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Table of contents

1. The educational process, its essence, driving forces and contradictions (The essence of the learning process, its goals. Contradictions of the learning process. Driving forces of the learning process)
2. Patterns and principles of learning (Epistemological foundations of learning. Psychological components of assimilation. Laws of learning. Patterns of learning. Principles of learning)
3. Characteristics of modern didactic concepts
4. Learning functions (Characteristics of learning functions. Developing function. Educational function. Educational function)
5. The content of education (The concept of the content of education. Culture as the basis for constructing and determining the content of education)
6. Psychological foundations for the formation of skills and abilities in the learning process (Steps of education. Individual and typical characteristics of students in the learning process. Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities. The theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and skills. Methodological and general theoretical foundations of the pedagogical concept of the learning process. Stages learning process and their implementation in learning situations.Features of the learning process depending on the type of subject)
7. Basic, variable and additional components of the content of education
8. Characteristics of the learning process
9. State educational standard (The concept of the state standard of education. Components of the state standard of education)
10. Teaching and learning - two sides of the educational process (Concepts about learning and teaching. General pedagogical and didactic characteristics of a holistic educational process. Principles of a holistic educational process)
11. Teaching methods (Teaching methods. Classification of teaching methods. Rational application of various teaching methods)
12. Forms of organization of the learning process (Requirements for the organization of the learning process. Problem-based learning. Modular learning technology. Modern models of learning organization)
13. Progress and methods for its assessment (Types of accounting for student progress. Causes of failure. Types of underachieving schoolchildren, their psychological characteristics. Ways to prevent and eliminate failure. Indicators of the quality of the learning process and didactic directions for its improvement. Main characteristics of the quality of knowledge. Formation of students' readiness for self-learning)
14. Characteristics of the author's educational programs (Didactic principles of K. D. Ushinsky. Frolov's didactic cycle of the learning process)
15. The teacher in the learning process (Planning the educational process. Pedagogical diagnostics. Individual approach in the system of didactic principles. Pedagogical tact and its role in learning. Pedagogical excellence)
16. Innovative educational processes (Innovation policy. The main forms of innovative activity. Intensification of the learning process. Principles of designing the learning process. The use of programmed learning at school. Selection of material for organizing problem lessons, requirements for it. Development of cognitive independence in problem-based learning. The use of game teaching methods as means of assimilation of knowledge and their verification)
17. Classification of teaching aids (System of teaching aids in the educational process. Technical teaching aids (TUT). Independent work of students, its types)

LECTURE No. 1. The educational process, its essence, driving forces and contradictions

1. The essence of the learning process, its goals

The science that studies and investigates the problems of education and training is called didactics.

The term "didactics" comes from the Greek didaktikos, which translates as "teaching". For the first time this word appeared thanks to a German teacher Wolfgang Rathke, who wrote a course of lectures entitled "A Brief Report from Didactics, or the Art of Teaching Ratikhia". Later, this term appeared in the work of the Czech scientist, teacher Yana Kamensky "Great didactics representing the universal art of teaching everything to all." Thus, didactics is "the art of teaching everything to everyone."

Along with the term "didactics", pedagogical science uses the term learning theory.

Didactics is a part of pedagogy that studies the most important problems of the theoretical foundations of education. Basic task didactics is to identify the patterns that govern learning process, and using them to successfully achieve educational tasks.

A person in the learning process must master that side of social experience, which includes knowledge, practical skills, as well as ways of creative activity. It is generally accepted to call the law in didactics the internal essential connection of the phenomena of learning, which determines their necessary manifestation and development. But the learning process differs in one characteristic from other phenomena of social life, and, accordingly, the laws of learning, fixed by didactics, reflect this feature.

Almost all the consequences of social life are the result of individual activity, which is aimed at goals and objects. On the other hand, the activity of learning pursues rather narrow, limited social goals, which are directly related to the laws of learning. Note that it is not at all necessary that the laws of learning and the goals of its subjects coincide.

Learning objectives, although limited, are achieved in the process of obtaining empirical knowledge. There was an interest in laws, which intensified as the goals of education and the conditions for its implementation became more complex.

The considered difference between the laws of learning as a social activity and other types of social life and their laws suggests another difficulty in determining the laws in didactics. The laws of social life do not ensure the achievement of every individual goal. Learning also involves goals for each student. Note that the learning of each individual is a consequence of many interaction factors. Each of these factors is a prerequisite for learning, so the implementation of this set is extremely difficult. Consequently, it is difficult to achieve the goal of learning in relation to all students.

Didactics and psychology of education. Psychology and didactics are closely related. The commonality of psychology and didactics is that they have single object - the process of training and education; their difference is determined by different aspects of the study of this object. Psychology explores the psychological patterns of the formation of the human psyche in the process of its formation, or the psychological mechanisms of assimilation of a system of properties, abilities, and individual experience of a person.

Didactics studies the conditions (organizational forms, methods, teaching aids) that must be created for the effective flow of assimilation processes in accordance with their psychological patterns. Therefore, a meaningful construction of a system of organizational forms, methods, teaching aids should be based on the task of psychological mechanisms for the assimilation of a system of knowledge, skills, and abilities by a person. That is, didactics should be based on the data of pedagogical psychology.

Knowledge of the psychological mechanisms of assimilation and the pedagogical conditions in which they are implemented form the necessary basis for the development of teaching methods, which act as the main means of pedagogical activity. It is impossible to meaningfully use and develop teaching methods without knowing the psychological laws and pedagogical principles on which they are based.

There is a continuous chain of connections: "pedagogical psychology" - "didactics" - "methodology" - "practice". These connections reflect the successive stages of designing the educational process. The ultimate goal of the educational process is the formation of personality. Education - the process and result of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities. There are primary, secondary, higher education, general and special education.

A simple pedagogical situation consists in organizing the reproduction of the activity given by the teacher. This situation is described as a system of cooperative activity: the process of learning and the organization of this process by the teacher. The teacher in this situation should form an idea of ​​the activity and broadcast it to the student.

The student must accept this activity, enter into it and perform. The functions of the teacher, therefore, consist in the consciousness of the idea of ​​the activity of the student and in the involvement of the student in the activity. Finally, the teacher monitors the performance and the result of the activity. Control, therefore, is a specific function of educational and pedagogical activity.

If the control result is negative, then the process is repeated.

If the problem situation is the student's misunderstanding of the given idea of ​​the activity, then in the course of reflection this activity is divided into parts, according to the stages of entry and implementation of the activity. Then this reflective knowledge turns into normative, and again the teacher demonstrates entry into the activity, organizes the involvement of the student, control over the implementation of the activity, etc. Such is the logic of didactics. Pedagogical activity is a special organizational and managerial activity that organizes and manages the student's educational activities.

The object science is a real learning process. Didactics provides knowledge about the basic laws of education, characterizes its principles, methods and content.

Learning theory as a science includes several categories.

The essence of the learning process. Considers learning as part of the overall educational process.

Teaching methods. The techniques used by the teacher in their professional activities are studied.

Principles of teaching. These are the main views on learning activities.

The content of school education. Reveals the relationship of various types of education in a comprehensive school.

Organization of training. Deals with the organization of educational work, discovers new forms of organization of education. The key form of organizing learning today is the lesson.

The activities of the teacher. Behavior and work of the teacher during the implementation of the educational process.

Student activities. Behavior and work of the student during the implementation of the educational process.

Being a pedagogical discipline, didactics operates with the same concepts as pedagogy: "education", "upbringing", "pedagogical activity", etc.

Under education understand the purposeful process and result of mastering the system of scientific knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities by students, the formation on this basis of a worldview, moral and other personality traits. Education is realized under the influence of learning.

Under training is understood as a purposeful process of interaction between a teacher and students, during which, mainly, education is carried out and a significant contribution is made to the upbringing and development of the individual.

Education can not fully solve the problems of educating a personality and its development, therefore, an extracurricular educational process is simultaneously carried out at the school. Under the influence of training and education, the process of holistic comprehensive development of the individual is realized.

Training represents the unity of the processes of teaching and learning. teaching call the process of the teacher's activity in the course of training, and teaching - the process of student activity. Learning also occurs during self-education. From the patterns identified by didactics, some fundamental requirements follow, the observance of which ensures the optimal functioning of learning. They are called learning principles.

Education fulfills one of the main tasks of personality development - to transfer knowledge from the experience of mankind to the younger generation, to form the skills, attitudes and beliefs necessary in life.

Primary education contains great potential opportunities for the comprehensive development of younger students. To reveal and realize these possibilities is the most important task of the didactics of elementary education.

Education sets the task for the individual development of the student - to master the modern level of knowledge for a given era. Individual development in the learning process always lags behind the socio-historical. Socio-historical knowledge always goes ahead of the individual.

Training - a special kind of human relations, in the process of which education, upbringing and transfer of the experience of human activity to the subject of learning are carried out. Outside of teaching, socio-historical development breaks away from the individual and loses one of the sources of its self-propulsion.

The learning process is associated with the development and formation of the student's knowledge, skills and abilities in any disciplines. Teaching is usually caused motivation.

Motivation - this is a process that encourages moving towards the goal; a factor that determines behavior and encourages activity. It is known that there are two levels of motivation: external and internal. Many educators tend to use external incentives. They believe that students should be forced to study, encouraged or punished, parents should be involved in controlling children.

However, there is an opinion that systematic long-term control over the actions of the child noticeably lowers the desire of students to work and can even completely destroy it.

It is important to develop internal motives student. The level of internal needs for each person is different and changes in parallel with psychological needs (the need for survival, security, belonging, self-respect, creative needs and the need for self-actualization).

Education arose at the earliest stages of human development and consisted in transferring the experience of ancestors to younger generations. The ancient hunter had to learn how to use weapons, cook food, make tools, and protect himself from enemies. A similar type of training is also characteristic of the animal world, when a mother teaches her cubs to hunt and hide from enemies. The ancient man looked at his older relatives, watched their speech, behavior and tried to repeat everything that they did. Thus, it turned out that the child was engaged in self-education, because in the primitive tribes there were no specially trained teachers.

In the course of evolution, with the complication of human relations, the education system also improved: special institutions appeared in which education was carried out. Learning has become a purposeful process.

Let's try to compare a first grader who can neither read nor write, and a school graduate. What turned a child who does not know the basics of literacy into a highly developed personality capable of creative activity and comprehension of reality? That force was learning.

But knowledge cannot be simply transferred from one person to another. Such a task can be carried out only with the active participation of the student, with his counter activity. No wonder the French physicist Pascal said that "a student is not a vessel to be filled, but a torch to be lit." From this it can be concluded that training - this is a two-way process of activity, both a teacher and a student, as a result of which the student develops knowledge and skills if he has motivation.

2. Contradictions in the learning process

The task of the teacher, who has some baggage of knowledge, is to convey this information to the student. But not only this is limited to his activities. The teacher should stimulate the work of the student, develop his internal motivation to master knowledge, skills and abilities, develop creative abilities, aesthetic views. Since learning is a living and constantly evolving process, it is characterized by the presence of various contradictions. These contradictions contribute to the improvement of education, its adaptation to the changing requirements of society. Here are some of the main contradictions in the educational process.

1. The contradiction between the amount of knowledge accumulated by civilization and the amount of knowledge adopted by the student. This contradiction contributes to the improvement of the content of education. The fact is that the amount of experience accumulated by mankind is so great that no one of the people will ever be able to fully assimilate it. Therefore, it is necessary to choose exactly the information that would meet the needs of the individual and society. Along with the information, the student must master the basic methods of cognition (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, modeling, etc.) in order to be able to "extract" knowledge on their own in the future.

2. The contradiction between the practical tasks facing the student and his individual abilities. As a rule, starting training, the student does not even have elementary concepts of discipline. At this stage, the teacher needs to interest the student. In modern society, there are many different sources of information (television, print, Internet, etc.), which greatly facilitates the work of the teacher and makes information more accessible.

3. The contradiction between educational tasks and the level of development of the student. At different stages of training, the level of complexity of training tasks increases. It is important for the student to adequately assess his abilities. If a task far exceeds the level of development of the student, then it is likely to be not completed or not fully completed. This situation can completely deprive the student of motivation to learn. On the other hand, if the task turns out to be too simple, then it will not contribute to his development, because he did not make enough efforts to achieve the goal.

4. Contradiction between science and school subject. The teacher, as a rule, has a greater amount of knowledge than he offers students in the course of training, since the implementation of school education does not always require the student to have deep analytical knowledge of the subject. Moreover, the teacher cannot always present, and the student, for a number of reasons, can not fully assimilate the entire amount of information.

In addition to the above, other contradictions may arise in the learning process. Each of them contributes to the development of didactics, poses a number of pedagogical tasks for the teacher, and helps to most fully implement educational activities.

Modern education includes many aspects: scientific, labor, aesthetic, sports, health-saving. Each of the above types of training has its own characteristics and methods. The science of didactics solves issues related to them.

3. Drivers of the learning process

Learning process - a set of consistent actions of the teacher and the students led by him, aimed at the conscious and lasting assimilation of the knowledge system, during which the development of cognitive forces, the mastery of elements of the culture of mental and physical labor are carried out. Education in a modern school is aimed at preparing young generations for active participation in society. Changing the learning process itself has an impact on students in the direction of increasing the activity of students in the knowledge of the surrounding reality. All this strengthens the desire of schoolchildren for the continuous expansion of this knowledge in unity with the development of the ability to independently, without a teacher, acquire new knowledge. This ability turns into a personality trait of the student, which will later serve as the basis for his self-education.

It is often believed that the movement of the educational process is entirely determined by the teacher, his explanations, instructions, questions. This view arose while observing the lessons, where the teacher continuously explains, points, directs, and the students are left with only imitative-performing work. Opening up the real driving forces learning process is a complex task, which is due to a variety of factors involved in such a multifaceted, mobile and contradictory process. Not everything that is taught is learned by students, and the teacher is not always able to arouse in them a desire to learn. It has been noticed that the more the teacher "teaches" his students and the less he gives them the opportunity to independently acquire knowledge, think and act, the less energetic and fruitful the learning process becomes. And vice versa, the learning process, in which, in close connection with the teacher's explanations, a lively, active cognitive activity of students is carried out, it turns out to be effective in relation to the assimilation of knowledge and the mental development of students. Thus, organized learning does not stand still, but constantly develops, acquiring the internal forces of its movement.

The driving force behind the learning process is the contradiction between the cognitive and practical tasks put forward by the course of education and the current level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students - their mental development.

The art of the teacher lies in the fact that, arming students with knowledge, consistently leading them to more complex tasks and to their implementation. Determination of the degree and nature of difficulties in the educational process is in the hands of the teacher, who causes the driving force of learning - develops the ability and moral-volitional forces of schoolchildren.

Also the driving force is contradiction, if it is meaningful, that is, meaningful. The condition for the formation of a contradiction as the driving force of learning is its proportionality with the cognitive potential of students. If the contradiction between the task put forward and the available cognitive abilities of students is such that even with the strain of efforts, the students of the class in the overwhelming majority are not able to complete the task and cannot even complete it in the short term, such a contradiction does not become the driving force of learning and development, it slows down mental activity of students.

LECTURE No. 2. Patterns and principles of learning

As practice shows, the learning process has some common patterns. Their identification helps to develop ways to consciously manage learning. Learning patterns are the theoretical basis for understanding learning. As a rule, they are probabilistic-statistical in nature and do not imply practical settings for specific actions, but thanks to their opening, it is possible to develop specific rules for the teacher's work.

It should be clearly understood that these patterns are very subjective and depend in their manifestation on the activities of the teacher. So, learning process - an objective process that takes into account the subjective characteristics of its participants. In this regard, the existence of two groups of regularities and the complex conditionality of the objective and subjective factors of the learning process are determined.

Modern teachers distinguish two types of learning patterns: external и internal.

External patterns depend on social processes, the political situation, the level of culture in society, etc.

Internal patterns related to the goals, methods and forms of education.

Let's name some of these regularities.

1. The learning process is both educational and educational in nature. In the course of its implementation, the influence on the student may lean in one direction or the other.

