LECTURE No. 19. Economic development of the USSR

1. The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War

The share of the USSR in world industrial production in the late 1930s - early 1940s was 10%. The USSR occupied first place in the world in the extraction of manganese ore and in the production of synthetic rubber, first place in Europe and second place in the world in oil production, and in terms of the gross output of tractor and machine building. One of the leading places in the world and in Europe was occupied by the Soviet Union in the generation of electricity, aluminum, steel and iron smelting, coal mining and cement production.

The result of forced industrialization in the country was the creation of a powerful coal and metallurgical production in the Kuzbass and the Urals, the development of a new oil-producing region between the Volga and the Urals began, and new railway lines were built. Completely new industries were formed for the country - automotive, bearing, aviation and many others, the absence of which would make it difficult to equip the Red Army with military equipment. State resources and powerful mobilization reserves were created. In 1940, a state system of vocational training of young people ("labor reserves") was created: railway and vocational schools, factory training schools.

However, the overall figures do not yet give a general idea of ​​the state of the economy before the war. Even according to official data, from 1937 until the first half of 1940, ferrous metallurgy did not regularly fulfill the plan. During this time, production in the electrical and automotive industries has declined, the production of road equipment, tractors and other products has decreased.

The reasons for this were not only the previously impossible targets for the third five-year plan, but also the ongoing repression among engineering and technical workers and directors of industrial enterprises. General suspicion led to the fact that enterprise managers were afraid to introduce technological and technical innovations into production that did not immediately produce results, lest they be accused of sabotage. Storming was successful at enterprises when the monthly plan was fulfilled in the last 10-12 days, since in the first half of the month there were no semi-finished products and raw materials for normal work. It was not so much the individual people who were to blame, but the command system itself.

In Europe, the war began and the leadership of the USSR began to show greater interest in the needs of the armed forces. Just before the start of the war, the transition to a unified personnel system for recruiting troops was completed.

There were great difficulties in the technical equipment of the army. Until the mid 1930s. often used even pre-revolutionary weapons, as well as foreign-made weapons. The re-equipment of the army, which began during the first five-year plans, proceeded extremely slowly. Soviet industry delayed the introduction of new types of tanks, aircraft, and artillery into mass production.

However, the technical equipment of the Red Army gradually increased. By the middle of 1941, more than half of all Soviet aviation was stationed near the western borders, moreover, the most combat-ready units and formations were located here. The aviation forces of the Soviet Union exceeded the enemy forces by more than 2 times.

An even more noticeable difference was in the tank forces. Soviet tanks had more powerful guns, they developed a higher speed. The Soviet artillery also had great advantages. The German troops were noticeably superior to the Soviet ones only in equipping them with motor vehicles and automatic weapons.

By the middle of 1941, more than half of all the means and forces of the Red Army were located in the western military districts. With proper preparation and organization, they could have repelled the enemy's advance, but this did not happen. And the reason here is not only a sudden attack, because it was not such, it was expected. The strongest damage to the combat readiness of the Red Army was caused by repressions among officers of the middle and higher command staff.

2. Soviet economy during the war

The first six months of the war were the most difficult for the Soviet economy. Industrial production decreased by more than 2 times, rolling of ferrous metals - by 3 times, production of ball bearings - by 21 times, non-ferrous metals - by 430 times, etc. The production of tanks, aircraft, ammunition was greatly reduced, since during this period the main power moved to the east of the country.

In this difficult time, the super-centralized directive management system showed itself rather energetically and promptly. Under the extremely strict leadership of the State Defense Committee (GKO), established on June 30, 1941, factories and factories were evacuated and the civilian sector of the economy was transferred to a war footing. But it was possible to take out only a small part, many factories and factories, livestock, food warehouses, vehicles fell into the hands of the enemy. Enterprises evacuated to the east relatively soon began to produce products for the front.

In general, despite the huge disparity in the economic potential of Germany and the USSR at the beginning of the war, the Soviet economy during this period turned out to be more efficient. During all the years of the war, almost twice as many military equipment and weapons were produced in the USSR. Every ton of cement, metal, coal, every kilowatt of electricity, every piece of equipment in the Soviet Union was used better than in Germany. Based on a thousand tons of smelted steel, Soviet industry produced 5 times more tanks and weapons than German industry.

