Table of contents (expand)
- The emergence of economic thought in the ancient world (Backgrounds of economic thought in the Ancient East. Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Ancient Egypt. Babylonia. Economic thought in Ancient India. Economic thought in Ancient China. Economic thought in Ancient Rome. The teachings of Cato. The teachings of Xenophon. The teachings of Plato. The teachings of Aristotle)
- Economic thought in the Middle Ages (Medieval teachings of Western Europe. "Salic truth". Socio-economic views of Ibn Khaldun. Teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Social utopia of Thomas More. "Russian Truth")
- Mercantilism (Mercantilism. Economic prerequisites of mercantilism. Features of mercantilism as an economic idea. French and English mercantilism. Features of Russian mercantilism. Late mercantilism)
- Physiocracy (General characteristics of the physiocrats. The teachings of François Quesnay. The activities of Jacques Turgot)
- Classical school of political economy (Classical school. Economic views of William Petty. Teachings of Adam Smith. Teachings of David Ricardo)
- Classical school after Smith and Ricciardo (The teachings of Jean-Baptiste Say. The economic views of John Stuart Mill. The economic views of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. The teachings of Thomas Malthus)
- historical school (Contribution of the historical school to the development of economic theory. Historical school of Germany. New historical school of Germany)
- Utopian socialists (Western European utopian socialism. Economic views of Simon de Sismondi. Utopian dreams of Robert Owen)
- Marxism (The emergence of Marxism as an economic doctrine. “Capital” by Karl Marx. Karl Marx on the commodity and its properties. Money and its functions. Karl Marx on constant and variable capital and surplus value. Karl Marx’s views on land rent)
- Austrian school (Austrian school: the theory of marginal utility as a theory of pricing. The economic views of Eugen Böhm-Bawerk. The teachings of Carl Menger. The economic views of Friedrich von Wieser)
- Marginalism (The theory of marginalism. Methodological principles of marginalism. The marginalist theory of value and its advantages. The marginalist revolution. The causes and consequences of the marginalist revolution. The theory of utility of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of labor supply of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of Francis Isidro Edgeworth)
- General economic equilibrium theory (General equilibrium model including production; the problem of the existence of a solution and the process of "tatonnement". General equilibrium theory in the 20th century: contributions of A. Wald, J. von Neumann, J. Hicks, C. Arrow and J. Debreu)
- Alfred Marshall (A. Marshall - leader of the Cambridge school of marginalists. Alfred Marshall's partial equilibrium method. Alfred Marshall's analysis of utility and demand. Alfred Marshall's analysis of costs and supply. Alfred Marshall's equilibrium price and the influence of the time factor)
- The beginning of the economic development of Rus' (Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. General characteristics of the socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Features of early feudalization. Social division of labor among the Eastern Slavs. The emergence of cities, the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Internal development of Rus'. The adoption of Christianity and the baptism of Rus' . Money and its role in Kievan Rus)
- Economic development of Rus' in the Middle Ages (Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation. The growth of feudal land ownership. Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule. Socio-economic and political consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands into a centralized state. Economic policy of Russia in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries . Formation of the all-Russian market. Socio-economic development of Russia after the Time of Troubles)
- Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II (The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I. The peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II. The socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century. Social -economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century)
- Economic development of Russia in the 19th century. (The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the 1860th century. Economic prerequisites for the elimination of serfdom. Abolition of serfdom. Stratification of the Russian village. Main types of agricultural farms and their characteristics. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their consequences. Zemstvo reform Urban reform Judicial reform Military reform Educational reforms Financial reform Basic provisions of the legislation on peasants The situation of agriculture in the 1870-XNUMXs Agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin)
