LECTURE No. 16. Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II

1. The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I

In the "Table of Ranks" (1722), the personal beginning received state significance. In the Petrine era, a new order of service was introduced. In previous times, the main criterion for promotion was the nobility of origin. The "Table of Ranks" put in the first place not the origin, but the personal abilities, education and practical skills of a nobleman. Now the career ladder consisted of 14 steps or ranks. The sons of well-born fathers had preference only during palace receptions, but they did not receive any rank if they did not serve. At the same time, the "Table of Ranks" made it possible for representatives of other classes to receive noble ranks.

The public administration reforms expressed Peter I's desire for centralization of power and absolutism. The liquidation of the patriarchate (1721) and the introduction of the Synod meant the victory of secular power over the spiritual; in 1721, Peter I assumed the imperial title and took full power. In 1711, the Senate was established, whose members were appointed by the autocrat. Peter I created the post of fiscals.

The replacement of old orders with new central institutions - collegiums - was carried out in 1717-1721. (by the end of the 44th century, the functions of central institutions were performed by 11 orders - they were replaced by XNUMX collegiums). In the collegial system there was a stricter distribution of responsibilities between central departments compared to the order system. Decisions were made by a majority vote of the board members.

In 1708-1710 regional reform was carried out. During its course, the country was divided into 8 provinces. The provinces were divided into provinces (1719) - about 50. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, and in the provinces - a governor. As a result of administrative reforms, the establishment of an absolute monarchy was completed.

One of the most important aspects of the economic policy of Peter I was the growth of industrial manufactories. A number of manufactories were built by the state. The government attracted private capital to the construction of others. Some manufactories, built with funds from the treasury, were transferred for operation to industrialists on preferential terms. At the beginning of the XVIII century. 30 state-owned manufactories in linen, cloth, leather, paper and other industries were transferred to private owners.

The government began building canals to improve trade routes. Fairs played a decisive role in domestic trade. Makarievskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, Krolevetskaya fairs were still the largest. There were over 1000 trading villages in the country.

Russia's access to the Baltic Sea increased the volume and expanded the scope of foreign trade. The trade importance of the White Sea fell. The ports of Riga, Revel (Tallinn), and Vyborg were of great importance in foreign trade. In the first half of the 1750th century. in Russian exports the share of industrial goods increased: linen fabrics, canvas, iron, mast timber, resins, ropes. In 1,2, the export of iron from the country reached XNUMX million poods. Russia imported cloth, dyes, and luxury goods.

Trade also developed with the eastern countries - Persia, China, Turkey, the khanates of Central Asia. In the first half of the XVIII century. Russia had a trade surplus.

The improvement of domestic and foreign trade was facilitated by the coinage reform (1700-1704). The main units were the copper kopeck and the silver ruble. Peter 1 banned the export of precious metals - gold and silver - abroad. The minting of coins became a state monopoly.

It is extremely difficult to evaluate all the transformations of Peter I. His reforms are contradictory in nature and it is impossible to give an unambiguous assessment of them. The most important thing is that Peter I, for the first time after the baptism of Rus', made an energetic attempt to bring the country closer to European civilization. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia took a worthy place among European countries. It has become a great power with a stable economy, strong army and modern navy, highly developed science and culture. Russia's breakthrough was swift and decisive.

But all his reforms and transformations were carried out by force, entailed huge sacrifices and sufferings of the people. The new was planted through a fierce struggle with the old. The price paid by the people for the Empire created by Peter I was enormous. According to archival data, about 100 people died during the construction of St. Petersburg alone. The population of the country decreased by 000% during his reign due to numerous wars, repressions, resettlement of people to new places, construction of enterprises.

2. Peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II

Under Catherine II, serfdom was significantly strengthened. For open disobedience, the peasants could be exiled to Siberia for hard labor. For the unrest that began, the authorities sent military teams, and the peasants were obliged to support them. Peasants were forbidden to complain about the landowners. The landlords could sell and buy peasants, transfer them from one estate to another, exchange them for puppies and horses, win at cards, separate families, forcibly marry and give in marriage, etc. Many state peasants became serfs. During the reign of Catherine II, more than 800 peasants were distributed to the nobles. Tens of thousands of serf souls were favorites of the empress. The duties of the peasants in favor of the nobility increased greatly.

Economics of the country's agriculture in the second half of the XNUMXth century. closely confronted with the developing market relations. The active participation of the country in international trade, the creation of an all-Russian market led to the fact that market relations developed more strongly in agriculture. Due to the growth of cities and manufactories, the capacity of the market for agricultural products (mainly bread) has increased both at home and abroad. With access to the sea, Russia was able to export huge amounts of grain to Europe. This contributed to the increase in the marketability of agriculture.

At this time, the main producing agricultural regions were already clearly defined - the Chernozem Center, the Middle Volga region. There is an economic development of the vast steppe regions of Ukraine - Novorossia. Fugitive serfs, state peasants and foreign colonists participated in the colonization of the southern steppes. Large landed estates were also created here. Wheat grown on the landowners' estates in the southern lands was exported abroad.