2. The learning process requires constant repetition of the material covered.

3. The learning process requires the intensity and consciousness of the work of the student and teacher.

4. The learning process requires the trainee to use search methods and analyze the studied material.

In the learning process, in addition to didactic laws, there are psychological, physiological, epistemological laws and regularities. They mainly determine the relationship between the student and the teacher in the learning process.

1. Gnoseological foundations of education

Epistemology (theory of knowledge) - a branch of philosophy that studies the problems of the nature of knowledge and its capabilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality, explores the general prerequisites for knowledge, identifies the conditions for its reliability and truth. Unlike psychology, the physiology of higher nervous activity, and other sciences, epistemology does not analyze individual mechanisms functioning in the psyche that allow a particular subject to come to a certain cognitive result, but universal grounds that make it possible to consider this result as knowledge that expresses real, true knowledge. the state of things. Concerning epistemological foundations of education are as follows.

1. The result of the learning process is specific knowledge that can be identified during their verification (oral or written).

2. In the learning process, it is more rational to use the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, which will help to better assimilate knowledge.

3. Epistemology helps to present many sciences not only from a philosophical point of view, but also to determine their application in the real world (in practice).

Initial knowledge about the world is given to a person in sensory knowledge - sensations, perceptions, ideas. The results of mental activity not only provide new knowledge that is not directly contained in the data of sensibility, but also actively influence the structure and content of feelings, knowledge. Therefore, the empirical data that science deals with are formed as a result of using theoretical propositions to describe the content of feelings, experience and suggest a number of theoretical idealizations. Along with this, sensory experience, which acts as the initial basis of the cognitive process, is understood not as a passive imprint of the impact of objects of the external world, but as a moment of active practical, sensory-objective activity.

Theoretical thinking is guided in the reproduction of the object of knowledge by the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete, with which the principles of the unity of the logical and historical, analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked. The forms of reflection of objective reality in cognition are the categories and laws of materialistic dialectics, which also act as methodological principles of scientific and theoretical activity.

The epistemological foundations of education develop the idea of ​​greater independence of the student in the learning process. The mental activity of each student is directed in a certain direction by the teacher (for example, reasoning on a specific topic). The conclusions reached by the students are discussed by the group, and the results of the discussions are recorded or memorized. Thus, self-made conclusions and the knowledge gained at the same time are much better absorbed by students.

Another important epistemological basis of teaching is the use of visual methods. Visual materials contribute to the activation of the mental activity of students. Therefore, any lesson should contain visual elements (especially when explaining a new topic).

Speaking about the relationship between academic subjects, it is necessary to remember what a curriculum, a program is. Syllabus - a list of subjects selected for study at school. Subjects are distributed according to the years of their study, the number of hours in each class and the dosage of these hours per week.

Obtaining education in different types of schools led to the formulation of such a problem as "a single level of general secondary education." Ensuring this level involves the mandatory inclusion of knowledge, skills and abilities and classifying them as fundamental. There is, respectively, auxiliary and additional material, the distribution of which in the curriculum can be varied. The basic, common for all eight-year education is taken as the initial level. Drawing up curricula pursues strictly defined goals.

Basic goals.

1. Continuity in education and upbringing.

2. Single level of general education and professional training.

3. Accounting for the characteristics of national educational institutions.

Curricula and programs are being continuously updated. This is due to scientific and technological progress and ever-increasing demands for a "single general educational level."

From the standpoint of psychology, teaching is viewed as an activity of the subject, as an activity, as a factor in mental development. The Teaching manifests itself and leads to further systemic changes in human behavior.

From a pedagogical point of view, teaching - this is education and training, which is a system of purposeful conditions necessary to ensure the effective transfer of social experience. Teachings - this is creative assimilation, the acquisition of knowledge.

assimilation - this is an organized cognitive activity of a student, which includes the activity of a number of cognitive mental processes - perception, memory, thinking, imagination. Teaching as the creative assimilation of knowledge depends on to which teach, who и How teaches and whom teach.

The nature of the doctrine depends:

1) from the material that is assimilated, from its content and the system in which it is served;

2) from the methodological skill and experience of the teacher, his personal characteristics;

3) on the specific teaching methodology that is used in each individual case;

4) from the characteristics of the student - the individual characteristics of his mental development (mental, emotional, volitional), from his attitude to learning, from his inclinations and interests.

2. Psychological components of assimilation

Psychological components of assimilation - these are interrelated multifaceted aspects of the student's psyche, without the activation and appropriate direction of which education does not achieve the goal. These components include:

1. Positive attitude of students towards learning. It is a necessary condition for the full assimilation of educational material. Such an attitude helps to form the following factors: the problematic and emotional nature of the presentation, the organization of the cognitive search activity of students, which gives them the opportunity to experience the joy of independent discoveries, equipping students with rational methods of educational work. The student's attitude to learning is expressed in attention, interest in learning, readiness to expend volitional efforts to overcome difficulties.

2. Processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material. Mastering knowledge, students observe specific objects and phenomena, their images, acquire specific ideas. Distinguish subject, pictorial and verbal visibility.

3. The process of thinking as a process of active processing of the received material. Understanding always means the inclusion of new material in the system of already established associations, the linking of unfamiliar material with the already familiar. Analyzing the thinking of a schoolchild, two main types are distinguished - concrete and abstract.

4. The process of storing and storing received and processed information. Memorization directly depends on the nature of the student's activity. The greatest efficiency of memorization is observed when it occurs in some active activity. Efficiency also depends on settings. There may be settings for memorization in general and settings of a more particular nature - for long or short storage in memory, for accurate reproduction in your own words, etc.

3. Laws of learning

In addition to the basic laws, learning, like any other type of human activity, has its own the laws. Thanks to these laws, it is possible to identify the internal connections of the learning process, they reflect its development. Science identifies a number of basic pedagogical laws.

1. Long known the relationship of learning and mental development of the individual. Properly delivered education is focused on the development of the child, aimed at shaping the correct moral, aesthetic, spiritual, creative and other attitudes in him.

2. A person lives in society, interacts with it. Depending on the social order goals, methods and content of training are built.

3. Learning process can not be considered in isolation from the upbringing of the child. The teacher educates the student not only through moralizing conversations (which most often turns out to be less effective). He educates with his tone, manner of talking, manner of dressing, etc.

4. The learning process is harmonious combination content, motivation, emotionality and other components of the educational process.

5. Theory and practice in education are inextricably linked.

6. Collective and individual organization of learning activities are also inextricably linked.

Systematic learning can only be traced by considering the learning process as a whole. Learning process - pedagogically sound, consistent, continuous change of acts of learning, during which the tasks of development and education of the individual are solved. In the learning process, its subjects, the teacher and the student, participate in interrelated activities. In order to characterize the learning process as a system, it is necessary to trace this system in its dynamics.

4. Patterns of learning

Patterns in pedagogy is an expression of the operation of laws in specific conditions. Their peculiarity is that regularities in pedagogy are probabilistic-statistical in nature, i.e. they cannot foresee all situations and accurately determine the manifestation of laws in the learning process.

Patterns of learning can also be divided into two types.

1. Objective, inherent in the process of learning in its essence, manifesting itself as soon as it arises in any form, regardless of the method of activity of the teacher and the content of education.

2. Patterns that manifest themselves depending on the activities and means undertaken by the teaching and learning, and therefore, the content of education that they use.

The second group of regularities is due to the fact that the pedagogical process is associated with the purposeful and conscious activity of two interrelated subjects - the teacher and the student. Therefore, the degree of awareness of the functions of their actions by the teacher and the degree of adequate contact of the student with him and the subject of assimilation determine the manifestation of one or another learning pattern to a certain extent. So, until the teacher is aware of the role of visualization or creative tasks in teaching and does not apply them, the patterns associated with the role of these means will not appear.

In this way, learning process - an objective process, colored by the subjective characteristics of its participants.

Examples of the law of the first group.

1. Educational nature of education. Every act of teaching has an educative effect on students in one way or another. This influence can be positive, negative or neutral.

2. Any learning requires a purposeful interaction of the teaching, the learner and the studied object. Interaction can be direct or indirect.

3. Student activity: learning occurs only when students are active.

4. The educational process is carried out only if the goals of the student correspond to the goals of the teacher, taking into account the ways of mastering the content being studied.

An example of the law of the first group is the nature of learning. Another law is the purposeful interaction of the teacher, the learner and the object of study.

Examples of the law of the second group.

1. Concepts can be assimilated only if the cognitive activity of students is organized to correlate some concepts with others, to separate one from the other.

2. Skills can be formed only if the organization of the reproduction of operations and actions underlying the skill.

3. The strength of assimilation of the content of educational material is the greater, the more systematically organized is the direct and delayed repetition of this content and its introduction into the system of previously learned content.

4. The training of students in complex methods of activity depends on how the teacher ensured successful previous mastery of simple activities that are part of a complex method, and the readiness of students to determine situations in which these actions can be applied.

5. Any set of objectively interconnected information is assimilated only depending on whether the teacher presents it in one of its characteristic systems of connections, while relying on the students' actual experience.

6. Any units of information and methods of activity become knowledge and skills, depending on the degree of support organized by their presenter on the level of knowledge and skills already achieved at the time of presentation of the new content.

7. The level and quality of assimilation depend on the teacher's consideration of the degree of importance for students of the content being assimilated.

5. Principles of learning

As a rule, the laws and patterns of learning are implemented through its principles.

Learning principles These are the conditions on the basis of which the teaching activity of the teacher and the cognitive activity of the student are built.

The development of the principles of education has been going on for several centuries. For the first time, the teacher spoke and tried to formulate the principles of teaching Jan Comenius. In his work "Great Didactics" he called them the foundations on which the entire pedagogical process should be built. Comenius formulated a number of rules in teaching that teachers use to this day: from near to far, from concrete to abstract etc.

In addition to him, the substantiation of didactic principles was J.-J. Rousseau, J. G. Pestalozzi.

Rousseau, for example, believed that the fundamental basis of education is the contact of the child with nature. This principle is called "principle of natural conformity of education".

Pestalozzi considered visualization as the basis of pedagogical activity. He believed that visualization brings the basis to logical thinking.

An invaluable role in the development of the principles of education was played by K. D. Ushinsky. He highlights a number of principles used in modern didactics.

1. Systematic, accessible and feasible training.

2. Consciousness and activity of learning.

3. Strength of knowledge.

4. Visualization of training.

5. Nationality of learning.

6. Educational nature of education.

7. Scientific teaching.

Let's consider them separately.

The principle of science. Knowledge of reality can be right or wrong. Education should be based on official scientific concepts and use scientific methods of knowledge.

The principle of scientific education focuses the teacher's attention on the search for pedagogically sound ways of forming scientific knowledge. He makes the following demands on the organization of cognitive activity of students.

1. When embarking on scientific education, it is necessary to understand well which side of the human experience the student is assimilating and how to correctly organize the transition of thought from phenomenon to essence, from external, observable properties to internal ones.

2. Understand the impact on the development of schoolchildren of scientific types of knowledge.

3. To see in the program educational material the possibility of a more or less deep explanation of reality. This gives grounds for creative search, individual approach.

4. To know the ways of systematization and generalization of the child's ideas in the process of formation of initial scientific concepts.

An important role in enriching students with patriotic knowledge, in shaping culture and interethnic relations is played by familiarizing them with the interstate relations of the people in the past and present. Rich material for this is contained in geography lessons, which deal with economic ties between states and peoples, reveal the issues of helping different peoples to each other, and the mutual influence of cultures.

Education and various forms of extracurricular work allow teachers to carry out diverse educational work with students to form their intellectual and sensory sphere, develop their consciousness associated with patriotism and the culture of interethnic relations.

The stability and degree of maturity of moral consciousness is achieved when students' knowledge in the field of patriotism and the culture of interethnic relations is emotionally experienced and takes the form of deep personal views and beliefs.

The knowledge acquired by a person on issues of patriotism and culture does not always determine the mindset and behavior corresponding to these qualities.

On a personal level, these principles, or motives for activity and behavior, the formation of which is the most important task of educating students in patriotism and a culture of interethnic relations, take the form of views and beliefs. This process is of great methodological complexity and is associated with considerable practical difficulties.

In order to give educational work an emotional character with the aim of deeply influencing the consciousness and feelings of students in the field of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations and developing their respective views and beliefs, teachers use vivid factual material for this.

The systematic assimilation of scientific knowledge begins at school. Initial scientific knowledge arises on the basis of a child's diverse ideas about the world around him.

The success of learning depends on how the teacher organizes the mental activity of schoolchildren in the process of assimilation of initial scientific knowledge. It is necessary to determine the totality of sensory images that form the basis of the original concept. Then it is necessary to generalize, systematize the ideas so that the student can imagine that side of reality, which is characterized in the concept. Next, the teacher highlights the available scientific features of the concept being formed.

The principle of systematicity. The teacher requires consistency in the presentation of the material so that the student can imagine real relationships, connections between objects and phenomena.

Systematic is that all students are regularly diagnosed from the first to the last day of their stay in an educational institution. The principle of systematicity requires an integrated approach to diagnosing, in which various forms, methods and means of monitoring, verification, evaluation are used in close interconnection and unity, subject to one goal.

Ensuring the systematic and consistent learning requires students to deeply comprehend the logic and system in the content of the acquired knowledge, as well as systematic work on repetition and generalization of the studied material. It is also necessary to accustom schoolchildren to regular work with a book, to observations of natural phenomena, to cultivate the skills of organization and consistency in acquiring knowledge. One of the common reasons for student failure is their lack of a system in their academic work, their inability to be persistent and diligent in learning.

In the implementation of systematic and consistent learning, an important role belongs to the verification and assessment of students' knowledge. Accounting and assessment of knowledge are carried out in order to monitor the work of students and identify the quality of their performance. At the same time, they accustom schoolchildren to the systematic assimilation of the material being studied, and contribute to the prevention and overcoming of gaps in knowledge.

The principle of systematicity implies that the presentation of educational material by the teacher is brought to the level of systemicity in the minds of students, so that knowledge is given to students not only in a certain sequence, but that they are interconnected.

The historical experience of schools in any period of social development convincingly shows that it is impossible to fulfill the tasks of education outside the system.

The system of explanation depends on those ideas that are objectively presented in the educational material, on which of them the teacher intends to explain, how the teacher understands the age-related possibilities for mastering knowledge, on the features of mental activity characteristic of children of a given age and development, on the prevailing traditional understanding of the process acquisition of knowledge in the classroom. At present, in the light of new ideas for improving primary education, approaches to the content and system of explaining the material in the lesson are changing.

Consistency, systematic, unity and continuity of educational influences.

Compliance with this principle presupposes the construction of such a pedagogical system, the components and elements of which form an integral unity. Unsystematic, random, spontaneity, inconsistency and disorder of pedagogical influences are strongly contraindicated in education. Nothing harms education so much as inconsistency in the requirements for students. In practice, unfortunately, sometimes it happens that the family not only does not support the requirements of the school, but also exerts an opposing influence. The unity of requirements is not always ensured in the teaching environment.

Therefore, it is extremely important to observe consistency and continuity in their work, to timely identify the level of upbringing of students, the "zone of proximal development".

The principle of accessibility and affordability. Education should be related to the individual characteristics of the student, with his personal experience, already existing knowledge and skills. Otherwise, the material will not be learned.

Education should be accessible to a given class, age, level of development. An essential sign of accessibility - the connection of the acquired knowledge with those that are in the mind of the student. If such a connection cannot be established, then knowledge will be inaccessible. Everything is available that is based on the knowledge available in the mind of the child, obtained in the process of education, family education, direct reflection of natural and social phenomena, communication with adults and peers, in reading, television programs, films. Knowledge becomes available when it is based on the personal experience of the child, is "a link in the composition of his personal experience."

Availability explanations and the possibility of understanding the educational material depend on how developed the students have those formal-logical forms of thinking and mental operations on the basis of which the explanation is given.