Of course, this is mainly the merit of the workers, peasants, and all citizens of the country who have shown labor heroism. In the fall of 1942, the amount of human resources approached a critical point. By this time, the territory where almost 80 million people lived before the war (42% of the total population of the country) was occupied, and only about 17 million people were able to evacuate or join the army. A significant part of the male population went to the front. Their place was voluntarily taken by women, teenagers, and elderly people who were forced to work in difficult conditions as blacksmiths, stokers, in metallurgical production, in coal mines, etc.

From February 1942, a planned mobilization was carried out for industrial enterprises and construction sites among the able-bodied urban population, including 14-year-old teenagers, who were hastily trained in any profession and put on machine tools on a par with adults. Later, this system extended to the rural population.

Along with the loss of people during the hostilities during the war years, the Gulag system continued to operate, where there was a colossal number of people declared "enemies of the people."

Since the main material resources were spent on military needs, the economic situation of the Soviet people was extremely difficult. At the very beginning of the war, a rationing system was introduced; it satisfied the population of cities with food only to a minimum. There were several categories in the distribution of products. But the card distribution constantly failed, people had to stand in long lines to get food, and often they could not buy anything with these cards. In the markets, prices were so high that most of the population was not able to buy food. Almost all the wages of the townspeople went to buy food. Often, urban residents were forced to go to the countryside to exchange shoes, clothes and other things for food there.

Enterprises and institutions were allocated collective farm lands to grow potatoes and vegetables on them for additional nutrition of their employees. It was simply impossible to buy clothes, shoes, fabrics in stores. Businesses and institutions had to issue warrants to buy these things, but this was very rare.

In Central Asia, in the Urals, Kazakhstan, and Siberia, the housing issue became much more complicated, since the bulk of the evacuated people were sent there. However, other areas also had their hardships.

Agriculture experienced enormous difficulties during the war. Cars, tractors, horses were mobilized for the needs of the army. The village was left almost without draft power. Children, women, the elderly, the disabled remained in the village. But they also worked to the limit of their capabilities: the country needed food.

State and collective farms were obliged to hand over almost the entire harvest to the state. These were mandatory deliveries. After the implementation of this plan, the farms often did not have grain left for sowing. Agricultural productivity fell catastrophically during the war years.

Since cards were not issued for the rural population, the villagers survived only at the expense of their own household plots. The products grown on them were used for personal consumption, as well as for sale in the markets or exchanged with the townspeople for consumer goods.

But despite the enormous hardships and sacrifices, the Soviet people stood up against the enemy in a monolithic and united manner, showing unparalleled heroism and courage on the fronts, behind the front line, in the rear. In all regions captured by the enemy, partisan detachments were formed. They carried out underground and sabotage work, preventing the Nazis from using the economic potential that fell into their hands.

In the rear, many thousands of Soviet people of various nationalities invariably helped the soldiers. Donations were collected everywhere for the Motherland Defense Fund and the Red Army Fund. The population voluntarily handed over things, government bonds, family values, warm clothes, deducted part of their wages to these funds. Funds were collected across the country for the construction of aircraft and tank columns. Thanks to ordinary residents of the country, several thousand tanks, artillery pieces, more than 2,5 thousand combat aircraft, more than 20 submarines and military boats, and much more were built and transferred to the army.

Residents of the country showed constant concern for the health of the Red Army soldiers. Everywhere people were on duty at railway stations, hospitals, and river ports where the wounded arrived. Schoolchildren performed concerts in hospitals. More than 5,5 million people regularly donated their blood, which was necessary for the treatment of the wounded.

All this proved the close unity of the front and rear, based on a deep sense of patriotism and state self-preservation, realized by the peoples of the country during the years of mortal danger hanging over the Fatherland.

Undoubtedly, one of the reasons for the unity of the USSR during the war years was totalitarianism, the daily strict state and party regulation of the lives of individuals and entire nations, terror against real and imaginary opponents of the regime.

It is necessary to say about the external factor, as a factor that played a significant role in the victory. Great Britain and the United States immediately after the start of the war came out with support for the Soviet Union in its fight against fascism.

The victory of the USSR in World War II is indisputable. The eastern front was the main one in the entire war: here Germany lost more than 73% of its personnel, up to 75% of tanks and artillery pieces, and more than 75% of aviation. However, the price of victory was excessively high. The consequence of all this was not only the purposeful policy of the Nazis to destroy the Soviet people and state, but also the disregard of Soviet military and political leaders for people's lives.

