История экономических учений. Экономическое развитие России с начала 1990-х гг. (конспект лекций)

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История экономических учений. Экономическое развитие России с начала 1990-х гг. (конспект лекций)

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Table of contents (expand)

The emergence of economic thought in the ancient world (Backgrounds of economic thought in the Ancient East. Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Ancient Egypt. Babylonia. Economic thought in Ancient India. Economic thought in Ancient China. Economic thought in Ancient Rome. The teachings of Cato. The teachings of Xenophon. The teachings of Plato. The teachings of Aristotle)
Economic thought in the Middle Ages (Medieval teachings of Western Europe. "Salic truth". Socio-economic views of Ibn Khaldun. Teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Social utopia of Thomas More. "Russian Truth")
Mercantilism (Mercantilism. Economic prerequisites of mercantilism. Features of mercantilism as an economic idea. French and English mercantilism. Features of Russian mercantilism. Late mercantilism)
Physiocracy (General characteristics of the physiocrats. The teachings of François Quesnay. The activities of Jacques Turgot)
Classical school of political economy (Classical school. Economic views of William Petty. Teachings of Adam Smith. Teachings of David Ricardo)
Classical school after Smith and Ricciardo (The teachings of Jean-Baptiste Say. The economic views of John Stuart Mill. The economic views of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. The teachings of Thomas Malthus)
historical school (Contribution of the historical school to the development of economic theory. Historical school of Germany. New historical school of Germany)
Utopian socialists (Western European utopian socialism. Economic views of Simon de Sismondi. Utopian dreams of Robert Owen)
Marxism (The emergence of Marxism as an economic doctrine. “Capital” by Karl Marx. Karl Marx on the commodity and its properties. Money and its functions. Karl Marx on constant and variable capital and surplus value. Karl Marx’s views on land rent)
Austrian school (Austrian school: the theory of marginal utility as a theory of pricing. The economic views of Eugen Böhm-Bawerk. The teachings of Carl Menger. The economic views of Friedrich von Wieser)
Marginalism (The theory of marginalism. Methodological principles of marginalism. The marginalist theory of value and its advantages. The marginalist revolution. The causes and consequences of the marginalist revolution. The theory of utility of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of labor supply of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of Francis Isidro Edgeworth)
General economic equilibrium theory (General equilibrium model including production; the problem of the existence of a solution and the process of "tatonnement". General equilibrium theory in the 20th century: contributions of A. Wald, J. von Neumann, J. Hicks, C. Arrow and J. Debreu)
Alfred Marshall (A. Marshall - leader of the Cambridge school of marginalists. Alfred Marshall's partial equilibrium method. Alfred Marshall's analysis of utility and demand. Alfred Marshall's analysis of costs and supply. Alfred Marshall's equilibrium price and the influence of the time factor)
The beginning of the economic development of Rus' (Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. General characteristics of the socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Features of early feudalization. Social division of labor among the Eastern Slavs. The emergence of cities, the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Internal development of Rus'. The adoption of Christianity and the baptism of Rus' . Money and its role in Kievan Rus)
Economic development of Rus' in the Middle Ages (Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation. The growth of feudal land ownership. Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule. Socio-economic and political consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands into a centralized state. Economic policy of Russia in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries . Formation of the all-Russian market. Socio-economic development of Russia after the Time of Troubles)
Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II (The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I. The peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II. The socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century. Social -economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century)
Economic development of Russia in the 19th century. (The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the 1860th century. Economic prerequisites for the elimination of serfdom. Abolition of serfdom. Stratification of the Russian village. Main types of agricultural farms and their characteristics. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their consequences. Zemstvo reform Urban reform Judicial reform Military reform Educational reforms Financial reform Basic provisions of the legislation on peasants The situation of agriculture in the 1870-XNUMXs Agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin)
Economic thought in Russia (second half of the 1917th - beginning of the 1921th centuries) (The place of N. G. Chernyshevsky in the history of Russian and world economic thought. Economic views of V. I. Lenin. The first socialist transformations. War communism as a stage in the formation of the command-administrative system (XNUMX-XNUMX ). Increasing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the New Economic Policy. Changes in the monetary and financial spheres)
Economic development of the USSR (The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. The Soviet economy during the war. Post-war development of the national economy. The country on the eve of reforms. Reform of the Soviet economic system. Transformations in the social sphere. The economy of developed socialism. The search for new forms and methods of management. Reforms of the 1960-1970s years: essence, goals, methods and results)
Economic development of Russia during the period of perestroika (Background of perestroika. Preconditions for its emergence. Reform of the political system. Reform of the electoral system. Analysis of liberal and other movements. Economic reforms. Economic reform of 1987. The “500 days” program. The dialectic of “new thinking”. The beginning of disarmament. Unblocking regional conflicts. Collapse socialist system)
Economic development of Russia since the early 1990s. (Russia in the first half of the 1990s. Continuation of the course of reforms, shock therapy. Issues of maintaining the unity of Russia. New Constitution. Privatization)

LECTURE No. 21. Economic development of Russia since the early 1990s.

