the cost. The conditions for granting loans were difficult, since the state gave money to the peasants at fairly high interest rates. Temporarily liable peasants are peasants who did not have money to redeem the allotment. They had to work for the landowner until they were able to buy the allotment. This provision lasted until 1881, after which the concept of "temporarily liable peasants" was abolished.

The reform for the emancipation of the peasants was perceived as a great progress in the development of Russia. The mass actions of the peasantry ended, the lack of education of the majority of the serfs did not allow them to fully enjoy all the rights granted to them by the state, as a result of which landlord arbitrariness dominated Russia for many more years. But the fall of serfdom was a progressive step in the development of Russia, since the appearance of civilian labor made it possible for capitalist production to develop in the country. The peasants clearly did not have enough land received under the reform and they were forced to rent part of the landlords' lands, paying for it with money or their labor, that is, the land dependence of the peasants on the landowners remained, which led to the preservation of the former feudal forms of exploitation of the peasants.

Thus, the position of the Russian peasant, who had to work both for himself and for the landowner, pay debts and taxes to the state, remained extremely difficult and hindered the development of agriculture. Another brake on agricultural production was the preservation of another feudal vestige - the peasant community, which was the owner of the peasant land and maintained equal relations, which significantly hampered the economic initiative of the most industrious peasants.

Alexander II carried out a number of reforms that improved the position of Russia and prevented the imminent social explosion. The reforms were a little late, as many areas of public life were in critical condition, but the adoption of a whole range of reforms after the liberation of the serfs made the policy of Alexander II popular, ensuring the further progressive development of Russia along the path of capitalism.

5. The situation of agriculture in the 1860-1870s.

The remnants of serfdom, preserved after 1861, prevented the formation of market relations in agriculture. Huge redemption payments were a heavy burden on millions of peasants. In addition, instead of the power of the landowners in the countryside, the oppression of the community was strengthened, which could impose a fine on hard-working peasants for working on holidays, sentence the peasants to exile in Siberia "for witchcraft", etc. Many peasants experienced great hardships due to the fact that that they could not freely dispose of their allotment (sell, bequeath, mortgage in the Peasant Bank), and also run their household as they saw fit. In many communities, redistribution of land was carried out, which excluded the interest of the peasants in increasing soil fertility (for example, fertilizing the fields), since after a while the plots had to be transferred to others. Often, compulsory crop rotation was established in the communities, the peasants were charged with the obligation to simultaneously start and finish field work. As a result of all this, the rise of agriculture was slow and with considerable difficulties.

And yet in the 1880-1890s. market relations penetrated into the agricultural sector. This was noticeable in several ways: social differentiation of the peasant population was taking place, the essence of the landowner economy was changing, and the market orientation of regions and farms that specialized in certain goods was intensifying.

Noticeable changes also occurred in landowners' farms, which gradually made the transition from patriarchal forms to market relations. In the 1870-1880s. The former serfs still had to work for the redemption of their own plots. These peasants cultivated the landowners' lands with their own tools for the right to rent arable and other land, but they already acted as legally free people with whom it was necessary to build relationships based on the laws of the market.

The landowners could no longer, as before, force the peasants to work in their fields. Wealthy peasants sought to quickly redeem their own allotments, so as not to work out the segments that arose after 1861. The “de-peasant” ones did not want to work out the ransom at all, since they were not kept in the village by insignificant land plots. They moved to the city or were hired on strong farms to the kulaks without any bondage, for a higher wage, since it was more profitable for them.

In order to turn their estates into profitable farms, the landlords needed new machines, fertilizers, seeds, new agricultural techniques, and all this required significant capital and qualified managers. But not all landowners managed to adapt to new methods of management, so many of them had to mortgage and remortgage their estates in credit institutions, or even just sell them. Increasingly, they were bought by former serfs, and now by wealthy peasants.

In agriculture, after the reform, its commodity character more and more clearly stood out. At the same time, not only agricultural products, but also land plots and free labor were included in the market turnover. Only the previously assumed regional specialization in the production of marketable grain, flax, sugar beets, oilseeds, livestock products was more clearly defined, which also contributed to market exchange between the regions.