The pedagogical justification for the accessibility of education is to combine possible approaches and ways of connecting the educational material with what the child knows. Then the possibilities of mental development of students will be more fully revealed, and pedagogical provisions and recommendations regarding the accessibility of education will be more reasonable and convincing.

In terms of volume and depth, the available knowledge system should contribute to an increase in the overall level of development achieved by the student. The degree of influence of knowledge on general educational development is determined by those components of the child's life experience with which the new educational material is associated. Communicated knowledge can be accessed, understood and assimilated by the student. But they may not be sufficient to have a noticeable impact on the overall level of development of the student.

The principle of accessibility of education includes three sides.

1. The reported new knowledge should be based on the child's existing knowledge, on his life experience.

2. The studied system of knowledge should facilitate the transition to a deeper level of general development or create noticeable trends for such a transition.

3. In specific learning conditions, the need for this educational material to fulfill the tasks of developing students should be obvious.

The student in the learning process focuses mainly on the educational material. Real impressions of the surrounding world seem to be relegated to the background. The student can more or less fully represent the studied objects, phenomena in their real connections and relationships, or even formally memorize provisions, rules and formulas, without reflecting the sensually perceived surrounding world in them. The stronger the tendency in cognitive activity to represent real objects, phenomena, properties, events, the clearer the educational material for the child.

The principle of accessibility lies in the need to match the content, methods and forms of teaching to the age characteristics of students, their level of development. However, accessibility should not be replaced by "ease", training cannot do without straining the mental strength of students.

A high level of development is achieved at the limit of possibilities, so the learning process should be difficult, but feasible for students.

The principle of visibility. The principle introduced into pedagogy by Comenius and Pestalozzi. One of the necessary elements of training is the creation of visual images, models that depict or imitate certain phenomena being studied.

The name of the principle comes from the words "look", "inspection", "opinion", and this focuses on the role of thinking in the learning process, while cognition is polysensory.

The principle of visualization expresses the need for the formation of students' ideas and concepts on the basis of all sensory perceptions of objects and phenomena. However, the capacity of the sense organs, or "communication channels", of a person with the outside world is different. They note the highest throughput of information in the organs of vision, thereby putting the principle of visibility in the first place. However, it provides not only reliance on vision, but also on all other senses. All human organs are interconnected.

visibility, used in the process of studying various academic disciplines, has its own specific features, its types.

The theory of knowledge of dialectical materialism makes it possible to deeply understand the place of the sensory image in human cognitive activity, to reveal the dialectic of the transition of thought from the concrete to the abstract, from the sensory to the rational. Justification of the need for visualization of education on the basis of the Marxist-Leninist theory of knowledge is a fundamentally new aspect, which is being developed with the emergence of Soviet pedagogy.

Concrete-figurative cognition in the development of students can be an independent process and a means of forming abstract thoughts. Term visibility of learning does not replace all the richness and significance of sensory knowledge in the development of the student. Visual aids are one of the aspects of the organization of the student's sensory cognition. They are only a moment of a complex dialectical, contradictory connection between the sensual and the rational in the student's cognitive activity. The harmonious development of the personality, the complex tasks of the mental development of students require the teacher to skillfully organize all the sensory knowledge of the child.

Visual aids are one of the means to achieve the goal of learning, they contribute to the proper organization of the mental activity of students. Visual aids include natural or real objects, their images in the form of dummies, paintings, drawings, diagrams.

Movies, television and other technical teaching aids are becoming more and more widespread in education.

On the basis of the same visual aid, children may develop a different way of reflecting reality in sensory images.

Figurative thinking becomes the leading link in cognitive activity, contributes to the manifestation of creativity. In order to achieve an adequate written expression of his impressions, the student begins to look for words, suitable sentences that satisfy his feelings. In the writings, there is a desire for artistic description, a search for expressive literary means, epithets, metaphors, comparisons. It is important for the teacher to see the movement of the student's thoughts towards the reflection of the original in the process of using visual aids. The management of cognitive activity in education on this basis creates additional opportunities for the mental development of students.

The principle of consciousness and activity. AT In the learning process, the student must consciously perceive the proposed material. The teacher must set conscious goals and educate the student in cognitive activity.

The principle is that the purposeful creative self-development of teachers creates favorable conditions for the creative self-development of students. One of the priority goals and pedagogical technologies can and should be a learning technology focused on creative self-development of students. The entire system of teaching and upbringing work at school and the very life of the school should be considered as a system of life, focused on purposeful creative self-development of all elements of the teaching and upbringing process.

The principle of consciousness and activity of learning as a starting point in the cognitive activity of students and teaching includes three main aspects: students' conscious understanding of the educational material, a conscious attitude to training sessions, and the formation of cognitive activity.

1. With the setting of cognitive tasks and problem situations, the conscious understanding of the educational material by schoolchildren begins. Sometimes students cannot consciously learn the content because they do not perceive the learning task as a problem situation that needs to be resolved. They do not think over the task, but remember, according to the teacher, what needs to be done.

2. However, sometimes a smart, intelligent student mediocrely learns new material, because he is not interested in learning. He has no developed interest in learning. The attitude to the lessons largely depends on the motives of the teaching of schoolchildren. There are students who want to get fives, to be excellent students. Hence their diligence and diligence. For others, the need for knowledge, the desire to learn new things are the defining motives. For some, the very process of being at school, meeting with comrades and teachers is interesting. They are accustomed to school, they are drawn to the school environment.

3. The third side of the principle is the formation of students' cognitive activity.

It is possible to assimilate educational material only with sufficient activity of cognitive mental processes and an active mental state. The activity of mental reflection can arise under the influence of external factors, it is essentially an expression of the student's internal state, his cognitive powers and personality traits.

Activity always expresses a certain orientation of the personality, the concentration of consciousness on objects that are significant for the student. The teacher seeks to direct the activity of the child's cognition to the fulfillment of educational tasks. However, the activity of younger schoolchildren in the process of assimilation of educational material can be different and inadequate to the requirements of the teacher.

For each student, the activity of cognition is determined by his understanding of the tasks of education and the place of the school in his life, the difficulty or ease of mastering the educational material, the ability to fulfill the requirements of the teacher, the skills of educational work, spiritual interests and requests. The task of the teacher is to create conditions for increasing the general cognitive activity of primary school students, to form a positive attitude towards learning, to cultivate independence and efficiency.

The principle of the strength of knowledge. Since a person tends to forget information, the teacher must achieve solid knowledge, skills and abilities.

Compliance with this principle presupposes the construction of such a pedagogical system, the components and elements of which are not side by side, but form an integral unity. Unsystematic, random, inconsistent and disorderly pedagogical influences are strongly contraindicated in education. Nothing harms education so much as inconsistency in the requirements for students.

It is important to observe consistency and continuity in their work, to timely identify the level of upbringing of students.

The strength of learning means long-term retention in the memory of the knowledge being studied, the skills and abilities being formed.

The duration of the retention of knowledge is influenced by many objective and subjective factors, the conditions of learning and life of the child outside of school. The problem of the strength of learning is to increase the effect of positive factors and reduce the role of negative ones. The following important provisions can be singled out, which constitute the main content of the principle of the strength of the knowledge being studied, the skills and abilities being formed.

Highlighting the main thing in this educational material. The knowledge communicated in the lesson is not made up of the sum of individual equivalent elements, but is an interdependent set of constituent parts and links.

1. A logical system of interdependent components of knowledge arises in the student's mind, in which the student reflects essential, secondary and random connections.

The same content of the lesson can more or less successfully contribute to mental development, depending on how much the student identifies the main provisions that give a certain logical structure to the knowledge being studied.

2. The connection of the main idea with the child's knowledge. The main thing should be related to what the student knows about the subject under study. Otherwise, the main position becomes isolated and loses its subjective significance in the mental activity of the student. In order to highlight the main idea in the content of the lesson, it is necessary to give a certain logical order to the knowledge that children have on this topic.

3. Formation of materialistic views and beliefs. Knowledge should be included in the student's system of views and beliefs, then knowledge becomes the child's internal property, and he does not forget them.

4. The inclusion of the studied knowledge in the practical activities of students. The possible connection of educational material with practical actions and exercises significantly increases the strength of knowledge retention among primary school students. If knowledge can be included in the practical daily activities of the child, they are systematically reproduced and therefore more firmly fixed.

How is the strength of learning ensured? Students must complete a full cycle of educational and cognitive actions in the learning process: primary perception and comprehension of the material being studied, its subsequent deeper understanding, certain work on memorizing it, applying the acquired knowledge in practice, as well as repeating and systematizing them.

Nationality of learning. Pedagogical activity should be aimed at a wide range of students, and not at representatives of certain segments of the population.

Individual differences in the behavior and mental activity of younger schoolchildren are greatly influenced by the characteristics of higher nervous activity and temperament.

The stock of knowledge in children entering school becomes unequal both in volume and in depth.

Modern life provides more and more opportunities for individual deviations from the average in the development of students.

For intellectual development, it rises more and more. To understand the level of development that stands out as average, an individual study of students is necessary.

The principle of individualization of education helps to determine the norm of knowledge and development of students, which allows you to set and solve specific learning tasks.

Knowledge in the real learning process is acquired individually by each student. However, the process of individual assimilation of knowledge in teaching can be the same, coincide in children of a given group, class. It is possible to identify common features in the individual development of each child. There is a category of common in the development and upbringing of children in the learning process.

The individual features of schoolchildren are manifested in mental activity in relation to the teacher, in character traits that determine efficiency, discipline, sociability and position in the peer group. Family education and the environment outside the school have a great influence on the formation of the individual properties of the child's personality.

The main ways of studying the individual characteristics of schoolchildren are systematic, systematic observations of the student; individual and group conversations according to a predetermined plan; additional learning tasks and analysis of student reasoning methods; special tasks related to the position of the child in the team. The main thing is to comprehensively study the child and rely on his positive qualities in overcoming the existing shortcomings.

Individual characteristics can have a positive impact on the learning process, be neutral to the child's learning, or negatively affect his learning activities. The degree of influence of individual characteristics on the learning process determines the need for an individual approach.

A deep understanding of the general mental and age characteristics of schoolchildren allows us to see more deeply the manifestation of individual characteristics in learning.

Compliance of education with the age and individual characteristics of students. The implementation of this principle requires bringing the content and forms of students' activities in line with their age, life experience, strengths and capabilities. Every child is a special world. Therefore, the process of education should be even more individualized than the process of education. This will become possible if the teacher, relying on the needs and interests that the child has at the moment, is able to find such forms and ways of satisfying them that would give rise to new needs and new interests as the decisive basis for motivating behavior and activity.

In addition to the principles formulated by Ushinsky and other educators, the following ideas are used today.

1. The principle of humanization - Forms a student's universal views. Develops in him a sense of citizenship, social responsibility.

2. The principle of integrity - implies the achievement of cohesion of all elements of the learning process.

3. The principle of cultural conformity - refers to the use of the culture of the country, region in the education of the student.

4. The principle of unity of education and everyday life of a student - learning should not take place in isolation from the everyday experience of the student.

5. Career guidance principle - training should be aimed at the formation of the student's professional skills, the development of his competitiveness.

Despite the fact that all the above principles are inextricably linked with each other, the teacher must clearly understand that each of them is individual. For example, the principle of humanization, although undoubtedly important in vocational training, should not prevail over the principle of career guidance.

In addition, the teacher needs to individualize learning as much as possible, for this he must constantly study the individual characteristics of each student.

Reasonably and comprehensively used teaching principles help the teacher to better navigate the educational process.

Availability of training is determined by the level of cognitive abilities of students, the need to organize the learning process of students in the "zone of their proximal mental development", when the level of learning is noticeably high, but achievable for students. Accessibility for students is achieved through learning optimization. It is possible to judge the optimality of the educational process when we can objectively evaluate the results of the following stages of educational work:

1) the trainees heard everything that the teachers explained;

2) the trainees understood what was explained to them;

3) they agreed (or argued) with what they heard;

4) the trainees mastered the main content of what they studied, heard, read;

5) they successfully applied the acquired knowledge in practice.

To get high results at each of these stages, it is important to think about the methodological support of the educational process in advance. This means that it is necessary to determine what kind of actions need to be formed among the trainees, moreover, to indicate in advance what qualities these actions should have, especially in terms of generalization, reasonableness, consciousness, criticality, etc. In the future, it is necessary to plan a systematic step-by-step the formation of the planned actions with a clear control of their quality by the teacher.

In general, in order to optimize the educational process, it is important to focus, firstly, on the initial level of knowledge, skills and abilities of the trainees, secondly, on the need to teach them what is really required, thirdly, to correctly and competently choose forms and methods learning.

The presence of these qualities in a teacher allows him to act not only as a competent teacher, but also as a sensitive educator.

The educational impact of the teacher on the personality of the student is expressed, ultimately, in his moral qualities. Although the external environment (external factors) also influences the student, the influence of the teacher, the teacher cannot be compared with anything, unless the teacher himself is a bright personality (spiritually and morally rich).

The way he communicates with students, the ability to clearly and productively organize the educational process sometimes have a stronger impact on the psyche of students than many hours of moralizing.

Training - a two-way process, teaching and learning merge together. The leading and organizing role belongs to the teacher - the teacher. He also carries out one side of the learning process - teaching. The other side of this process is teaching, it is realized in the activities of students. At the same time, such qualities of listeners as activity and independence are of great importance. The task of the teacher is to form such qualities, acting thoughtfully and pedagogically competently. He creates favorable conditions for their formation, guided by his "verbal formulas":

1) I will help you to make you really want to study;

2) it’s hard for you to study, but it’s temporary, until you are “fired up” with an idea, we will find it;

3) you will be interested in studying if you work intensively.

LECTURE No. 3. Characteristics of modern didactic concepts

The basis of the learning process are didactic concepts, or the so-called didactic systems. Based on how the learning process is understood, there are three basic didactic concepts: traditional, pedocentric и modern.

Knowledge as a subject of assimilation has three related parties:

1) theoretical (facts, theoretical ideas and concepts);

2) practical (ability and skills to apply knowledge in various life situations);

3) ideological and moral (ideological and moral and aesthetic ideas contained in knowledge).

With properly delivered training, students master all these aspects of the material being studied, namely:

1) master the theory (concepts, rules, conclusions, laws);

2) develop skills and abilities to apply the theory in practice;

3) develop ways of creative activity;

4) deeply comprehend ideological and moral-aesthetic ideas.

This means that in the learning process, the following occurs simultaneously and in an inseparable unity:

1) enrichment of the individual with scientific knowledge;

2) development of her intellectual and creative abilities;

3) the formation of her worldview and moral and aesthetic culture, which makes learning a very important means of education.

Based on the above facts, different concepts of learning emerge. The main difference between them lies in the understanding of the learning process.

Traditional concept. This concept can also be called pedagogocentric. The main role in this system is played by the teacher. A similar doctrine was developed by such educators as Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart. The principle of this doctrine is such concepts as leadership, management, rule. The learning process is based on the authoritarian influence of the teacher on the student, on the explanation of the material.

The traditional concept has recently been criticized a lot for being authoritarian. It is believed that this system does not contribute to the development of the student's creative thinking, since the material is provided in finished form and does not give the student the opportunity to independently find knowledge.

Pedocentric concept. This theory puts the child and his activities at the forefront. Adherents and developers of this doctrine are J. Dewey, G. Kershenstein, V. Lai. Teachers strive to build the learning process in such a way that it is interesting first of all to the child, based on his needs, life experience. In this case, learning is natural. The child himself is aware of the need to obtain certain knowledge.

When confronted with a problem, the student should be motivated to overcome it. The teacher's problem in this case is to help solve the problem, show ways out of the situation, but in no case insist on completing the task. The pedocentric concept is called "pedagogy of action", because learning is conducted through the active activity of the student. It is believed (and not without reason) that this doctrine promotes the development of creative thinking.

However, the pedocentric concept overestimates the child's ability for active independent activity, which often leads to an unreasonable waste of time and a decrease in the level of learning. Knowledge is random.

Since neither pedocentric nor pedagogocentric systems can meet the needs of modern didactics, a modern didactic system.