- Economic thought in Russia (second half of the 1917th - beginning of the 1921th centuries) (The place of N. G. Chernyshevsky in the history of Russian and world economic thought. Economic views of V. I. Lenin. The first socialist transformations. War communism as a stage in the formation of the command-administrative system (XNUMX-XNUMX ). Increasing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the New Economic Policy. Changes in the monetary and financial spheres)
- Economic development of the USSR (The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. The Soviet economy during the war. Post-war development of the national economy. The country on the eve of reforms. Reform of the Soviet economic system. Transformations in the social sphere. The economy of developed socialism. The search for new forms and methods of management. Reforms of the 1960-1970s years: essence, goals, methods and results)
- Economic development of Russia during the period of perestroika (Background of perestroika. Preconditions for its emergence. Reform of the political system. Reform of the electoral system. Analysis of liberal and other movements. Economic reforms. Economic reform of 1987. The “500 days” program. The dialectic of “new thinking”. The beginning of disarmament. Unblocking regional conflicts. Collapse socialist system)
- Economic development of Russia since the early 1990s. (Russia in the first half of the 1990s. Continuation of the course of reforms, shock therapy. Issues of maintaining the unity of Russia. New Constitution. Privatization)
LECTURE No. 6. Classical school after Smith and Riccardo
1. Teachings of Jean-Baptiste Say
Jean-Baptiste Say (Se) (1762-1832) - French representative of the classical school, one of the followers of Adam Smith. Born into a merchant family, he devoted a lot of time to his self-education. Author of the book "Treatise of Political Economy, or a Simple Statement of the Method in which Wealth is Formed, Distributed and Consumed" (1803-1804) and the six-volume "Complete Course of Practical Political Economy" (1828-1829). In his opinion, he greatly simplified and made more accessible what Adam Smith offered his contemporaries. He constantly supplemented and republished the Treatise of Political Economy. Sey, like Adam Smith, preached the idea of economic liberalism. This man had the gift of explaining complex things in simple words, accessible to everyone.
He put forward the "law of markets": the supply of a product always creates a demand for it. In Say's words, it sounds like this: "Every product from the moment of its creation opens a market for other products for the entire amount of its value." Say's law is part of many political and economic theories for representatives of the classical school. In modern economics, it is called Say's law. The labor theory of value, according to him, may depend on many factors - such as costs, utility, demand, supply.
Say's doctrine of the law of the market is in many ways opposed to the teachings of the mercantilists. Say believed that it was not the amount of money that played an important role in the life of society, but the amount of product produced for sale. Say also criticized squandering and said that one should save and then reinvest in production, constantly increasing the amount of product for sale. Say believed that the crisis of the entire production could never occur, in general, the crisis is an accident.
Especially for him, the Department of Political Economy was created at the College de France. But towards the end of his life, he stopped looking for new ideas and only constantly repeated the old ones. Nevertheless, Jean-Baptiste Say occupies far from the last place in the historical development of economic thought. He was the first to suggest that capital, labor and land participate equally in production. Many scientific studies of the last century were based on this idea.
2. Economic views of John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) - a follower of D. Riccardo, whom he considered his idol. This is the last of the largest representatives of the classical school.
James Mile (1773-1836) - English economist, father of John Stuart Mile, gave him an excellent education and developed his creative abilities. He was David Ricciardo's closest friend. John Stuart Mill put forward an idea similar to Say's law.
His works dealt with completely different sciences. He published the first of them when he was only 23. The list of these works is very long: "System of Logic" (1843), "Utilitarianism" (1836), "On Freedom" (1859), "Essays on some unsolved problems of political economy "(1844)," The principles of political economy with some applications to social philosophy "(1848) (in 5 books).
Mill in his works relied on the works of representatives of the classical school, but he interpreted all their principles in a completely new way.
Mill put forward the idea that it is worth separating the law of production and the law of distribution.
From the theory of Malthus about population and the theory of rent, Riccardo Mill concluded that the lack of incentives for the population can lead to a "stupor" in the economy, but perhaps this "stupor" will give impetus to spiritual and moral improvement.