In addition to traditional organizational forms, large estates began to appear in the southern steppes of Russia and Ukraine - economy, which consisted of several thousand acres of land and which were already oriented to the market, primarily foreign. Economy farms were based on a good technical base and hired labor. Thanks to these changes, the level of agricultural production in Russia has increased markedly.

But, despite such achievements, at the end of the 1861th century. The difficulties of agriculture in Russia were very relevant, since the reform of 1861 was not brought to its logical conclusion. Peasant land shortage increased sharply, as the rural population in 1899-24. increased from 44 million to 5 million male souls, and the size of land plots per capita decreased on average from 2,7 to XNUMX dessiatines. It was necessary to rent land on unfair terms or buy it at a high price.

Along with chronic land shortages, peasants experienced enormous tax oppression. In the post-reform era, peasants paid approximately 89 million gold rubles annually in the form of taxes and redemption payments. Of the total amount of taxes received by the treasury from the rural population, 94% was levied on peasant farms and only 6% on landowners.

The global agrarian crisis of the late 1896th century contributed to the strengthening of social differentiation in rural areas. Total for 1900-XNUMX In the European part of the country, the number of farms with one horse or without horses at all has sharply increased.

Agriculture lagged behind both technically and agronomically, which affected both the general economic condition of the country and social tension, since the rural population reached 85% of the total. Low yields were the cause of periodic food shortages in the country. The extremely difficult situation of the peasants was aggravated by several years of poor harvests in a row, which caused a terrible famine in 1891, which affected more than 40 million people.

The main parties and associations of the early XX century. they called for a resolute end to land shortages by forcibly expropriating the lands of the landowners for a ransom (the Constitutional Democratic Party, or Cadets) or without any ransom (the Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries, or Socialist-Revolutionaries). All this aroused among the peasantry the mood of a "black redistribution" on the principle of equalization in order to resolve the agrarian question as quickly as possible.

6. Agrarian reform P. A. Stolypin

The main direction of the reform, begun during the revolution, was the destruction of the community. The decree of November 9, 1906 on the transfer of communal plots to the private ownership of individual peasants “worked” in full force already in post-revolutionary Russia. A number of additional decrees of 1907-1911. The government clearly defined its goals not only to secure communal lands for individual owners, but also to put an end to the common striping of the community. Strong owners were aimed at turning their farms into hamlets isolated from each other. Where, in the conditions of a striped peasant economy, this was not allowed due to impossibility, it was recommended to bring your allotments together, into sections, even if located at a distance from the peasant estates.

The local administration by all means forced the process of destruction of the community. At the same time, it was not only the nascent rural bourgeoisie, which had long since become burdensome both mutual responsibility and constant redistribution of land, hastened to take advantage of the Stolypin decrees. The ruined poor also began to leave the community, striving to strengthen their land in order to sell it and move to the city or to other, more prosperous places. These "poor" lands were bought by the same strong owners, who thus enriched themselves even more.

Another direction of the reform, also strengthening the layer of wealthy peasants, was connected with the Peasants' Bank. It was an intermediary between the landowners who wanted to sell their lands, and the peasants who bought them. For individual peasants, the bank provided loans on preferential terms necessary for such a purchase.

Stolypin wanted to solve the difficulties of the rural poor by resettling the masses. Due to this, he hoped to ease the land hunger in the central regions and move the dissatisfied to the outskirts of Russia, away from the landowners' estates.

The bulk of the settlers went to Siberia. This process was poorly organized. Quite often the peasants were thrown to the mercy of fate, a significant part of them fell into bondage to the local kulaks. About 16% of migrants returned to their native lands. The disregard of the authorities for the poor, shown in such an important issue, further embittered her.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

<< Back: Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II (The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I. The peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II. The socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century. Social -economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century)

>> Forward: Economic thought in Russia (second half of the 1917th - beginning of the 1921th centuries) (The place of N. G. Chernyshevsky in the history of Russian and world economic thought. Economic views of V. I. Lenin. The first socialist transformations. War communism as a stage in the formation of the command-administrative system (XNUMX-XNUMX ). Increasing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the New Economic Policy. Changes in the monetary and financial spheres)

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