Its essence is to use the positive aspects of both one and the other doctrine. The modern concept believes that both learning and teaching are integral components of the learning process. This system is designed and based on the concepts proposed by P. Galperin, L. Zamkov, V. Davydov, K. Rogers, Brunenr. The elements of the modern concept are such areas as problem-based learning, programming, developmental learning, and cooperation pedagogy.

The modern didactic concept is based on the interaction and mutual understanding of the teacher and the student. The educational process is built on the transition from the reproductive to the search activity of the student. The task of the teacher is to set a goal, a problem; he is an active assistant in finding a way out of a difficult educational situation. But, unlike the pedocentric concept, the teacher is not forced to wait until the student finds the problem, he artificially creates it. In the course of the joint activity of the teacher and the student, the problem must be solved. Teamwork and knowledge analysis are encouraged in training.

In the modern Russian school, the traditional class-lesson system is still strong, in which the teacher is an indisputable authority. But in the modernization of the modern school, traditional concepts are being replaced by new pedagogical directions that contribute to solving many problems in the modern school.

At the moment, two contradictions have been identified in didactics: between theory and practice (that is, didactics and teaching practice) and between education and training (within the theory itself). According to the theory, the content of education is divided into 4 types:

1) knowledge about nature, society, technology, man, art, etc.;

2) methods of activity (skills and habits) that a person needs to master in order to preserve and replenish culture;

3) experience of creative activity;

4) the experience of an emotional and value attitude to reality, to people, to oneself.

This theory shows the place of knowledge, skills and abilities in the structure of the content of education and, therefore, shows the difference between education and the content of education. The essences of education and training in activity are characterized by content and objectivity. This means that the presented theory should be valid for both learning and education, and also perform the function of unifying between them and eliminating contradictions. This theory has two foundations:

1) composition invariant;

2) the invariant of the types of human activity in the development of the content of human experience.

By the mid 80s. XNUMXth century didactics had two theories of the content of education, each of which had the right to exist.

new theory of educational content - this is an open, dynamic, humanitarian-axiological, polyfunctional system, consisting of an invariant composition of the content of education in all its socio-cultural completeness and an invariant structure of activities, which reflects the psychological aspect of human activity.

In connection with new ideas about the personal orientation of training and education, the object of didactics also turns out to be the most probable: the chain education - training - the relationship between them as an important element in the dynamics of development. The difference between education and training lies in the fact that between them there are not only content-educational relationships, but also functional-historical ones. We show the functional relationship between them. It is well known that education is characterized by autonomy, the logic of self-development, continuity and is above the situation.

Learning, in turn, is purposefulness (or given results in a limited time frame), manageability, discretion. An educational institution (school or lyceum) has viability and prospects if its development is consistent with the strategy for the development and self-development of education. In addition, if the logic of education management takes into account the logic of self-development of education, then the education system will be more favorable and sustainable.

Issues of didactic research:

1) self-knowledge and self-realization in the consideration of education;

2) correlation of scientific and educational knowledge in the process of education; knowledge and self-knowledge in the structure of human activity as a subject of comprehension in didactics;

3) the ratio of the logic of education management and the logic of its self-development in the conditions of the gradual stabilization of society and in the conditions of a dynamically changing society.

Laws of materialistic dialectics - the main forms of reflection of reality in cognition. At the same time, they can act as methodological principles of scientific and theoretical activity. The general scheme of the process of cognition is expressed in the position V. I. Lenin: "From living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice."

Modern studies of the neurophysiological mechanisms of human cognitive activity indicate the reality of the difference in the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking, that is, the existence of specific, territorially separated structures with which various forms of thinking are associated. This information was obtained by studying the functional asymmetry of the human brain, the functional specialization of each of its hemispheres.

It has been proven that all types of speech activity, as well as reading, writing, counting operations, are functions of the left hemisphere, while the right one provides the spatial orientation of the body. In addition, it was found that the right hemisphere specializes in processing primary information, single features of objects and reflects a specific material picture of the world, while the left hemisphere, using memory standards (verbal symbols, signs), reflects a schematized, devoid of specific details, the essential image of the world, deep causal - Investigative links.

At the same time, under conditions of functional disunity, the activity of each of the hemispheres is characterized by a certain emotional tone, i.e., different types of cognitive activity are characterized by different emotional support: creative activity is due mainly to a positive emotional tone, imaginative thinking is associated with negative emotional states that arise mainly in conditions unfavorable for individuals.

At the same time, the spatial division of the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking is relative. The most complete, adequate reflection of the external world is achieved through a complex and contradictory interaction of both hemispheres: the integration of the functions of the right and left hemispheres contributes to the optimization of mental activity in general.

However, for the relationship between the concrete and the abstract in the student's cognitive activity, it is important to pay attention to the features of the subject being studied. If we talk about literature, then earlier the goal of artistic activity was to reunite into a concrete integrity those endless abstract definitions into which the system of division of labor in the capitalist formation divided the social person.

Similarly, the method of reproducing reality in consciousness in the desired epistemological form should have consisted in ascending from the abstract to the concrete. Today, this idea consists in overcoming the concrete integrity and completeness of sensual poetic contemplation and in developing general abstract ideas and formal logical concepts.

LECTURE No. 4. Learning functions

1. Characteristics of learning functions

Exploring its subject, didactics performs the following main functions:

1) cognitive (scientific and theoretical);

2) practical (structural and technical).

cognitive function.

Didactics discovers or only states facts that are directly or indirectly related to it, systematizes and generalizes them, explains these facts and establishes quantitative and qualitative relationships between them. As a result of the study, didactics gains knowledge about how the learning process proceeds, already implemented or being implemented in reality, what are its patterns, and what is its essence. On the basis of the data obtained, certain theoretical conclusions are made, which help to develop "theories of the learning process" in the future. Further, these theories are applied in practice and are again subject to adjustment, etc.

At the same time, didactics performs practical, that is, a utilitarian, or service, function in relation to public life:

1) it provides teachers (or other persons involved in teaching and educational activities) with theoretical prerequisites and norms, the application of which in practice increases its effectiveness;

2) didactics explores the phenomena of social activity, which has the goal of educating and retraining people in accordance with changing historical ideals and social needs.

Practical (constructive-technical) function closely related to cognitive function. When a scientist moves from displaying learning to designing it, he performs a constructive-technical function.

Didactic activity consists of the actions of teachers and students. These actions have certain consequences:

1) rational learning entails learning;

2) as a result of learning, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, forms his own beliefs, attitudes, worldview and his own system of values;

3) learning (or the subject itself) caused by learning leads to various changes in the personality of the student.

Typical didactic fact can not refer only to the activities of the teacher, to the work of students or to the results of learning. This fact allows:

1) establish a certain pattern that manifests itself in all three actions;

2) reveal important relationships between the didactic behavior of the teacher in certain conditions;

3) reveal the relationship between the behavior of students in the course of learning and the changes that have occurred under the influence of the actions of the teacher and their own activities.

Modern didactics sees the learning process as a single interdependent process. Learning is seen as a movement that has several functions that are inseparable from each other. The three most important functions of learning are educational, educational и developing functions. Education means not only education, upbringing or development. These elements should be harmoniously connected in a single learning process. To train a harmoniously developed, competitive personality, the teacher must constantly improve the ways of the student's intellectual activity.

2. Developmental function

To ensure constant intellectual growth, development and education of students in the learning process, the teacher needs to learn how to fix the level of development of the student and move to the next level of development.

The intellectual development of students is much more successful if the student is given goals and the need to independently acquire knowledge and use it in practice. When a child performs a certain task, he does complex mental work.

This work includes some activities. He observes, analyzes, applies rules to solve learning problems. In the event that learning takes place using only two mental actions (perception and memorization), then the child is deprived of the developing moment of learning. He gets used to using these two simple actions and becomes incapable of solving more complex problems that require him to analyze.

The teacher needs to teach the child to think. This is the developmental function of learning. Having learned to think and analyze, the student is already becoming able to set goals on his own, he can improve. Depending on the level of organization, learning can speed up or slow down the development of a child.

There are a number factors on which the development of the child depends. Some of them work independently of human consciousness - this is a biological factor. Others depend on the will of the individual and society.

1. biological factor. The born person is not a "blank slate". From birth, it carries genetic information. Heredity is of great importance for human development. The level of giftedness, emotionality, the dynamics of psychological processes - all this is hereditary. But the biological factor of development does not converge only to genetics. It is known that all living organisms, passing through the stages of formation, adapt to the conditions surrounding them, acquire new features. In addition to heredity, one of the signs of a living organism is variability. Depending on the conditions in which a person finds himself, the properties of his psyche, temperament can change in one direction or another. For normal and progressive development, the child must be in a favorable mental environment and in a highly cultured environment.

2. social factor. The child develops in the environment, this concept includes external circumstances necessary for human life. In early childhood, the child already has a need for communication, for obtaining information. The level of developing influence depends on the nature of the influence of circumstances and on the activity of the individual. Being part of the environment, a person is able to transform it. The formation of personality occurs in the course of assimilation of the influence of the environment and resistance to its factors. The task of the teacher is to develop in the child resistance to negative physical and psychological influences, as well as the ability to actively accept positive phenomena.

3. Factor of directed personality formation. Since the influence of the environment, as a rule, is unorganized and spontaneous, the teacher cannot count on its positive effect. The relationships that a child enters into are usually built by adults, so he easily adopts the behavioral models offered to him. If a student is in an environment where he is affected by a negative influence, then negative qualities can form in him. According to Makarenko, "if a person is poorly brought up, then the educators are solely to blame for this. If the child is good, then he also owes this to his upbringing, his childhood."

Education and development - This is the main activity at school age. It is closely connected with work, with political, cultural, aesthetic and sports activities, as well as with the game. Along with other activities, learning activities affect all aspects of children's development.

In teaching, the decisive thing is not the very fact of passing through the educational material, but the organization of active, conscious and independent activity of each student for its assimilation, through which this content turns into a means of long-term influence on the development of the individual. In teaching practice, there are often teachers who, unfortunately, neglect this fact. Not yet convinced that an act of learning has taken place, which would be the rationale for the success of the planned steps, they begin work on new educational material.

Other teachers very carefully follow the course of the cognitive process of the student, observe him, carefully direct the student's activity. They consider the act of learning to be completed only when the search for learning truth is completed. If necessary, they point to the corresponding text of the textbook, and the consolidation of knowledge is turned into a task for the student.

It is at this moment that the decisive stage of the educational process begins, in which the student controls his knowledge, penetrates deeper into their essence, remembers the essential, connects the knowledge gained with those that he learned earlier, systematizes and applies them in practice.

Level of learning activity primarily determined by the content of the study. The more the student masters the basics of science, the methods of teaching, the higher the level of motivation of activity, the higher the requirements for the level of his educational activity.

The knowledge of the student is often accomplished at the level of reproductive activity, when the knowledge gained is, as it were, added to the piggy bank of his memory and, being memorized, can be used if necessary.

This level of activity does not use all the cognitive resources of the student's personality, does not open up scope for the full development of thinking, imagination, active cognitive processes.

Education and development can proceed at the level of search activity, in which the student himself is actively involved. Under these conditions, the student goes through trial and error, his search in many respects requires a significant investment of time, but his activity wins in many respects:

1) he actively operates in all ways known to him;

2) looking for new, not yet used ways in solving the tasks;

3) makes an estimate, guesses;

4) is comprehensively oriented in the conditions and course of the decision.

At the highest level, learning and development takes place as a creative process in which the student uses all the fund of knowledge, skills and abilities he has, implements original ways to achieve the goal (which he himself sets). The center of gravity of activity at this level is shifted not so much to the operation of previous knowledge, but to the search for new ones and the use of existing ones as a method of cognition.

Consequently, the educational activity of students at each stage must be built in such a way that it contributes to their progressive development.

3. Educational function

But the learning and mental development of the child is not enough. A full-fledged and worthy member of society must also be well brought up. Education enables a person to a more extensive knowledge of the world, introduces the achievements of mankind, allows you to systematize the processes taking place in society. Education takes place in the constant interaction of the emerging personality with society.

From early childhood, the child enters into a complex relationship with the environment. By repeating after adults, he masters speech, norms of behavior. However, it has been observed that at different periods of life the same processes evoke different reactions and therefore have different educational influences. Accordingly, the development of the human psyche depends on its activity.

At the stage of preschool development, the main occupation of the child is the game. In the process of the game, the physical and mental development of the child takes place, his character traits are formed. In addition, labor is of great social importance for a person. The inclusion of labor activity in the game increases the child's interest in work. Labor forms character traits, moral and volitional qualities.

With the development of the student, the level of his responsibility to society increases, and civic qualities are formed. At this stage, the comprehensive development and education of a growing personality is important. It is necessary to develop an active life position. The quality of education depends entirely on the processes that make the child act, that is, on motives. In order for education to be more effective, one must strive to unite both personal and social motives.

Education in a team is very important for a child, since various children's upbringing, educational organizations and institutions create social experience for him, experience of behavior in a society where his interests may collide and even come into conflict with the interests of the team. These relationships will create the personality of the child.

Since the student still has insufficient life experience, he cannot correctly assess his behavior; at this stage, the influence of adults is important.

Sustainable connections in the learning process that help to increase the effectiveness of education are called laws of education. To these include:

1) the nature of education is determined by the social and economic needs of society, as well as the interests of the ruling classes;

2) the goals, methods and content of education are the same;

3) upbringing and education are one;

4) effective education occurs with a high motivation of a person;

5) education is more effective if there is mutual respect between the student and the teacher;

6) in the course of education, it is important to take into account the psychological and age characteristics of the student;

7) the process of education should be based on the positive qualities of the student;

8) the student must see the prospects of education, receive joy from achieving success;

9) education takes place in the course of human activity;

10) education in a team is extremely important;

11) it is important to develop in students the desire for self-education.

Like learning in general, education can be based on authoritarian either free beginning. Authoritarian parenting is based on unquestioning obedience. This form has long been harshly criticized by teachers. Free education implies the acquisition of knowledge in the course of practical, cultural and social activities. This form of education also has not found application in modern society.

Currently, an integrated approach is used in the upbringing of children. From birth, a person is attached to life in society. From the moment of entering the school, the process of education not only does not stop, but also intensifies. The upbringing associated with development and education is aimed at forming views that meet the social order of society, at eradicating misconceptions about reality and habits.

Since the teacher is in the children's team, any of his activities are educational in nature.

4. Educational function

A person needs to constantly improve their knowledge. In the process of schooling, the child constantly receives information, this happens in the classroom, class hours, in circles, extracurricular activities. The acquisition of knowledge by a schoolchild outside the lesson is largely spontaneous, not systematized. The task of the teacher is to give knowledge purposefully. For this, there are curricula, educational programs. The information provided by the teacher should help the child successfully enter the society, navigate in the choice of a future profession and become a full-fledged citizen of the country.

The concepts of education, upbringing and development are inextricably linked in the overall learning process.

LECTURE No. 5. The content of education

1. The concept of the content of education

Under the concept of content of education imply a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes and creative activities that a student masters in the course of the learning process.

The core social function of education is the development of a personality that meets the needs of society. Education is built on the basis of relationships developed by mankind in the course of historical development. Each of the school subjects has an educational setting. Moreover, each subject is important for raising the overall level of development of the student. In the modern educational system, every student has the right to choose subjects for education. Such courses are called elective, i.e. elective courses. The system is designed to ensure that the student can engage in core subjects for himself and not waste time studying "unnecessary" subjects.

The content of education is based on the social experience of mankind, which includes the experience of the physical, aesthetic, labor, scientific and moral development of society and satisfies the needs of society.

The needs of society are the determining factor in characterizing the content of education. Knowledge, skills and abilities (KUN) is a system of practical, moral and ideological ideas accumulated by generations and specially selected in accordance with the goals of the development of society.

1. Knowledge - this is understanding, the ability to analyze, reproduce and apply in practice certain elements of social experience, expressed in concepts, categories, laws, facts, theories.