3. Post-war development of the national economy

The war caused direct damage to the economy of the USSR, which amounted to almost a third of the entire national wealth of the country.

Since 1943, as the invaders were driven out, the USSR began to restore the economy destroyed by the war. In addition to these works, it was necessary to carry out the conversion of industry, since by 1945 more than half of the volume of industrial production accounted for military products. But the conversion was partial, because simultaneously with a decrease in the share of produced ammunition and military equipment, new types of weapons were being developed and the military-industrial complex was being modernized. In September 1949, newspapers wrote that the first atomic bomb had been successfully tested in the USSR, and in August 1953, a hydrogen bomb.

During these same years, mass demobilization took place. The personnel of the armed forces decreased from 11,4 million people in May 1945 to 2,9 million people in 1948. However, the size of the army soon increased again: in the early 1950s. it reached almost 6 million people. In 1952, direct military expenditures amounted to 25% of the state budget, i.e. only 2 times less than in the war year of 1944.

As in the years of the first five-year plans, most attention was paid to improving heavy engineering, the fuel and energy complex, and metallurgy. In general, during the years of the 4th Five-Year Plan (1946-1950), more than 6 thousand large industrial enterprises were restored and rebuilt. The light and food industries were financed, as before, on a residual basis, and their products did not even meet the minimum needs of the population. The production of consumer goods by the end of the 4th Five-Year Plan had not reached pre-war levels.

Post-war economic growth in the USSR had several sources. First of all, the directive economy was still a mobilization economy, as in the years of the first five-year plans and during the war years.

The Soviet Union received reparations from Germany in the amount of $4,3 billion. At their expense, industrial equipment, including entire factory complexes, was exported from Germany and other defeated countries to the USSR. However, the Soviet economy was never able to properly manage these rich resources.

1,5 million German and 0,5 million Japanese prisoners of war worked in the Soviet Union. In addition, the Gulag system during this period contained approximately 8 - 9 million prisoners whose work was not paid.

One of the sources of economic growth was the ongoing policy of redistributing funds from the social sector to heavy industry. Every year, the country's population was obliged to subscribe to government loans for an average of 1-1,5 months' salary.

As before, the main source of funds for heavy industry was agriculture, which after the war was very weakened. In 1945, agricultural production fell by almost 1940% compared to 50. The severe drought of 1946 again significantly undermined the economic strength of the collective farms and state farms.

As in the pre-war years, non-equivalent trade between town and country continued with the help of pricing policy. State procurement prices for the main types of products changed extremely slowly and showed no change in production costs.

The peasants, receiving almost nothing for their workdays, lived thanks to their personal subsidiary plots. But since 1946, the state began to reduce household plots and impose large monetary taxes on farms. In addition, each peasant household had to pay taxes in kind. In 1948, the collective farmers were strongly "recommended" to "sell" small livestock to the state, although the collective farm regulations allowed them to be kept. In response to this "recommendation," the peasants began to secretly slaughter cattle. It became increasingly difficult for collective farmers to sell their products on the market, as taxes and fees on sales income increased sharply. In addition, it was possible to sell products on the market only if there was a special certificate stating that the relevant farm had fulfilled its obligations to the state.

The country's leadership tried to ignore the deep crisis in agriculture, and any proposals and recommendations to reduce command pressure on the countryside were invariably rejected.

To increase the efficiency of the agricultural sector of the economy, the construction of huge hydroelectric power stations began on the Volga, Dnieper and other rivers. All these stations were put into operation in the 1950-1960s. In 1952, the Volga-Don Canal was built, connecting five seas into a single system: the White, Baltic, Caspian, Azov and Black.

Until the end of 1947, the USSR maintained a card system for industrial goods and food for the population. Its abolition took place only at the end of 1947. The Soviet Union was one of the first countries in Europe to abolish card distribution. But before abolishing ration cards, the government established uniform food prices instead of the previously existing card (ration) and commercial prices. Because of this, the cost of basic food products for the urban population has increased.

On December 14, 1947, the Decree of the Government of the USSR "On the implementation of the monetary reform and the abolition of cards for food and industrial goods" was issued. Old money had to be exchanged for new money in a week at the rate of 10:1.