In 1783, the transition of peasants was prohibited in the Left-Bank Ukraine. This ban was in effect in the south of Ukraine, the Don and in the Caucasus province. In the 80s. 53th century serfs in Russia accounted for XNUMX% of the total number of peasants. The landowners could exile serfs to Siberia for hard labor, out of turn to give in recruits. Peasants were forbidden to complain about their owners.

In the Black Earth Center, the main form of feudal rent was corvée, which sometimes extended to 6 days a week. Three-quarters of the landowner peasants were in corvée. In some places, landowners drove peasants off their land and transferred them to "monthly labor." The excessive growth of corvée led to the disintegration of the serf economy and undermined the peasant economy. In quitrent estates, the size of the quitrent increased. There were also state peasants on quitrent - 4,9 million male souls (38% of the total peasant population). The palace peasants were also paid rent (about 7% of all peasants).

3. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II

Under Catherine II, industry developed rapidly, and the labor market gradually formed. At that time in Russia there were about 2 manufactories of various types: state-owned, patrimonial, merchant and peasant. As a rule, at patrimonial manufactories, products were made from raw materials produced within the estate. By the end of the century, the share of merchant and peasant manufactories increased. Here, basically, civilian workers from among the ruined peasants worked; peasants released by the landowners for profitable seasonal work in order to receive cash rent; also residents of cities and large villages. The development of merchant and peasant manufactories was facilitated by the Manifesto on Freedom of Entrepreneurship, according to which Catherine II allowed everyone to engage in entrepreneurial activities.

Most of the Russian industrialists of the XVIII century. came out of the peasants and townspeople, it was from them that the young Russian bourgeoisie was formed. But their rights were severely limited. Since 1762, it was forbidden to buy peasants for enterprises owned by persons of non-noble origin.

In general, in the second half of the XVIII century. there was a significant growth of large industrial enterprises. By the end of the century, various branches of industry were formed, so that Russia itself was able to almost completely provide for its basic needs.

In Russia, technical thought was very well developed. Much earlier than in Western Europe, Russian inventors created a universal steam engine, a lathe, rolling mills and shafts. But in production, these inventions have not gained wide application. The disinterest of the state in the use of technical innovations and the general routine of the economy led to the fact that by the end of the XNUMXth century. Russia began to lag behind European countries that had already completed the industrial revolution.

The marketability of agriculture directly depended on the growth of large cities and large fishing villages. The urban population and the army had an increased demand for food products. The volume of agricultural products supplied for export has increased. Thus, a capacious market for agriculture was formed. Demand for industrial products and handicrafts also increased greatly.

In many cities there were gostiny yards with numerous shops. Traders, merchants, artisans, and peasants traded in the markets, which worked daily. Fairs played an important role in trade, of which there were more than 1 at the end of the century.

Many trading peasants walked around the villages, exchanging small household goods for commercial waste from the peasant economy - leather, hemp, bristles. But the merchants in every possible way hindered the activities of their competitors.

The government, supporting the merchant class, encouraged the rapid development of domestic trade. In the 80s. 3th century merchants were divided into 1 guilds according to the degree of wealth. Catherine II freed merchants from personal recruitment duty, corporal punishment and from the poll tax. Merchants had to pay XNUMX% of declared income to the state treasury.

With access to Europe through seaports, foreign trade began to actively develop. An active foreign trade balance was maintained throughout the reign of Catherine II. The government continued to pursue a policy of protectionism, imposing high duties on imported goods. England has traditionally remained an active foreign trade partner of Russia, buying timber, canvas, hemp, and Ural iron. Permanent partners were Denmark, Austria, France, and Portugal. Joint trading companies began to be created with Turkey, Persia, Khiva, Bukhara and other eastern countries.

Throughout the XVIII century. the state budget experienced a constant deficit caused by endless military campaigns, the growth of the state apparatus, and the high squandering of members of the imperial family. Taxes were collected with large arrears, besides, the nobles practically did not pay taxes. Further increase in the tax burden was impossible and the government decided to issue paper money to replenish the budget. Catherine II decided to switch to the issuance of paper money - banknotes. But their value soon depreciated due to the cessation of the free exchange of banknotes for silver money.

Another source of replenishment of the treasury was government loans. By the end of the century, Russia's external debt amounted to 41,1 million rubles. The total public debt, taking into account tax farming, the issue of paper money, etc., amounted to 216 million rubles.

In the middle of the XVIII century. first banks appear in Russia. They were state-owned, it was forbidden to create private banks. This whole system was inactive and inefficient.

4. Socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the XNUMXth century.

In 1764, Catherine II sharply limited the economic power of the church. She turned many church lands into state property. Millions of monastic peasants subsequently became state-owned.