2. Skill - the ability to put into practice the knowledge gained in the learning process.

3. Emboldening Salvo - an integral component of skill, brought to perfection.

4. Attitude - the ability to assess and emotionally perceive the experience of generations.

5. Creative activity - the highest form of human activity and self-expression.

It is possible to identify several laws in accordance with which the content of education should be built.

1. At any stage of education, it should follow one goal - the formation of a comprehensively, harmoniously developed, competitive personality. To achieve this task, it is important to ensure mental development, aesthetic, moral, physical education, and labor training.

2. The most important criterion for constructing the content of education is the scientific basis of education. Teaching must include rigorously scientific statements that are consistent with the current state of science.

3. The content of the educational material on the subject should not contradict the provisions of official science, should be built in accordance with the logic of official science. Educational material must be linked with other educational subjects.

4. Theoretical knowledge should not be obtained in isolation from practical training. The connection between theory and practice is a necessary condition for normal learning.

5. The content of education should be built in accordance with the age and psychological characteristics of the child.

6. The content of education should be career-oriented, contain elements of technical and labor training.

The content of modern education is aimed at the comprehensive development of the student in accordance with his interests and needs and the latest achievements of modern science and technology. This allows you to form a competitive personality on the basis of the school.

The content of education is reflected in curricula, curricula, teaching kits and teaching aids.

2. Culture as the basis for building and determining the content of education

One of the sources of formation of the content of education is culture. Culture (along with social experience) determines the factors for selecting material, the principles for constructing and building it into an appropriate structure. Culture determines the presence of such elements in the content of education as the experience of social relations, spiritual values, forms of social consciousness, etc.

There are a number of principles formation of the content of education from the field of culture (art):

1) the principle of unity of ideological content and artistic form;

2) the principle of harmonious cultural development of the individual;

3) the principle of ideological community and the relationship of art;

4) the principle of taking into account age characteristics.

The implementation of the above principles is aimed at raising the general cultural level of students and teachers as well.

Subjects based on these principles represent a culturological cycle consisting of disciplines in accordance with the defining role of personal culture. Such subjects are aimed at overcoming the neglect of the personal culture of the teacher and student in the traditional school.

Goal cultural cycle - the formation of personal culture as a way of self-realization of the individual in professional and non-professional creativity. Cultural education is provided by training courses that present:

1) fundamental knowledge about culture as a way of human life, expressing its generic specificity;

2) knowledge about specific forms of cultural activity, the theoretical and practical development of which provides the necessary level of a person's personal culture;

3) the basic concepts of the theory of culture (the idea of ​​its structure, the laws of its development, the understanding of man as the creator of culture, helping the student to understand the personal meaning of culture).

Artistic education and emotional culture is that area of ​​human activity that develops universal creative abilities, productive thinking, enriches intuition, the sphere of feelings. Mastering the values ​​of world artistic culture, a person acquires the experience of co-creation, the ability for a dialogue of cultures.

It is necessary to make the elements of the culturological cycle of disciplines an obligatory component of each lesson. For this purpose, there are special forms of extracurricular activities: a lesson-excursion, a lesson-discussion, etc.

Tour - one of the types of extracurricular educational work. These can be excursions of this kind, such as going to a museum, to some enterprise, to a theater, etc. An effective way is to hold debates, evenings of questions and answers on certain topics, more often on cultural or moral topics. People working in the field of culture can be invited to such evenings. Their direct communication with children most often gives a more positive result than dry theory, stories and lectures.

Aesthetic education in education is carried out both in the process of teaching a number of general educational disciplines (literature, geography, history), and with the help of aesthetic disciplines (music, fine arts).

LECTURE No. 6. Psychological foundations for the formation of skills and abilities in the learning process

1. Stages of education

Each student has individual personal and activity characteristics. At the same time, all students at a certain educational level are characterized by initial common and typical features for them.

1. elementary school stage - this is the beginning of the social existence of a person as a subject of educational activity. Readiness for schooling means the formation of attitudes towards school, learning, and knowledge. Expectation of the new, interest in it underlie the educational motivation of the younger student.

In elementary school, the primary schoolchildren form the main elements of the leading activity during this period, the necessary learning skills and abilities. During this period, forms of thinking develop that ensure the further assimilation of the system of scientific knowledge, the development of scientific, theoretical thinking. There are preconditions for self-orientation in learning and everyday life. Educational activities, including the acquisition of new knowledge, the ability to solve various problems, educational cooperation, the acceptance of the teacher's authority, are leading in this period of development of a person who is in the educational system.

2. Middle school (adolescent) age (from 10-11 to 14-15 years old) the leading role is played by communication with peers in the context of their own learning activities. The activities inherent in children of this age include such types as educational, social-organizational, sports, artistic, labor. When performing these types of useful activities, adolescents develop a conscious desire to participate in socially necessary work, to become socially significant.

As a subject of educational activity, a teenager is characterized by a tendency to assert his position of subjective exclusivity, a desire to stand out in some way.

3. high school student (the period of early youth from 14-15 to 17 years old) enters into a new social situation of development immediately when moving from high school to high school or to new educational institutions - gymnasiums, colleges, schools. This situation is characterized by a focus on the future: the choice of lifestyle, profession. The need for choice is dictated by the life situation, initiated by parents and directed by the educational institution. During this period, value-oriented activity acquires the main significance.

A high school student as a subject of educational activity is characterized by a qualitatively new content of this activity. Along with internal cognitive motives for mastering knowledge in subjects that have a personal semantic value, broad social and narrowly personal external motives appear, among which achievement motives occupy a large place. Learning motivation changes qualitatively in structure, since for a high school student educational activity - a means of realizing the life plans of the future.

The main subject of the high school student's learning activity, i.e., what it is aimed at, is the structural organization, the systematization of individual experience by expanding, supplementing, introducing new information.

2. Individual and typical characteristics of students in the learning process

The effect of training depends not only on its content and methods, but also on the individual characteristics of the personality of schoolchildren. features, that are important in the learning process.

1. The level of mental development of the child, which is often identified with the ability to learn. The criteria on the basis of which a student falls into a group of highly developed or underdeveloped ones are academic success, the speed and ease of mastering knowledge, the ability to quickly and adequately respond to lessons, etc. The teacher can divide the class into groups, guided by the mental development of children, and give each group of tasks of the corresponding difficulty.

2. Features associated with individual manifestations of the basic properties of the nervous system. Combinations of the basic properties of the nervous system form the types of the nervous system; therefore, such properties are often called individual-typological.

Taking into account both the psychophysiological and psychological traits of schoolchildren is important for achieving two main goals - increasing the effectiveness of teaching and facilitating the teacher's work. Firstly, if the teacher has an idea about the individual characteristics of a student, he will know how they affect his learning activities: how he manages his attention, whether he quickly and firmly remembers, how long he thinks about the question, whether he quickly perceives educational material , confident in himself, how he experiences censure and failure.

Knowing these qualities of a student means taking the first step in organizing his productive work. Secondly, using these data and implementing an individual approach to teaching, the teacher will work more effectively himself, which will free him from additional classes with underachievers, from repeating unlearned sections of the program, etc.

At school, the principle of an individual approach can be implemented in the form of individualization and differentiation. Allocate two criteria that underlie individualization:

1) orientation to the level of achievements of the student;

2) orientation to the procedural features of his activities.

Determining the level of achievement, i.e., the success of a student in different school subjects, is not difficult. Taking into account the developmental levels of students and adapting teaching to them is the most common type of individual approach. It can be carried out in different ways, but most often the teacher chooses the individualization of tasks.

The second form of an individual approach, which takes into account the procedural parameters of the educational activity of schoolchildren, is much less common. The most important way to individualize this form is to help the student in the formation of an individual style of learning activity.

Three indicators are distinguished, on the basis of which individual differences in the behavior of students and the characteristics of their personality are considered:

1) attitude to learning (conscious and responsible, accompanied by a pronounced interest in learning; conscientious, but without a pronounced interest; positive, but unstable; careless; negative);

2) organization of educational work (organization, systematic, independence, rationality);

3) mastering knowledge and skills.

3. Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities

At primary school age, learning activity becomes the leading one, in the course of which the child is introduced to the achievements of human culture, the assimilation of knowledge and skills accumulated by previous generations.

The educational activity of younger schoolchildren is regulated and supported by a complex multi-level system of motives.

As they enter school life and master educational activities, younger students develop a complex system of learning motivation, which includes the following groups of motives:

1) the motives inherent in the educational activity itself, associated with its direct product; motives related to the content of the doctrine (learning is motivated by the desire to learn new facts, to acquire knowledge, methods of action, to penetrate the essence of phenomena); motives associated with the learning process (learning is encouraged by the desire to display intellectual activity, the need to think, reason in the classroom, overcome obstacles in the process of solving difficult problems);

2) motives associated with the indirect product of learning and with what lies outside the educational activity itself:

a) broad social motives:

- motives of duty and responsibility to society, class, teacher, etc.;

- motives of self-determination and self-improvement;

b) narrow-minded motives:

- motives for well-being (the desire to get approval from teachers, parents, classmates, the desire to get good grades);

- prestigious motives (the desire to be among the first students, to be the best, to take a worthy place among comrades);

c) negative motives (avoidance of troubles that may arise from teachers, parents, classmates if the student does not study well).

Attitudes towards learning activities and learning motivation in grades 6-7 have a dual character. On the one hand, this is a period characterized by a decrease in the motivation for learning, which is explained by an increase in interest in the world outside the school, as well as a passion for communicating with peers. On the other hand, it is this period that is sensitive for the formation of new, mature forms of learning motivation.

The transition from primary school age to adolescence is at the same time a transition to a different, higher form of learning activity and a new attitude to learning, which acquires personal meaning precisely during this period.

In classes of "advanced level", gymnasium, specialized, etc., focused on continuing learning, a drop in learning motivation, including direct interest in learning, can be observed only in individual students who, for one reason or another, cannot open for himself personal meaning in teaching.

In ordinary classes, oriented at best to receive secondary education (short-term educational perspective), there is a sharp decrease in learning motivation precisely because schoolchildren do not see the point in obtaining knowledge, and the value of school knowledge is not included in their idea of ​​adulthood.

4. The theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities

Basic provisions of the theory.

1. The idea of ​​the fundamental commonality of the structure of internal and external human activity. The assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities occurs through a gradual transition of external activity to the internal mental plan. As a result, external actions with external objects are transformed into mental ones.

2. Any action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (managing); executive (working); control and orientation. The indicative part of the action provides a reflection of all the conditions necessary for the successful completion of this action. The executive part performs the specified transformations in the action object; the controlling part monitors the progress of the action.

3. Each action is characterized by certain parameters: the form of commission, the measure of generalization, the measure of deployment; a measure of independence; measure of development, etc.

4. The quality of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities depends on the correctness of the creation of an indicative basis of activity (OOB). Ltd. - a textually or graphically designed model of the studied action and a system of conditions for its successful implementation (for example, an instruction manual for a device).

5. In the process of teaching fundamentally new knowledge, practical skills, the theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities distinguishes several stages:

1) first stage - motivational. The trainees form the necessary cognitive motivation, allowing them to master any action;

2) second stage - preliminary familiarization with the action, i.e., the construction of an indicative basis in the mind of the trainee;

3) third stage - trainees perform a material (materialized) action in accordance with the training task in an external material, expanded form. They receive and work with information in the form of various material objects: models, devices, diagrams, layouts, drawings, etc., checking their actions against written instructions. This stage allows the student to learn the content of actions and the rules for their implementation;

4) fourth stage - after performing several actions of the same type, the need to refer to the instruction disappears, and the function of the indicative basis is performed by the external speech of the student. Students say out loud the action, the operation that they are currently mastering. In their minds, there is a generalization, reduction of educational information, and the performed action begins to be automated;

5) fifth stage - the stage of silent oral speech, the trainees pronounce the action to be performed, the operation to themselves;

6) the sixth stage - the orienting part of the action is so automated that pronunciation to oneself begins to slow down the execution of the action. Students automatically perform the practiced action, without even mentally controlling themselves. Thus, the action was reduced, passed into the internal plan, and the need for an external support disappeared. The action is completed.

Education is considered as a process of transferring knowledge, skills and abilities to a child. Considering the learning process from a psychological point of view, it is important to note that learning should be developmental in nature. One of the leading learning objectives is to promote or accelerate the mental development of children of different ages. There are different approaches to the problem of developmental education. Some psychologists attach decisive importance to changing the content and form of education.

Other psychologists believe that the developmental effect of learning should be achieved through the improvement of teaching methods. In this way, developmental education - this is a type of education that has an impact on the mental and mental development of the child.

Tasks:

1) to promote or accelerate the mental development of children of different ages;

2) to promote the effective development of mental processes and personal qualities by means of training through educational activities;

3) contribute to the formation of learning motives, the development of sustainable cognitive needs and interests of students;

4) contribute to the disclosure of individual characteristics and abilities of the student;

5) to form the development of skills in educational activities;

6) to direct work towards the realization of the child's age-related capabilities in mastering the system of scientific knowledge.

The educational activity of a younger student implies the assimilation of knowledge and skills by the child, familiarization with the achievements of culture and art accumulated by previous generations. The child's accumulation of human experience also occurs in other activities: in play, communication with adults and peers, and involvement in work. But it acquires a special character and content only in educational activity.

In grades 6-7, the attitude to learning activities is twofold. On the one hand, during this period there is a decrease in motivation for learning. This is due to the fact that students have an increasing interest in the world around them, which lies outside the school, as well as in communication with peers. On the other hand, this is the period of formation of new, mature forms of learning motivation.

The transition from primary school age to adolescence is a transition to a higher form of learning activity and a new attitude towards learning. During this period, the teaching acquires personal meaning.

In gymnasiums, lyceums, specialized schools only some students have reduced learning motivation, a direct interest in learning. Basically, these are students who, for one reason or another, cannot understand the personal meaning in the teaching.

In regular classes oriented towards secondary education, there is a decrease in learning motivation. This is due to the fact that students do not see the point in obtaining knowledge.

When studying the process of assimilation of knowledge, it is necessary to identify the features of the development of analysis and synthesis, their correlation at different stages. The development of the basic mental operations of analysis and synthesis is carried out in two directions:

1) unevenness in the development of analysis and synthesis is overcome and a correspondence between them is established;

2) the level of development of each of these operations rises: coarser forms of analysis are replaced by its differentiated forms, one-sided, partial synthesis gives way to a multilateral, complete synthesis.

These changes do not occur in schoolchildren simultaneously along the entire front of the study of academic disciplines at school. The introduction of a new topic in terms of content and level of complexity can affect the decrease in the level of analysis and synthesis, regardless of the level of education at which this takes place. And yet, there is a certain trend towards an increase in the level of mental analytic-synthetic activity among high school students. The level of analysis and synthesis is also manifested in the nature of students' generalizations and abstractions, which one has to deal with in the process of mastering knowledge, when the task is to form concepts from a particular field of science in schoolchildren.

In children of the first grade, at first, when teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic, uneven development of analysis and synthesis is observed: one operation lags behind the other. Children know, for example, individual signs of arithmetic operations, but when writing off examples from the board, they make mistakes, arbitrarily changing the order of the signs and thereby violating the arithmetic meaning of the example. In this case, the analysis is not accompanied by the necessary synthesis associated with understanding the integral structure of the arithmetic operation. The lag between analysis and synthesis manifests itself in another way: when examining a picture, children easily see familiar content in it, without making a detailed analysis of its constituent parts.

Similar phenomena can also be encountered among high school students when they study a new academic discipline, while in other areas of educational activity this kind of phenomena have already been outlived by them.

At the initial stages of training, another phenomenon is widespread: there is a correspondence between analysis and synthesis, but both of these operations are performed at a low level.

This is most clearly revealed in the process of mastering concepts, when students are required to single out a set of essential features and, at the same time, abstract from random, non-essential features. Children single out an external, conspicuous feature, without correlating it with other features of the concept and attaching to it a general essential meaning. In this case, the analysis is reduced to isolating one element, the synthesis is incomplete, one-sided and leads to an erroneous generalization, including a feature from which it was necessary to abstract. Generalizations of this kind are most often observed in younger schoolchildren; however, they also occur in older children.