At the same time, all previously issued state loans were consolidated into a single new 2% loan. Thus, the withdrawal of excess money supply took place, and the reform itself acquired a mainly confiscatory character.

The housing problem was still extremely acute. During these years, housing construction proceeded on a very limited scale. But huge funds were invested in the construction of high-rise buildings in Moscow, designed to symbolize the Stalin era. The main appropriations from the state budget went to the military-industrial complex, heavy industry, and the energy system. The Soviet government generously distributed gifts to friendly foreign countries in the form of university buildings, cultural centers, hospitals, as well as in the form of direct military assistance.

The further development of the USSR economy was based on excessive centralization. All economic issues were resolved only in the center, local economic bodies were strictly limited in resolving any cases. The main monetary and material resources that were necessary for the implementation of planned targets were issued through a significant number of bureaucratic instances. Departmental disunity, confusion and mismanagement led to regular downtime in production, huge material costs, storming, senseless transportation from edge to edge of the country.

After the war, various administrative reforms were carried out several times, but they did not introduce fundamental changes into the essence of the planning and administrative system.

4. The country on the eve of reforms

Since the Soviet Union suffered huge casualties during the war, back in 1948 the Soviet leadership ordered that prisoners be used more "economically" in the Gulag system, i.e., to prevent their mass death from malnutrition, overwork, lack of medical care. A small salary was set for "drummers", and the norms of rations were increased. But these measures did not give the expected results.

By 1956, the Gulag system was abolished and the process of rehabilitation of those convicted for political reasons started. At the XX Congress of the CPSU in February 1956, a critical assessment was given to all these events and a line was drawn under the whole era.

Despite the disagreements and the costs, this was the first step towards civil peace in society, towards cardinal reforms in all areas, primarily in the economy. The rehabilitation of the innocently convicted was not only a political, but also a purely economic growth factor, since millions of specialists left the camps, received their lost civil rights, and were able to apply their knowledge and experience in the national economy.

5. Reforming the Soviet economic system

Political transformations in the USSR had to be supported by changes in the economy. G. M. Malenkov at the session of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in August 1953 clearly formulated the main directions of economic policy: the rapid growth in the production of consumer goods, significant investment in the light industry.

One of the most important tasks was to resolve the food issue and bring the agricultural industry out of a protracted and deep crisis. It was decided to ease state pressure on agricultural workers and find ways to increase the profitability of collective farm production.

One of the first measures of the new government of the country was to write off tax arrears for the past years, lower the agricultural tax, increase the territory of private subsidiary farms of collective farmers and household plots of employees and workers in towns and cities. The norms of obligatory deliveries of livestock products to the state have been lowered, purchase prices for the products of state and collective farms have been increased, and opportunities for the development of collective farm markets have been expanded. Since the mid 1950s. agriculture became profitable for the first time in many years. State allocations for the formation of the agrarian sector have increased significantly. The flow of tractors, motor vehicles, combines sent to the countryside has increased. Thousands of agricultural specialists go to the village. Since 1954, the development of virgin lands begins.

Much attention was paid to the technical level of industry. Thanks to a very high concentration of material resources, human efforts and the development of science, positive results have been achieved. New industries appeared in the national economy - nuclear energy and the nuclear industry. Nuclear-powered ships and aircraft are being built. The world's first artificial satellite and the first spacecraft with a man on board, Yu. A. Gagarin, are launched into near-Earth orbit. The power industry, chemical and oil and gas industries developed at a high pace. The electrification of the village is almost completed. However, the development of industry occurred due to extensive factors.

In 1958, the government liquidated the machine and tractor stations, the collective farms had to buy their equipment. There was a merger and enlargement of collective farms, the transformation of collective farms into state farms. The program of chemicalization of agriculture has come into effect. Bulk bought bread abroad.

Scientists-economists and practitioners proposed new approaches in the field of long-term forecasting and planning, finding strategic macroeconomic goals. But the country's leadership needed real results immediately, so all efforts were spent on constant adjustments to current plans. Enterprise-level planning was low.

Fruitless efforts were made in the country to improve the structure of the state apparatus, endow it with increased rights or, conversely, reduce powers, separate existing planning bodies and create new ones, etc. There were many such attempts in the 1950-60s, but none of them they did not really improve the functioning of the command system.