1. Russia in the first half of the 1990s.

Changes in Russian political life began in May 1990 with the election of B. N. Yeltsin as Chairman of the Supreme Council, and also with the adoption in June 1990 of the Declaration on State Sovereignty of the Russian Federation. In fact, this meant the emergence of dual power in the country. By this time, the authority of the CPSU was rapidly declining, society increasingly ceased to trust MS Gorbachev. Perestroika, which was based on the ideas of democratic socialism, failed. Yeltsin's demonstrative victory in the presidential elections in Russia on June 12, 1991 testified to the beginning of the collapse of the foundation of the country's old power. The events of August 1991 led to a fundamental change in the situation in Russia. All executive authorities of the USSR that worked on its territory were now directly subordinate to the Russian president. He ordered to close and seal the buildings of the Central Committee of the CPSU, archives, district committees, regional committees. The CPSU ceased to exist as a power, state structure. The Supreme Council became the supreme body of power in the Russian Federation, but the real power was increasingly collected in the hands of the president. In the spring of 1992, the balance of political forces changed dramatically. The opposition that appeared in parliament tried to weaken the presidential structures and establish control over the government. The president's allies came up with a proposal to dissolve the parliament and stop the activities of the Congress of People's Deputies. In order to eliminate the confrontation between the legislative and executive authorities, which had reached dangerous limits, B. N. Yeltsin proclaimed a special procedure for governing Russia. The rule of the president was literally introduced in the country. A referendum on confidence in the president and his draft constitution was scheduled for February 25, 1993. Although the referendum strengthened the presidential position, it failed to overcome the constitutional crisis. On the contrary, his character became more and more menacing. The opposition was going to limit the power and powers of the president. Then the president announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Council and the holding of a referendum on December 12 on the adoption of a new Constitution and elections to the bicameral Federal Assembly (the State Duma and the Federation Council). This was followed by a confrontation between the parliament and the president, which ended in dramatic events in October 1993 in Moscow that shook all of Russia.

2. Continuing the course of reforms, shock therapy

In its pure form, shock therapy is the liberalization of prices, which was carried out in early January 1992 by order of Deputy Prime Minister E. Gaidar. Now no one limited or controlled prices for goods and services. And they immediately shot up sharply. There is only one reason: liberalization of prices in a monopolized economy does not lead to an increase in output, but to a persistent rise in prices. Gaidar's government promised to increase prices by 2-4 times, but they increased hundreds and thousands of times. The savings of the population instantly depreciated; the amount of their deposits at that time was considerable - up to 500 billion rubles.

Soaring energy prices led to a billing crisis, and there was not enough cash. Barter transactions have become the norm of life both between individual enterprises and between entire regions. All this led to the collapse of the financial system and the loss of control over money circulation. Only in the first 2 years of reforms there was a decline in production by almost 30% in terms of the most important indicators. This decline was not structural, but general. Most of all, it negatively affected progressive and high-tech industries.

The inflationary shock led to a sharp imbalance. The gap in prices for agricultural and industrial products has put the village on the brink of survival. Gaidar's "shock therapy" was not based on serious calculations and knowledge of life, but was based on political ambitions and, naturally, could not lead the great power and its people to positive results, to an improvement in social living conditions.

In December 1992, the 1994th Congress of People's Deputies of the Russian Federation assessed the work of the government as unsatisfactory. E. Gaidar was replaced by V. Chernomyrdin. He confirmed the course towards a market economy, but promised to make adjustments to it. By the end of XNUMX, inflation rates were reduced. The second stage of privatization also began - through the free sale and purchase of private and joint-stock enterprises on stock exchanges at the market rate. But it was not possible to achieve any noticeable growth in industrial production. Moreover, the solution of economic problems was hindered by the political confrontation between the two main branches of power: the legislative (the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia and the Supreme Soviet elected by it) and the executive (the President and the government appointed by him). The transitional nature of Russian statehood led to the growth of contradictions between them. The conflict between B. Yeltsin and the Supreme Soviet headed by R. Khasbulatov (supported by Vice-President A. Rutskoy) led to a direct clash with the use of weapons.