5. Methodological and general theoretical foundations of the pedagogical concept of the learning process

In philosophy, the word "methodology" means a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.

The methodological basis of the learning process is epistemology (philosophy of knowledge), which considers knowledge as a process of active reflection of reality in the human mind.

The process of active learning by students in learning is based on the contradictions that act as the driving forces of the learning process. The main driving contradiction of learning is the contradiction between the ever-increasing demands of learning and the ability of students to meet these requirements.

In the most general form, the main contradiction is manifested in the contradictions of the content (knowledge, skills), motivational need and operational (methods of cognition) aspects of learning. These contradictions exist between the previous level of knowledge of students and the new one; between the acquired knowledge and the lack of ability to use it; between the level of attitudes towards learning required and available for students; between a complex cognitive task and insufficient knowledge of how to solve it. In modern social science, there are many philosophical directions, schools, trends that are reflected in the educational process. It is possible to identify several alternative philosophies, acting in the concepts of pedagogical technologies:

1) materialism and idealism;

2) humanism and anti-humanism;

3) anthroposophy and theosophy.

In Russia, the dialectical-materialistic philosophical basis prevails, in which the main system-forming principles understanding of reality are:

1) the principle of the materiality of the world, asserting that matter is primary in relation to consciousness, is reflected in it and determines its content;

2) the principle of knowing the world, proceeding from the fact that the world around us is cognizable and that the measure of its cognition, which determines the degree of correspondence of our knowledge to objective reality, is social production practice;

3) development principle, summarizing the historical experience of mankind, the achievements of the natural, social and technical sciences and on this basis asserting that all phenomena in the world and the world as a whole are in continuous, constant dialectical development, the source of which is the emergence and resolution of internal contradictions leading to the denial of some states by others and the formation of fundamentally new qualitative phenomena and processes.

Humanism - a system of views that recognizes the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of all abilities.

Theosophy is a meaningful foundation of religious schools, has deep roots in folk pedagogy, forms the correct ideas of good and evil, moral behavior among young people.

Anthroposophy pursues the goal of a strictly oriented worldview, aimed at the study of not material, but spiritual values, gives answers to questions about the meaning, goals of life.

6. Stages of the educational process and their implementation in educational situations

1. All learning begins with setting learning goals the student and the latter's acceptance of this goal. Goal setting can be done in different ways. Initially, it mainly consists in attracting attention and offers to listen, see, touch, etc., that is, perceive. Subsequently, setting a goal is complicated by tasks of various types, setting questions, tasks of a practical and cognitive nature, up to creative ones. Goal setting should take into account the direct and indirect needs and motives of students - the manifestation of independence in a child, the desire for self-affirmation in a teenager, the thirst for new knowledge and interest in the process of learning in developed people.

2. Organized perception of new information and its comprehension. Perception is organized in different ways with the simultaneous or subsequent introduction of the received information in connection with the already known. At the same time, the organization of new information can be different: the presentation of specific facts with their subsequent generalization, the disclosure of the indicative basis of actions, the explanation of the principle underlying the content being studied, the movement from generalization to the particular, etc.

3. Fastening perceived and initially learned information. The complexity of this stage is that consolidation is not its only purpose. If you need to ensure the memorization of any educational text or action, then direct reproduction and exercises serve only to reinforce. But consolidation can be combined with other types of work that perform other functions. In this case, consolidation ceases to be a special stage and its main goal. So, after the presentation of new educational material, it is necessary to provide in-depth awareness of it. It is achieved by completing tasks to apply the acquired knowledge in situations that are significant for them. Applying this knowledge independently or with the help of a teacher, the student expands his information, comprehends knowledge from different angles, learns how to apply this knowledge and learns generalized methods of activity. At the same time, the original information is also fixed. The stage of direct consolidation in the form of reproduction of knowledge and actions (exercises) can be replaced by the solution of problematic tasks built on the studied material. In this case, along with the consolidation of the material, the formation or enrichment of the experience of creative activity takes place.

4. Checking and summarizing knowledge both in the course of studying the educational material, and the final one. The modern learning process involves a systematic, periodic generalization of the studied material on the topic, section, course, individual cross-cutting issues of the course, interdisciplinary issues. The significance of such a generalization lies in the fact that it introduces knowledge into a wider system, helps students to penetrate into the general scientific picture of the world, and brings them closer to understanding worldview problems. It is important not so much to involve facts from different sciences to illustrate general provisions, but to show the commonality of the theoretical explanation of objects studied from different angles and by different methods, the commonality of methods and the process of cognition in different scientific disciplines.

7. Features of the learning process depending on the type of subject

At all stages of the formation of pedagogical thought, the main task of the general education school was understood as such an opportunity for learning to give the younger generation deep knowledge, skills and abilities, which in turn are the foundation for the development of the personality of each student and the formation of his scientific worldview. Due to the fact that in the real world everything is interconnected and belongs to some system, then the knowledge that describes the diversity of forms of this world must also be systemic.

Mastering a certain system of knowledge and activities adequate to it is both a means and a goal in relation to the development of the student's personality. A relatively complete and systematized stock of knowledge about the world around us is the most important indicator of personality development and the degree of formation of her scientific worldview. All of the above is achieved only through the implementation of interdisciplinary connections in the learning process. Moreover, all the main goals of teaching in an average Russian general education school can be fully achieved only when interdisciplinary connections are realized.

For example, one of the main goals of teaching geometry in secondary school is the development of spatial imagination and logical thinking of students, which is quite often in the future simply necessary for practical human activity in many areas: architecture, technology, construction.

In psychological studies, during the experiment, results were obtained that there is a statistically significant relationship between the inclination of students to the corresponding professions and the level of development of their spatial representations. Note that spatial representations are necessary for students to perceive the educational material of the geometry course and for successful learning of the drawing course.

Despite such an important role played by spatial representations in personality development, many educators believe that a large number of secondary school graduates do not have them fully formed. Since spatial representations are formed not only in the process of teaching geometry, but also in the process of drawing, drawing and labor training lessons, when forming spatial representations in students at a higher level, it is necessary not only to teach each separately named subject separately, but also to find , and implement interdisciplinary connections between them.

At the present stage of development of pedagogical thought, the role of intersubject communications has increased, which are implemented by teachers of various subjects in the classroom and in extracurricular forms. Close attention to the problem of interdisciplinary connections contributed to the inclusion of a special section in the new curricula for the eleven-year school in the main subjects "Intersubject communications", whose recommendations were determined by the creative search of practicing teachers, stimulated the improvement of their pedagogical skills.

LECTURE No. 7. Basic, variable and additional components of the content of education

school subject - this is a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills that allow students to learn the basic starting points of science. In pedagogy, the subject is defined as the basis of science in the sense that the content of the subject makes it possible to master modern science.

The academic subject reflects a certain part of the experience of mankind and forms the relevant knowledge, skills and abilities.

In the charter of the secondary school states that the secondary general education school is a single labor polytechnic school. The unity of the school is ensured by basically the same curricula, programs and principles of organization of educational work.

Syllabus - This is a state document approved by the ministries of education, mandatory for teachers and school administrations, public education authorities. The basis for the preparation of the curriculum are the goals and objectives of education, the idea of ​​the comprehensive development of the individual, the current level of pedagogical science.

Variable experiment - new experimentally tested conditions or techniques vary.

The structure of the curriculum includes:

1) the invariant part, which ensures the familiarization of students with general cultural and nationally significant values, the formation of personal qualities that correspond to social ideals;

2) the variable part, which ensures the individual nature of the development of schoolchildren and takes into account their personal characteristics, interests and inclinations.

In the curriculum of a general educational institution, these two parts are represented by three main types of studies: compulsory classes, which form the basic core of general secondary education; compulsory classes at the choice of students; extracurricular activities.

The curriculum in a systematic and consistent form sets out the content of the subject in sections, topics, points. The program indicates which laboratory and practical classes, excursions, independent work are provided.

At school training program - This is a state document that is approved by the Ministry of Education of Russia and is subject to mandatory implementation.

Each subject in the school system has an approved curriculum. This follows from the principle of unity and statehood of schools in our country. United purpose of education - all-round harmonious development of the personality - is provided at school with a single content of education, the same curriculum.

Implementation of training programs - this is a concern not only for the quality of knowledge of a younger student, but also for the formed full-fledged qualities of his personality.

The textbook is a necessary link in the educational process. It has long been considered the most important learning tool. The textbook has a teaching, developing and educational value; on the basis of the program, it determines the content of the material in accordance with the age-related abilities of students to acquire knowledge. The textbook should be entertaining and interesting, develop inquisitiveness and curiosity.

LECTURE No. 8. Characteristics of the learning process

One of the most important issues of didactics is the study of the learning process. How knowledge is transferred, skills and abilities are formed is the main issue of didactics. Process is a change in the state of the activity system. This system is realized, first of all, by the people themselves and does not exist separately from them. The learning process is understood in conjunction with the content of education. Pedagogical theory must reveal the various regularities inherent in the phenomena it studies. When characterizing the pedagogical process, first of all, we note its two-sidedness. The central issues of science are issues related to the activities of the teacher. Many problems of theory are connected with his activity in the learning process or his observational role.

Didactics considers learning as a single dynamic process, but several components can be distinguished in its structure.

1. Clear setting of learning objectives. It is known that learning is built much more efficiently if the goals are formulated by the teacher in such a way that the student can clearly see the perspective of learning. In this case, he has a strong motive for learning. The right task is already half the battle. It stimulates the constructive activity of the student. The student needs to see the contradictions between what he knows and what he has to learn. If the student sees this contradiction, then he needs to solve the educational problem. His cognitive activity is purposeful.

2. Development of observation and imagination of students. Didactics has developed a number of ways by which it is possible to intensify the activity of the student and increase the degree of perception of new information. Perhaps it is worth starting with the fact that the quality of assimilation of educational material depends on the setting of cognitive tasks. The work of the student improves significantly if he is faced with problem situations. With the formulation of such a task, the student begins the search activity. During the lesson, he actively tries to find the answer to the question posed. In addition, it is important to take into account the child's previous personal experience. The teacher can organize this experience himself by asking students to observe animals, each other, etc. before explaining the material. The results of observations can become the basis for explaining a new topic. In order for the experience of children not to develop spontaneously, it is necessary to teach children observation from the first lessons.

3. Learning to analyze and comprehend patterns. For the effective assimilation of knowledge, the student should have the goal of comparing, summarizing, analyzing what has been learned. The quality of perception of educational material will depend on the level of achievement of this goal. As a result of generalizations add up concepts, mental organization, expressed in words, which serves to designate the essential features of objects and phenomena. Since the development of thinking is a long and difficult process, its success depends on the systematic work. In the process of learning, the teacher accustoms the child to the need to think about and analyze the material covered.

4. Formation of knowledge, skills and abilities (ZUN), memory development. One of the properties of human memory is forgetting. The information embedded in the child's brain must be strengthened. This is achieved through two stages of consolidation.

Primary fastening. This action is carried out immediately after the explanation of the new educational material. The consolidation process can take place by simply reproducing the material (in this case, it is recommended to break the topic into several sub-items) or by analyzing the explanation passed at the end.

Generalized repetition. This type of activity acts as a consolidation of the material and is associated with the independent work of the student.

It is very important that the material for repetition is carefully selected and analyzed. Interest in the material covered is also characterized by the quality of its consolidation.

Skills and abilities are formed with the help of exercises, a strictly organized process of repeating actions, designed for high-quality mastery of them. The effectiveness of the exercise depends entirely on the methodology of its organization and the degree of memory development in children. The teacher needs to monitor the level of memory of students and apply the established system of exercises for its development.

1. The use of ZUN in practice. The most reliable way to consolidate new material is to use the acquired knowledge as often as possible in the course of performing both everyday and educational tasks. The maximum involvement of children in practical activities guarantees the conscious assimilation of the material.

2. Verification and analysis of the strength of assimilation of ZUN. For the successful implementation of the educational process, a constant analysis of the knowledge studied at the previous stages is necessary. It allows you to manage the learning and development of students. In addition, systematic analysis can serve as an additional motive in the learning process.

The teacher needs to regularly check the degree of assimilation of knowledge, since the lack of control on the part of the teacher can significantly weaken the child's incentives to study.

A harmonious combination of all the above components of the learning process allows you to achieve success in your studies. Violations in the chain, the preponderance of one or the other link lead to violations in the course of education in general and, as a result, failure to achieve the pedagogical goals. It is important to remember that the use of any teaching methods should be student-oriented, applied taking into account the psychological characteristics of each individual student.

LECTURE No. 9. State educational standard

1. The concept of the state standard of education

Currently, the problem of interstate recognition of documents on education in different countries is relevant. Since the mid 80s. XNUMXth century UNESCO and other international organizations have introduced educational documents into consideration. Council of Europe experts have published a document that provides a comparative description of the educational documents of all European countries. The system of educational standards has not remained aloof from these documents. The organization of secondary education is becoming more and more complex. Thus, there is a problem with the recognition of school certificates from some countries in others.

For example, let's take the largely "unfair" assessment by universities in America of documents on general secondary education that were issued in the developed countries of Europe. In many of the final and fully agreed documents, a general trend is visible: standard (or "complete") secondary education should be at least 12 years long and necessarily include the final stage of advanced and differentiated training towards a future higher education of three years or more.

Note that all of the above resolutions do not address the issue of final exams and competitive tests in universities. In the future, it is possible to combine these components and make them so objective that the results make it possible to evaluate and compare the work of all schools in the country of a given type and level.

But in real circumstances, this requirement for the objectification of examinations is not an integral part of the standard of secondary education that has been formed at the moment.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees to every citizen of the country equal opportunities for education, accessibility and free of charge. In which school, in which region a child would study, he should receive the same knowledge, therefore, a single educational space should be provided throughout the country. Physical and psychological overload of students during the learning process is unacceptable. To ensure these and other requirements in Russian education, a State educational standard. AT federal legislation, this concept is interpreted as follows: "The state standard of general education is a system of norms and requirements that determines the mandatory minimum content of basic educational programs of general education, the maximum amount of student workload, the level of training of graduates of educational institutions, as well as the basic requirements for ensuring the educational process ".

In addition to ensuring the above requirements, GOST education makes it possible to distinguish between educational services financed from the budget and at the expense of the student. It defines the requirements for educational institutions that implement the state standard.

Based on the state educational standard:

1) the basic curriculum, educational programs, curricula of educational institutions and programs in academic subjects are developed;

2) an objective and unified assessment of the activities of students in all general educational institutions of the country is carried out;

3) the amount of funding for educational services provided by the educational institution is determined;

4) the level of equipment of educational institutions is determined;

5) the equivalence of education documentation is established.

2. Components of the state standard of education

The standard of general education includes three components: federal component, regional component and component educational institutions.

1. Federal component. This element of educational legislation includes a mandatory minimum content of educational programs. In accordance with the federal component, a single amount of teaching load and the time during which the learning process should be implemented are established throughout the country. On the basis of the federal component, learning objectives are built, the main social orientation of learning, and the principles of learning are implemented. The federal component of the state standard is the basis for writing school textbooks.

2. regional component. Each region of the Russian Federation has the opportunity to organize educational activities in accordance with its economic and social needs. Leaving the minimum content guaranteed by the federal component unchanged, an educational institution can include a subject in the learning process or expand the study of an existing subject at the expense of the regional component.

3. Component of an educational institution. By the decision of the pedagogical council and the management of the educational institution, changes can be made to the curriculum in accordance with the wishes of students and teachers. At the expense of the component of the educational institution, as a rule, additional extracurricular education of students is carried out.

The basic for the implementation of the state educational standard are the following conceptual provisions:

1. Personal approach to learning. Education should be carried out taking into account the age and psychological characteristics of students. It is important to pay attention to the professional and social interests of schoolchildren, to their family and domestic situation.

2. activity orientation. The learning process is inextricably linked with practical activities. The motivation to study the material increases markedly when the acquired knowledge can be used by the student in life situations.