On January 1, 1961, old money began to be exchanged for new money in a ratio of 10:1. In fact, it was a denomination, but the purchasing power of money continued to decline. The government cuts production costs in industry, reduces prices by about 30%, while prices for meat and meat products rise by 30%, and for butter - by 25%. This causes dissatisfaction among the workers. In June 1962 in Novocherkassk the largest demonstration of the workers took place, which was brutally suppressed. Tanks and firearms were used against the workers, dozens of people were killed, 9 were sentenced to death, many people were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. Information about this appeared in the newspapers only in the late 1980s.

6. Transformations in the social sphere

In the mid 1950s. a draft of measures designed to improve the lives of the population was developed. Wages were systematically increased (about 6% annually), especially for workers with a minimum income. The working week is shortened from 48 to 40 hours. Paid maternity leave has been increased. Benefits for families with many children and payment for temporary disability are being increased. The issuance of obligatory government bonds has ceased. A law on pensions was issued, increasing them by 2 times for workers and employees. Pensions were established for collective farmers in 1965. All types of payment for education are abolished. The consumption of basic foodstuffs increased significantly: vegetables and fruits - more than 3 times, dairy products - by 40%, meat - by 50%, fish - almost 2 times. At the end of the 1950s, compared with their beginning, the real incomes of employees and workers increased by 60%, and collective farmers - by 90%.

Mass housing construction developed at a rapid pace. For 1956-1960 About 54 million people (a quarter of the country's population) received new housing. At the same time, the housing standard itself was changing. Increasingly, families received from the state for free not rooms, but apartments, albeit small ones. But the queue for apartments moved very slowly.

Under N. S. Khrushchev, spiritual life was liberalized, the so-called "thaw".

The party proclaimed the entry of the USSR into the period of the extensive building of communism.

7. Economics of developed socialism. Search for new forms and methods of management. Reforms of the 1960s-1970s: essence, goals, methods and results

In 1965, the division of the party apparatus according to the production principle was eliminated. The practice continued when the party apparatus controlled everything, but was not really responsible for anything. He made decisions, gave instructions, and in case of failure, the heads of industries, enterprises and institutions answered. The clause on mandatory rotation included in the CPSU Charter in 1961 was canceled: at each election, it was supposed to change 1/3 of the members of the party committees. Thus, the principle of instability of party workers was introduced. They were categorically against it.

In 1965, economic reform began to be carried out. It did not affect the foundations of the directive economy, but provided for the material interest of producers in the quality and results of labor, the mechanism of internal self-regulation. The government again wrote off debts from state and collective farms, increased purchase prices, and a surcharge was established for the sale of products to the state in excess of the plan. Significant finances were directed to the agricultural sector of the economy. At their expense, complex mechanization of agricultural production, melioration and chemicalization of soils began.

But the effect of the transformations was short-lived, since inconsistent measures to reform the economic mechanism were ineffective. The second reason for the slowdown in economic growth was that the directive economy itself was at the limit of its capabilities. This was explained by the contradiction between the colossal scale of the industrial potential of the USSR and the prevailing extensive methods of its development. Agriculture also fell into decline, whose resources were actively used by the directive economy.

In industrial construction, during the 9th Five-Year Plan period (1971-1975), dozens of gigantic territorial production complexes (TPCs) were created. The Baikal-Amur Mainline (BAM) was laid, and it was planned to build a network of new TPK along it, but there were practically no funds for this project. BAM is still making losses.

In order to avoid economic collapse, the USSR increased the supply of energy carriers to the West, moreover, their prices there increased only in the 1970s. almost 20 times.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

<< Back: Economic thought in Russia (second half of the 1917th - beginning of the 1921th centuries) (The place of N. G. Chernyshevsky in the history of Russian and world economic thought. Economic views of V. I. Lenin. The first socialist transformations. War communism as a stage in the formation of the command-administrative system (XNUMX-XNUMX ). Increasing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the New Economic Policy. Changes in the monetary and financial spheres)

>> Forward: Economic development of Russia during the period of perestroika (Background of perestroika. Preconditions for its emergence. Reform of the political system. Reform of the electoral system. Analysis of liberal and other movements. Economic reforms. Economic reform of 1987. The “500 days” program. The dialectic of “new thinking”. The beginning of disarmament. Unblocking regional conflicts. Collapse socialist system)

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