Mill believed that only production can create material wealth, and another way to obtain material wealth is only the redistribution of what production has created. In his opinion, wages are payment for labor, which depends on supply and demand. Value, Mill suggested, cannot go up on all goods at the same time, because value is a relative concept. John Stuart Mill was very friendly towards socialism, but still did not consider himself a socialist.
Mill advised the government of his country to increase bank interest in order for foreigners to invest in the banks of this country. The government should also cut its own spending. He even proposed to carry out a social reform, the main ideas of which, according to S. Gide and S. Rist, can be expressed in the following points:
1) it is worth limiting the inequality of wealth. This will be possible if the rights of inheritance are slightly limited;
2) abolish wage labor as such. This can be done with the help of a productive cooperative association;
3) to carry out the socialization of land rent through a land tax.
3. Economic views of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) - French sociologist, economist and petty-bourgeois socialist, who is generally considered an idealist. He believed Say's law was false. Proudhon was born in eastern France. He, being a poor peasant, did not receive a decent formal education, but devoted a lot of time to self-education, visiting the city library. He was especially interested in philosophy, history and political economy. Known as the author of the books “On the Political Abilities of the Working Class” (death book), “On the Federal Principle” (1862), “On the Justice of the Revolution and in the Church” (1858), “Confession of a Revolutionary” and “The Idea of Revolution in the 1848th Century.” (1848), “Solving the Social Question” (1845), “The System of Economic Contradictions, or the Philosophy of Poverty” (1846-1840), “What is Property?” (XNUMX).
"Property is theft!" - considered Proudhon, although he believed that this was one of the conditions of freedom and did not reject property as categorically as others. He said that the very fact of owning property cannot be the basis for receiving income from this property.
In 1844-1845 he communicated with Karl Marx, who tried to convince him of the correctness of the idea of communism, but Proudhon remained true to his views on the further development of the country and science.
He believed that the issuance of free loans could stop the receipt of unearned income and would help those people who want to work on the land and earn a living from it. Proudhon suggested that the "People's Bank" implement this idea.
His idea of helping the proletariat through associations on the principle of mutual assistance was later called "mutualism". He believed that it was possible to build an ideal society based on the highest absolute mind, which would constantly apply the "laws of justice." For such ideas, he was in prison. After he had to emigrate to Belgium, so as not to go to jail again.
Social science is a struggle for justice, as Proudhon believed.
According to Proudhon, production is the result of the addition of labor, capital, and land. If these elements are considered separately, then they can be productive only in a figurative sense.
4. The teachings of Thomas Malthus
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) - English economist, one of the ardent critics of Say's law, author of many scientific works - such as "An Essay on the Law of Population" (1798), "An Inquiry into the Nature and Increase of Rent" (1815), "Principles political economy, considered from the point of view of their application" (1820).
According to Thomas Malthus, capitalism will not be able to create the demand that is necessary for the sale of what is produced in the country. The problem is that more goods are produced for the same salary of workers. Accordingly, they cannot afford to purchase more than usual. He believed that things could be improved if someone bought more, such as civil servants or the aristocracy.
In his work on the laws of population, he explains what causes the change in the size of a nation, although many have denied his theory. He also tried to explain why there are so many poor people. In his opinion, the population is growing much faster than people are developing new lands for agricultural work that can feed humanity.
In addition, Thomas Malthus believed that the land that is now fertile cannot be such all the time, and the lands that are reclaimed cannot remain endless and always suitable for agriculture. And the scientific achievements of our time are not able to increase the fertility of the land as much as necessary. In his opinion, this causes an increase in mortality (due to hunger and hard work for pennies) and a decrease in the birth rate (fear of not feeding several children). Some believe that his work was the impetus for the emergence in the distant future of the science of "correct family planning." Although at the same time others consider him a perfect tyrant who hated humanity in general.
Be that as it may, Thomas Malthus left us a legacy of many theories that have become the property of all mankind and have been widely used by many economists and other scientists.
Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.
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