To revitalize and develop the country's economy, the Empress invited foreigners to come to settle in Russia, promising tax benefits, the preservation of language and culture, and religious freedom.

Gradually, Catherine II began to move towards a policy of enlightened absolutism. It was necessary to streamline the entire system of legislation of the Russian Empire. The "Instruction of Empress Catherine II, given to the Commission on the drafting of a new Code" was published. The main idea of ​​this document was that, apart from autocracy, any other power for Russia is not only harmful, but also ruinous for citizens. Catherine called for moderation in laws and politics, and the inadmissibility of tyranny. But the Commission ceased to exist in 1768 in connection with the outbreak of war with Turkey, without adopting a new code, although Catherine used many of the prepared materials when carrying out reforms.

The reforms were significantly influenced by the peasant war led by Emelyan Pugachev. Catherine tried to suppress hotbeds of tension in regions with a large population of Cossacks, where discontented masses flocked, poorly controlled by the government.

In 1775, a system of local self-government was organized. Instead of a three-tier administrative division (gubernia, province, county), a two-tier division was introduced - province, county. At the head of each province, the emperor appointed a governor, and if 2-3 provinces were united, a governor-general with great administrative, financial and judicial powers. All military units and teams located in this territory were subordinate to him. The county was headed by a police captain, elected by the nobility for 3 years. The city became a separate administrative unit and instead of voivods, city dwellers appointed by the government appeared. Citizens once every 3 years could elect the mayor and members of the city duma.

In the first years of the reign of Catherine II, the rights and privileges of the nobles were strengthened and increased. They could not serve (Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility of 1762, published by Peter III), if they did not want to. The nobles were transformed from a service class into a privileged class. In 1785, the Empress signed the "Charter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility." It secured all class rights and privileges of the nobility. They received a unique right to own serfs and lands, pass them on by inheritance, buy villages, etc. It was forbidden to confiscate noble estates for criminal offenses - estates in such cases passed to the heirs. The nobles were exempted from corporal punishment, from personal taxes and various duties. Only by court could they be deprived of the title of nobility. In the provinces and districts, administrative power was completely in the hands of the nobility.

Going towards the nobility, Catherine II approved the monopoly right of the nobles to own land (General land surveying, 1765), serfs (1762), and distillation (1765). Feeling the full support of the empress, the nobles began to attack other classes on various issues. Nobles could have a noble title and family coat of arms, participate in noble assemblies and societies.

5. Social and economic development of Russia in the first half of the XNUMXth century.

Agriculture in the first half of the XIX century. continued to be extensive. Its development took place by clearing forests and plowing meadows in the center of the country and developing new areas on its outskirts. Low labor productivity remained, three fields and primitive agricultural implements dominated.

The invasion of market relations interfered with the subsistence nature of serfdom. The expansion of the lordly plowland due to the increase in the production of landowner's bread for sale led to a reduction in peasant allotments. A process of social stratification took place in the countryside, which contributed to the growth of peasant entrepreneurship and the development of market relations.

Machines, new methods of field cultivation and forms of land use are beginning to be used on some landlord farms. However, an attempt to introduce a new agricultural technique while maintaining the old feudal production relations was futile. The rationalization of the landlords led to a further intensification of the feudal exploitation of the peasants.

Manufacture remained the main form of large-scale industrial production, but in the 1830-40s. The industrial revolution begins, which is characterized by the transition from the manufacturing stage of production to the factory stage, based on the systematic use of machines. This process began first in the textile industry, and later in the mining industry.

However, for a successful transition from manufactory to factory, a significant number of free hired workers was required. The serf system delayed the development of industry. Urban population for the first half of the 2,8th century. grew from 5,7 to 75 million people, and the entire population increased by XNUMX%.

Fairs with large sums of trade turnover (there were more than 60 of them) were of all-Russian significance. Foreign trade relations expanded. The development of trade was hampered by the unsatisfactory condition of the means of communication. In land transport, the horse-drawn system dominated. The construction of highways began in the center of the country. In 1837, a railway was built between St. Petersburg and Tsarskoe Selo, by 1851 - the Moscow - Petersburg road, by 1859 - the St. Petersburg - Warsaw road. However, the total length of highways and railways was negligible.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

<< Back: Economic development of Rus' in the Middle Ages (Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation. The growth of feudal land ownership. Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule. Socio-economic and political consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands into a centralized state. Economic policy of Russia in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries . Formation of the all-Russian market. Socio-economic development of Russia after the Time of Troubles)

>> Forward: Economic development of Russia in the 19th century. (The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the 1860th century. Economic prerequisites for the elimination of serfdom. Abolition of serfdom. Stratification of the Russian village. Main types of agricultural farms and their characteristics. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their consequences. Zemstvo reform Urban reform Judicial reform Military reform Educational reforms Financial reform Basic provisions of the legislation on peasants The situation of agriculture in the 1870-XNUMXs Agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin)

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