3. Interdisciplinary. Training should be built taking into account interdisciplinary connections.

4. Educational and development potential. Education cannot be built without taking into account educational and developmental aspects. This guarantees the interconnection and interdependence of education, development and upbringing.

5. Profile. Any academic subject can be chosen for in-depth study, expansion of the conceptual apparatus.

6. Formation of information culture. The student must learn to independently form his cognitive activity, to participate in research activities.

Duration of the academic year. The regulations clearly define the beginning of classes on September 1 and the end of classes on May 25. Vacation dates are also defined quite accurately: November 5-11, December 30 - January 9, March 20-31. The class academic week is determined variably, and its maximum duration exceeds the minimum by 2-6 lessons. We will assume that a mathematically accurate calculation of the duration of the school year in astronomical hours is possible only when considering the conditions of a particular school. Let's take 9th-11th grades. The number of training days is formally 34 weeks. But in real conditions from September 1 to May 25, vacations and days off are taken into account. Without taking them into account, we get that the true duration of the school year is only 32 weeks (or 167 days). In addition, such a distribution is possible only in the absence of the frequent strikes of teachers today or the cancellation of classes due to frost or flu. However, such a calculation, in comparison with other countries, shows that the duration of the academic year in our country is less than the typical Western value. To reach this level, we need to return to the 6-day work week and complete the learning process at the end of June.

The presence of a state standard for general education greatly simplifies the work of a teacher, since he objectively sees what kind of "product" modern society requires. A large selection of educational and methodological kits in subjects, a variety of programs offered can confuse a teacher. Only strict adherence to the provisions of the state standard can help the teacher to develop the curriculum correctly, taking into account the requirements for the preparation of the graduate.

LECTURE No. 10. Teaching and learning - two sides of the educational process

1. Concepts about learning and teaching

Training - this is a purposeful, controlled process, during which the teacher presents knowledge, gives assignments, teaches methods and techniques for meaningful acquisition, consolidation and application of knowledge in practice, checks the quality of knowledge, skills and abilities. At the same time, he regularly takes care of the development of the cognitive abilities of schoolchildren.

The learning process is a rather complex phenomenon. It can be defined as the interaction of a teacher and students, in which students, with the help and under the guidance of a teacher, realize the motives of their cognitive activity, master the system of scientific knowledge about the world around them.

The pedagogical categories "learning" and "learning process" are not identical concepts. The category of "learning" defines the phenomenon, while the concept of "learning process" is the development of learning in time and space, the successive change of stages of learning.

The learning process is a complex of two key categories: the activity of the student (teaching) and the activity of the teacher (teaching).

Teaching - this is a purposeful activity of a teacher to develop positive motives for learning in schoolchildren, organizing perception, understanding the facts and phenomena presented, providing the ability to use the acquired knowledge and the ability to acquire knowledge independently.

Teachings - this is a purposeful, conscious active cognitive activity of the student, which consists in the perception and mastery of scientific knowledge, in the generalization of the perceived facts, in the consolidation and application of the acquired knowledge in practical activities on the instructions of the teacher or on the basis of their own cognitive needs.

The learning process today is characterized, as you know, by a huge variety of "educational routes", a wide range of programs and textbooks. For its effective organization, the teacher needs the ability to independently design a system of subject education (in his school), flexible differentiated development of teaching methods (in each individual class) in accordance with the cognitive capabilities of his students. Therefore, a completely different level of methodological training of the teacher is needed, focused on mastering the general approaches to independent design and implementation of the learning process, in particular, the technological approach.

In the recent past, the teacher in his activity was guided by the normative requirements of the programs in the subject and the age-related cognitive abilities of the "average" student. The teacher adapted to the unified teaching scheme proposed to him, the same in all schools, and his creativity began only at the level of developing thematic planning, and even when creating individual lessons.

Now the work of the teacher begins with the construction of a model of subject education in his school. The starting point in the implementation of the learning process within the framework of the technological approach is the diagnosis of the level of educational potential of specific students in a particular class and the development of the learning process taking into account this factor. This shows the focus on taking into account the individual needs and abilities of the student's personality in the context of collective learning.

Of course, the tasks of maintaining a unified educational space in Russian schools are oriented towards compliance with state regulatory requirements set forth in temporary standards, basic state curricula. Therefore, in relation to the conditions of domestic education, the starting point in the development of the teaching process is the correlation of the requirements defined in the standards and curricula with the cognitive capabilities and level of training of students.

Particularly valuable in the technological approach is the requirement for a systematic organization of the educational process. This problem has long been solved in domestic pedagogy (an example of this is the works V. V. Kraevsky, V. S. Lednev, I. Ya. Lerner, P. I. Pidkasisty and etc.).

This concept involves a systematic design of teaching academic disciplines, taking into account interdisciplinary, intercourse and intracourse connections in training, education and development to ensure the integrity and continuity of the entire educational process in a given educational institution.

This requires the teacher of deductive logic (from general to particular) in designing his activities: building a system of subject courses (selection and correction of programs and textbooks based on common methodological and methodological foundations), development of thematic course planning, development of lessons.

2. General pedagogical and didactic characteristics of a holistic educational process

Systems such as school, college, university, lyceum, gymnasium, etc., in which the organizational process of interaction between the educator and the pupils, the teacher and students, i.e. objects and subjects, are called pedagogical systems. The process that realizes the goals of education and training in the conditions of such systems is called pedagogical process. A synonym for the pedagogical process is educational process. The relevance of the pedagogical process has increased. A holistic approach in the practice of teachers is manifested in the fact that they strive to provide a comprehensive solution to the problems of education and upbringing in every lesson and extracurricular activity.

The dynamics of the development of the pedagogical process, its movement depend on the relationship between the educator and the student. Features of the organization of the pedagogical process are due to the fact that object of education - the student and the student team - is at the same time the subject of education. The mutual activity of cooperation in the process of communication at school is reflected in the term "pedagogical activity". In schools, there are various connections of interaction between the subjects and objects of education, these include:

1) information links - exchange of information between educators and students;

2) organizational and active connection - joint activity of the student and the teacher;

3) communicative connection - interaction between management and self-government.

Pedagogical interaction takes place in certain conditions: social, geographical, educational and material, moral and psychological, etc. By means of pedagogical process are content, forms and methods. Components pedagogical activity are the purpose of learning, content, forms and methods of teaching and education. Pedagogical process characterized by holistic properties:

1) the purpose of the pedagogical process is to create conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual;

2) the pedagogical process is enhanced if the growth of education contributes to the growth of good breeding;

3) the pedagogical process leads to the merger of the teaching and student teams into an integral school team;

4) the pedagogical process creates opportunities for mutual penetration into each other of teaching and upbringing methods;

5) the pedagogical process allows you to implement a program-targeted approach to the final result;

6) the pedagogical process has its own patterns, principles that reflect its integrity.

3. Principles of a holistic educational process

Principles of a holistic educational process:

1) purposefulness of the pedagogical process;

2) scientific character in training and education;

3) connection of school with life;

4) availability;

5) systematic and consistent;

6) consciousness, activity, independence and creativity of students; continuity;

7) the connection of training and education with useful production work; visibility;

8) the collective nature of education and training;

9) respect for the personality of the child, combined with reasonable demands on him;

10) choice of optimal methods, means and forms of education and upbringing;

11) strength and validity of the results of formation in education and development;

12) an integrated approach to education and training.

The main learning elements are the activity of teaching, the activity of learning and the content of education, without which there is no learning. The interaction between them constitutes learning. The teacher, in teaching, transmits some educational material, that is, part of the content of education or the content of social experience. At the same time, he uses the content as a means of interaction with students. The student, having perceived the signal from the teacher, operates with this content, interacts with it, i.e., assimilates it.

The teacher influences the student with pedagogically processed educational material (the content of education) and other means and methods. Thus, it causes the interaction of the student with the content of the educational material. During and as a result of assimilation, the teacher checks, and the student signals to the teacher about the results of his activity. After that, the teacher uses the next portion of the educational material or repeats the old one, depending on the quality of assimilation.

The act of learning is a closed cycle, the beginning of which is characterized by a certain state or level of preparation of the student for the perception of the teacher's activities and educational material, and the end - by a new state of this preparation.

Having characterized the main elements of learning and their relationship, it is necessary to draw some conclusions that are important for understanding the learning process.

Thus, the activity of the teacher implies the presence teaching aids - subject (textbook, instruments, visualization), motor (construction of experiments, demonstration of practical activities), intellectual (logical, constructive, etc.). Students have the same resources.

All types of means are used in certain, at the same time diverse ways that make up teaching methods. Thus, the teacher and the student, the content of education, the means and methods of teaching are involved in the change of teaching acts. In the process of learning, they all change, i.e. at each moment of learning, the teacher is different from what he was before, the student changes, the content of the educational material is assimilated differently, other teaching aids are used, teaching methods are modified.

But the main thing that characterizes learning process, - this is a change in the qualities of the student, his personal properties. Change occurs regardless of the success of teaching, from the achievement of the goal by the teacher. Therefore, it is important to take into account all factors affecting students in order to avoid undesirable consequences. Education forms either positive qualities - knowledge, skill, conscientiousness, etc., or negative ones.

All of these factors that affect learning give it its own individual look in each class. But at the same time, in all classes, the necessary result of learning is basically achieved.

The combination of similar results with specific features of different groups of students is caused by the difference between phenomena that should be designated differently. It is useful to distinguish between two concepts - "learning process" и "course of learning". The course of learning characterizes the course of learning in each class, its individual characteristics in given specific conditions.

LECTURE No. 11. Teaching methods

1. Learning techniques

The success of training largely depends both on the correct definition of its goals and content, and on the ways to achieve these goals or teaching methods. Taking into account the fact that teaching methods have been used for many centuries, since the very emergence of the school, the development of the theory of teaching methods has caused many difficulties for scientists and educators.

In the course of observing the learning process at school, didacticists and methodologists drew attention to the wide variety of activities of the teacher and his students in the classroom. These activities are called teaching methods: the teacher tells new material - he teaches by the method of storytelling; children study material from a book - a method of working with a book; the teacher in the course of the story shows some object - a method of demonstration, etc. The number of such methods by different authors turned out to be so large that even the names of the same methods were very diverse. There was an urgent need to organize this vast array of teaching methods according to some principle. A necessary condition for this was the identification of essential features by which it would be possible to determine whether this type of activity of a teacher and a student is worthy of being called a teaching method. But even when determining the essence of the methods, the opinions of teachers differed. Some understood the method as a set of methods of educational work, others - as the path along which the teacher leads children from ignorance to knowledge, still others - as a form of learning content, and fourth - as a way for the teacher and student to solve common goals.

It is easy to see that in all these methods there is a certain regularity: they characterize cognitive activity, which, on the one hand, is carried out by students, and on the other hand, organized by the teacher. But it is precisely the cognitive activity of students that is the main condition for their assimilation of the studied material.

Summing up all of the above, we can say that from the point of view of didactics teaching method called the method of ordered interconnected activities of the student and teacher, aimed at solving the problems of education. The teaching method organizes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, which ensure the effective assimilation of the studied material. The method determines how the learning process should proceed, what actions and in what sequence the teacher and his students should perform.

learning method It is customary to name the components of the method that lead to the achievement of particular tasks. In a simpler form, we can say that a method of teaching is formed from a set of techniques. Or, in turn, the teaching method can be broken down into many specific teaching methods. For example: with the problem-search method of teaching, when students search for the necessary information from various literary sources, they set specific goals for the task, and also work out ways to complete it together with the teacher. The given examples allow solving the problems of narrow didactics in the educational process.

One of the acute problems of modern didactics is the problem of classification of teaching methods. The question arises: what should be taken as the basis for classification? At present, there is no single point of view on this issue. A lot of controversy also arose around the question of the dependence of teaching methods on the goals and content of training, on the age characteristics of students, and on the subjective characteristics of the teacher.

In recent years, more and more attempts have been made to approach teaching methods not only from the side of external forms and means of student activity, but also to identify their most important features associated with the specifics of certain types of learning content and with the patterns of assimilation of this content. Below we present the results of just such an approach to the study of teaching methods, but at the same time everything valuable that was achieved at the previous stages of development is preserved and used. With regard to any of these traditional methods, we can say that they played an important role in the development of the Russian school.

Due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different signs, there are a number of classifications. Most early classification is the division of teaching methods into teacher's methods (story, explanation, conversation) and student work methods (exercises, independent work). By the nature of the educational activities of students, by mastering the studied material, methods are distinguished (classification by M. N. Skatkin, I. Ya. Lerner): explanatory and illustrative, reproductive, problematic presentation, partially exploratory, or heuristic, research. The basis classification by M. A. Danilov и B. P. Esipova the goals and objectives implemented at a particular stage of study are set. Depending on this, all methods are divided into: methods for acquiring new knowledge, methods for developing skills and abilities, applying skills in practice, methods for testing and evaluating knowledge, skills and abilities.

Using a holistic approach when classifying methods, Yu. K. Babansky singled out three groups of teaching methods.

1. Organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities.

2. Stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity.

3. Control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

A number of research scientists (E. Ya. Golant, D. O. Lorkipanidze, E. I. Perovskaya) noted that the sources from which students draw their knowledge have a significant impact on the learning process. In this regard, the most common is the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge. According to this approach, there are:

1) verbal methods (the source of knowledge is the oral or printed word);

2) visual methods (observable objects, phenomena, visual aids are the source of knowledge);

3) practical methods (students gain knowledge and develop skills by performing practical actions).

Let's take a closer look at this classification.

Verbal methods occupy the first place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods in the history of pedagogy when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Progressive teachers, among whom were Ya. A. Komensky, K. D. Ushinsky and others, opposed the absolutization of their meaning, argued that it was necessary to supplement them with visual and practical methods.

At present, verbal methods are often called obsolete, "inactive". This group of methods must be approached objectively. verbal methods allow you to quickly transfer a large amount of information, put students in front of problems and show ways to solve them. With the help of the word, the teacher can evoke vivid and quite convincing pictures of the past, present and future of mankind in the minds of children. The word activates and stimulates the imagination, memory and feelings of students. Verbal methods are of the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

Story. The storytelling method involves an oral sequential presentation of the content of the educational material. This method is applied at all stages of schooling. Only the character of the story changes, its volume, content, duration.

A story, as well as any method of presenting new knowledge, usually has a number of pedagogical requirements:

1) the story should suggest the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;

2) contain only reliable and (or) scientifically proven facts;

3) include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, instructive facts proving the correctness of the put forward provisions;

4) have a precise and clear logic of presentation;

5) be moderately emotional;

6) set out in simple and accessible language;

Explanation. Under the explanation we will understand the verbal interpretation of patterns, the most significant properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena. Explanation is a monologue form of presentation. They resort to explanation when studying theoretical material, solving chemical, physical, mathematical problems, proving theorems, when revealing causes and effects in natural phenomena and social life. Using the explanation method involves:

1) accurate and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the issue;

2) consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

3) the use of comparison, comparison, analogy;

4) attraction of obligatory vivid examples;

5) unmistakable logic of presentation.

Conversation - This is a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking pre-conceived questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied. Depending on the tasks set, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, the place of conversation in the didactic process, the following types of conversations are distinguished: heuristic conversation, informing conversation, reinforcing conversation, individual conversation, frontal conversation, etc.

Visual teaching methods - these are methods in which the assimilation of educational material is directly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. Visual teaching methods are divided into two large groups: the method of illustrations and the method of demonstrations.

illustration method is a show to students of illustrative aids: posters, tables, paintings, maps, drawings and drawings on the board, etc.

Demo Method usually is in close connection with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, slides, etc.