3. Questions of preserving the unity of Russia. New constitution

The referendum on the draft Constitution, prepared under the leadership of Boris N. Yeltsin, ended with its approval. The Basic Law says that Russia is a democratic federal state of law with a republican form of government. The bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation is its multinational people. The subjects of the Russian Federation do not have the right to free exit, but within the framework of the Federation they receive a high degree of independence. The Constitution recognizes the highest value of a person, his rights and freedoms; ideological and political diversity; equality of state and private property, including land ownership. According to the Constitution, the Russian Federation is built as a presidential republic. The president, elected by popular vote for a term of 4 years, has extensive powers: he determines the main directions of the country's foreign and domestic policy; is the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of Russia; presents to the State Duma candidates for the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, the Prosecutor General, judges of the Constitutional, Supreme and Supreme Arbitration Courts; appoints federal ministers, decides on the resignation of the Government; has the right to dissolve the Duma and call new elections if the Duma rejects the candidacy of the Prime Minister 3 times in a row. The Constitution fixed the obligatory approval of the state budget and the approval of candidates submitted by the President for the highest state posts by both chambers of the Federal Assembly.

The complex processes that took place in Russia could not but affect the relations of the center with the autonomous republics, regions, national districts that were part of it. All the republics that were part of the Russian Federation proclaimed their sovereignty and renounced the status of autonomies, the autonomous regions (except for the Jewish one) called themselves sovereign republics. Some of them attempted to set a course for a consistent exit from the Russian Federation (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Yakutia), and the leadership of the Chechen Republic cut off all ties and relations with the federal authorities and declared their readiness to defend the independence of Chechnya with the help of weapons. Some of the Russian republics have stopped transferring taxes to the federal budget.

Along with the adoption of the new Constitution, the Federal Treaty signed in Moscow in March 1992, which specified the relationship between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, was aimed at preserving the unity of the country. The Chechen Republic refused to join the treaty. Tatarstan approved this document only in 1994, stipulating special conditions for staying in the Federation. Soon, similar agreements were signed with other republics, regions and territories of the Russian Federation. However, they did not solve all the issues of relations between the federal center and the subjects of the Federation.

Meanwhile, ethnic conflicts led to clashes between Ossetians and Ingush. At the end of 1992, Moscow had to use the army to separate the opposing sides. After 2 years, an armed conflict began between the military formations of the President of Chechnya, General D. Dudayev, and the forces of the local opposition, supported by the federal government. On December 11, 1994, troops entered the territory of this subject of the Russian Federation to restore constitutional law and order there.

The troops faced fierce resistance. By the end of the summer of 1996, about 100 servicemen, armed separatists and civilians had died in Chechnya, and more than 000 people were injured and shell-shocked. The events in Chechnya seriously aggravated the political situation in Russia.

On August 31, 1996, representatives of the federal side and the separatists signed important documents: "Joint Statement" and "Principles for determining the foundations of relations between the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic" (the so-called Khasavyurt agreements). According to them, military operations were stopped in Chechnya, a "Joint Commission of representatives of the authorities of the Russian Federation and the Chechen Republic" was established, and the final agreement between the federal Center and the Chechen Republic, "determined in accordance with the generally recognized principles and norms of international law", was postponed until December 31, 2001 .

By mid-January 1997, all federal military units had left the territory of Chechnya. On January 27, the elections of the president of Chechnya and the parliament of the republic were held here.

4. Privatization

At the end of 1992, the privatization of state property began. Its first stage was carried out on the basis of vouchers (non-registered privatization checks) issued free of charge to all Russian citizens. They could be invested in shares of privatized objects. In Russia, 40 million shareholders appeared, mainly nominal ones, because up to 70% of the shares through the free sale of vouchers were concentrated in the hands of the former managers of state property (administrative bureaucracy), owners of financial and commercial structures, legalized participants in underground business, as well as organizers of numerous “check investment funds": for future mythical dividends, they issued unsecured shares to the population in exchange for vouchers. The authorities were unable to establish a system to counter this process, especially in a situation where they sought to quickly create a layer of large and medium-sized entrepreneurs as the main driving force of market transformations and the guarantor of their irreversibility.

Since the autumn of 1994, the second stage of privatization began: through the free sale and purchase of shares of private and joint-stock enterprises on stock exchanges and auctions. The commodity market was supplemented by the capital market. In 1997, the public sector accounted for only 7,8% of industrial production, 8,8% of agricultural, and 8,3% of retail trade. Everything else was produced and sold in the private sector of the economy, as well as in the mixed sector. Foreign capital occupied a serious position in industry.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

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