However, it should be clearly understood that such a division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative is purely conditional. It does not exclude the possibility that individual visual aids can be classified as both illustrative and demonstrative. For example: you can also show illustrations through an epidiascope or overhead scope. The introduction of the latest technical means in the educational process (television, video recorders, computers) expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods. When using visual methods in teaching, it is necessary to take into account a number of the following conditions:

1) the visualization used by the teacher must exactly match the age of the students;

2) visibility should be used in moderation and should be demonstrated gradually and only at the appropriate moment in the lesson;

3) observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the object being demonstrated from their workplaces;

4) it is necessary to clearly and clearly highlight the main or most significant when showing illustrations;

5) it is necessary to think over in advance the explanations that accompany the demonstration of phenomena;

6) the visualization demonstrated by the teacher must exactly match the content of the material;

7) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information when compiling a visual aid or in a demonstration device.

Practical methods.

Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills and abilities. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work. Exercise is understood as the repeated performance of a mental or practical action in order to acquire knowledge or improve its quality. The application of exercises occurs in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process.

Laboratory work is the conduct of experiments by students on the instructions of the teacher using special devices, tools and other technical devices, thus, this is the study by students of any phenomena using special equipment. Practical work is often carried out after studying large sections in the subject, they are of a generalizing nature. They can be held both in the classroom and outside the educational institution.

2. Classification of teaching methods

Classification of methods according to the nature of the cognitive activity of students and the nature of the teacher's activity (or the method of mastering the types of content).

В didactics training called the method of ordered interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education. The teaching method establishes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, ensuring the effective assimilation of the material being studied. One of the acute problems of modern didactics is the problem of classification of teaching methods.

At present, there is no single point of view on this issue. Due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different signs, there are a number of classifications. Let us dwell in detail on the classification of methods according to the nature of the cognitive activity of students and pupils. Let's list and describe them.

1. verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Despite the fact that many teachers oppose the use of this group of methods, consider them obsolete, they cannot be completely discounted. Verbal methods allow you to convey large amounts of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems for students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of the word, the teacher can bring into the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of mankind. The word activates the imagination, memory, feelings of students. Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

2. visual methods. Visual teaching methods are understood as such methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. As a separate type, the visual teaching method simply loses its meaning. The use of visual methods makes the material offered for study more accessible for understanding. Visualization is especially important and even necessary when teaching in the lower grades. Visual teaching methods can be conditionally divided into two large groups: the method of illustrations and the method of demonstrations. And while the second method is more preferable, as it is more real and reliable.

3. Practical Methods learning is based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills and abilities. The importance of practical methods cannot be overestimated. After all, it is in practical classes that students realize the importance of previously acquired knowledge, the possibility of their practical application in everyday life, in further studies. Also, the use of practical methods increases the motivation of the learning process. After all, it is always interesting for a student to try his hand at performing any educational tasks, to show independence, ingenuity, and initiative. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Classification of teaching methods according to the nature of the type of activity dominating over others.

Method is a sequence of actions taken by the teacher and the student in the learning process. In pedagogy, there is a huge variety of methods, some of which are similar, and some are radically different. Therefore, to facilitate the work of the teacher, it is necessary to systematize this set. In didactics, there are a number of ways to classify teaching methods. Let us consider in detail the classification according to the nature of the dominant cognitive activity. This type of division of teaching methods is adopted because teaching - this is, first of all, cognitive activity that takes place along with practical, labor, motor activity. All his actions pass through consciousness and determine cognitive activity. So, using this classification, we can distinguish two groups of methods that are fundamentally different from each other.

1. reproductive, in which the student learns ready-made knowledge and reproduces (reproduces) the methods of activity already known to him (these include explanatory-illustrative, information-receptor, reproductive methods).

2. productive, characterized in that the student obtains subjectively new knowledge as a result of creative activity (partial search, heuristic, research methods). The problem statement belongs to the intermediate group, because it equally involves both the assimilation of ready-made information and elements of creative activity. However, in the real learning process, all teaching methods are interconnected, implemented in combination in parallel to each other. And the very division of methods into reproductive and productive is very relative. After all, any act of creative activity is impossible without reproductive.

Solving any problem, a person actualizes and mentally reproduces the knowledge already known to him. At the same time, the act of reproducing knowledge when its purpose changes contains an element of creativity in the field of constructing the logic of presentation. The identified and characterized methods allow us to evaluate the course of the lesson, the entire logic of the educational process in terms of their coverage of all types of activities. So, if the teacher conducted a survey on previously studied materials, told a new one, gave exercises, and then presented a creative task, then by doing so he consistently applied the methods: reproductive, explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, research. If he posed a problem and held a heuristic conversation on it, showed a film, and then gave a creative work on it, then he applied partial search, explanatory-illustrative and research methods.

Methods can change during the lesson often and alternate several times - it all depends on the content of the topic, the goals of its study, the level of development and preparation of students. Moreover, the monotony of the methods and methods used in the lesson can make the learning process boring and uninteresting.

Classification of teaching methods by activity components.

Teaching method - this is a systematically functioning system, the structure of the activities of teachers and students, consciously implemented in order to implement programmed changes in the personality of the student.

Exist four groups of teaching methods, in each of these groups, the actions of the teacher and students are different, there is a kind of predominance of a certain type of activity over other types, from which it follows that this classification is not strict. They are:

1) methods of mastering knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature;

2) methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, called problematic, based on creative, cognitive activity in the course of solving problems;

3) methods, also called exposing, with an emphasis on emotional and artistic activity;

4) practical methods, characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the surrounding world, creating its new forms.

Knowledge acquisition methods - this group of methods is widely used both in school and in the media, or in general in public life.

In the course of teaching, all art comes down, first of all, to the selection of content and the method of its transmission, and the level of assimilation of knowledge by students and the strength of their memorization depend on the nature of the content and its "presentation".

This group includes the following methods:

1) conversation;

2) discussion;

3) lecture;

4) work with the book;

5) programmed learning in its linear, branched and mixed versions.

Methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, i.e. problematic methods.

Essence problem methods comes down to the fact that they do not allow students to be indifferent to a situation that they cannot explain or resolve, but, arousing interest, force them to analyze it, identify known and unknown data in it, put forward proposals for solving the problem and verifying the correctness of these assumptions. .

This group includes the following methods:

1) the method of chances (consideration of any several cases);

2) situational method (similar to the method of chance, but one complex situation is considered here);

3) didactic games (at the heart of the lesson is a game).

Exposing methods (evaluative). A person not only cognizes reality, but also experiences it emotionally, and also evaluates it. These evaluation experiences are related to, but not identical to, intellectual cognition. Their significance is based on the fact that they ultimately determine life goals and loyalty to ideals. From this point of view, the sphere of emotional cognition, as well as assessments, value systems and life ideals that largely depend on it, are of great educational importance.

This group includes the following methods:

1) impressive methods (impression, experience, feeling);

2) expressive methods (expression of oneself in something);

3) practical methods (a person himself forms his perception and behavior;

4) teaching methods (solving any creative problems).

Practical methods. In practice, students realize their any creative tasks. At the same time, both the repetition of the theory and its confirmation in practice occur.

3. Rational application of various teaching methods

Under teaching methods implies a consistent alternation of ways of interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific goal through the study of educational material.

Each method should be chosen and applied in conjunction with other teaching methods. When a certain section of educational material is being worked out, the teacher is faced with more than one method. There is no universal method. According to various requirements and situations in training, the whole variety of methods is used, one method replaces another. There are various possibilities for combining methods that meet the goals and objectives of education, as well as the specifics of the content of the educational material and the specific conditions of education, which ensures an interesting, diverse, active organization of this process.

The use of a certain method imposes certain requirements on the activities of the teacher, having a specific impact on the activities of students. The value of methods is determined by the quality of the learning process, in particular the quality of its results. The high efficiency of the application of methods is achieved on the condition that they are an integral part of a certain system, correctly selected, most appropriately combined and skillfully used in the teacher's work. This raises the level of educational work, ensuring the activity and effectiveness of learning. In the process of learning, an individual "methodological handwriting" of the teacher is formed.

Knowledge presentation methods are used in cases where students need to be familiarized with educational material, present it, explain it, and ensure its understanding. These methods are especially important when communicating new material.

The methods of oral presentation must be applied when consolidating, exercising, systematizing and repeating, while deepening the educational material. The method of oral presentation that is most commonly used is story (lecture) teachers. This method is the most rational way to communicate new knowledge. With the help of a word, one can express vivid ideas, using selected facts and skillfully combining them, as well as emphasizing the most basic. In the upper grades, the presentation of the teacher takes on the character of a lecture, in which extensive material is reported, and students make notes, which serves as the basis for their further work on educational material.

The studied material must be repeated and consolidated. Students can be involved in the presentation of the material, and here the student's educational report especially justifies itself. The report is an excellent tool to promote the development of well-performing children, it also helps the less prepared student to test himself.

If the teacher is going to check the degree of preparation of students for the lesson, then the method of test and examination conversation is used here, that is, in the form of a survey, the teacher asks questions to the students, which they must answer. But there are also negative sides: with such a survey, the teacher is not able to interview the entire class; another method is used to solve this problem - independent work. Methods of independent work provide ample opportunities for the individual development of students.

The teaching method establishes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, ensuring the effective assimilation of the material being studied. It determines how the learning process should go, what actions and in what sequence the teacher and students should perform. Even an activity that is interesting for students will not force the whole class to work actively for a long time, if there is no correct change of actions, a logically correct change of methods and techniques is not provided. Teachers are constantly trying to find a universal, most effective method.

When choosing teaching methods and ways to implement them, one should take into account such issues as requirements for teaching methods, criteria for choosing methods and ways to implement them in a planned lesson. The teacher is free to choose the means and methods of teaching - the main thing is that the requirements for teaching methods must be met.

At present, two mandatory requirements are imposed on all teaching methods: they must contribute to the activity of students in the educational process and provide a deep understanding of the material being studied. Both requirements are closely related: students cannot be active in the classroom if they do not understand the material being studied, but they will not be able to accept it without being actively involved in the learning process. These requirements play an important role not only in teaching, but also in the upbringing and development of the cognitive abilities of students. The choice of methods and methods of implementation is largely determined by the objectives of the lesson. When choosing, it is advisable to take into account through which sensory organs students will perceive the material being studied. That is, it is necessary to know the physical features of the development of the sense organs in children, depending on age, and to use methods that affect precisely those feelings that are most developed. For example, it is known that younger students perceive information more if it is as visual as possible.

Teaching methods and ways of their implementation should contribute to the inclusion in the educational process in the classroom not only of thinking, but also of the imagination of students, which relates to the active inner life of students.

Imagination is the force that makes teaching interesting and exciting. In order for the imagination of students to be included in the learning process, ordinary activities in the lesson must be combined with unusual, special ones. The choice of methods and ways of their implementation that will be used in the lesson is a difficult and responsible task that requires a deep analysis of many facts.

In addition to those already listed, it is necessary to take into account the abilities of students, their knowledge, abilities, skills on the issue under study, attitude to the subject, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the teacher himself.

LECTURE No. 12. Forms of organization of the learning process

1. Requirements for the organization of the learning process

Forms of organization educational work is determined by the composition of the students, the place and time of classes, the sequence of activities of students and the ways in which they are guided by teachers.

Lesson - a collective form of education, which is characterized by a constant composition of students, a certain scope of classes, strict regulation of educational work on the same educational material for all. The lesson is the main form of organization of the educational process. The lesson as an organizational form creates the necessary conditions for combining training and education into a single process. In the lesson, with its proper organization, all the requirements of didactics can be implemented.

There are the following lesson types: lecture lessons, lessons for consolidating new material, repetition lessons, seminar lessons, conference lessons, lessons for testing acquired knowledge, combined lessons. There are also custom lessons, the purpose of which is to stimulate interest in learning.

General requirements can be formulated as follows: equip students with conscious, deep and solid knowledge; to form in students the skills and abilities that help prepare them for life; to increase the educational effect of teaching in the classroom, to form personality traits in students in the learning process; to carry out the development of students, to form students' independence, creative activity, initiative as stable personality traits, the ability to creatively solve problems that occur in life; to develop the ability to study independently, to form in students positive motives for learning activities, cognitive interest, desire to learn, the need to expand and acquire knowledge, a positive attitude towards learning.

These requirements can be conditionally divided into four groups. Educational requirements: to educate moral qualities, to form aesthetic tastes, to ensure a close connection between learning and life, its demands and requirements, to form an active attitude towards it.

Didactic requirements: provide cognitive activity in the classroom, rationally combine verbal, visual and practical methods with problems, implement the requirements for the unity of teaching, upbringing and development through a close connection between theory and practice, learning with life, using knowledge in various life situations. It is necessary to carry out systematic monitoring of the quality of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Psychological requirements: the teacher controls the accuracy, thoroughness and timeliness of the students' fulfillment of each requirement. The teacher must be distinguished by self-control and self-control.

Hygiene requirements: compliance with the temperature regime in the classroom, proper lighting standards. Uniformity and monotony in work should be avoided, and listening to educational information should be alternated with practical work. The change in the types of work brings rest, allows you to include various senses in cognitive activity. The skill of the teacher in the classroom lies mainly in the skillful use of teaching and upbringing methods, the creative application of new achievements in pedagogy and advanced pedagogical experience, the rational management of the cognitive and practical activities of students, their intellectual development.

Educational work in Russia is carried out within the framework of public education within the school, at industrial enterprises; independent work of students at home is also used. Inside the school, classes are organized differently in a special classroom and laboratory, in workshops and on the school site, in a circle and at other extracurricular activities and forms.

Usually, classes are held at a fixed time according to a certain pre-known schedule, but as needed, for example, when organizing excursions, circles and other extracurricular activities, also at times depending on a number of changing conditions. The activities of the teacher and his students depend on the teaching methods chosen for these classes. Mandatory is form of final accounting of knowledge, skills and abilities - these are mainly exams and tests; current accounting is carried out at almost every lesson, at every practical lesson.

In organizational forms, the content of educational work, didactic tasks and teaching methods are implemented. Depending on the tasks set, the nature of the work, and the preparedness of students, the elements of the educational process are distributed differently between individual organizational forms. Acquaintance with new material is usually carried out in class at school, but sometimes transferred to the home; laboratory work is carried out in a special room, which is equipped with all the necessary equipment, but the same classes can also be performed in the laboratory of the enterprise, where students are directly involved in the labor process itself. But tests are accepted in the classroom or in special classes. That is, in this way, the individual forms of learning are interconnected. And what form of training to choose depends on the content and methods of teaching on this topic. If it is necessary to ensure observation of the phenomena or processes of the surrounding reality in their natural environment, an excursion is carried out. If students master labor skills, practical classes are organized.

In primary and secondary schools, special importance is attached to polytechnic education, carried out primarily in the process of theoretical education of students - their assimilation of the basics of science. It occupies a special place in the educational work work. Here the form of labor polytechnic education is used. In addition, the school provides additional work with both lagging students and those who show a special interest and inclination in a particular field of knowledge, extra-curricular forms of education are also used for this.

In the process theoretical training lessons, excursions, seminars, homework, exams are used in the system labor training - practical exercises in training workshops. Additional lessons are carried out in the form of teacher consultations, his work with small groups to fill gaps in the knowledge of students, individual or group classes of interest, for which various forms of extracurricular education are used.

The teaching material is mainly learned in the classroom, and the presentation of the material by the teacher is combined with the independent work of the students. Classes are held both frontally, with the whole class, and in small groups and individually. In the classroom, the teacher takes care to ensure that students acquire systematic knowledge, skills and abilities, teaches them to work independently, stimulates their creative activity.

Using the content of the educational material and teaching methods, linking learning with practice, and here the teacher solves the problems of education and upbringing in unity. Collective work in the classroom - cooperation, mutual assistance, responsibility of the class for the success and behavior of individual students - is an important factor in the formation of the class team and the education of collectivity. At school, the lesson is the main form of organization of educational work.

At each lesson, the teacher sets as his obligatory task:

1) inform students of a certain amount of new knowledge;

2) fix them in the memory of students;

3) to teach students to apply knowledge in practice;

4) the teacher always controls whether students remember previously acquired knowledge.

It is these constant tasks that determine the structure of the lesson.

A very crucial moment in the course of cognitive work is the very process of developing a connection with life, with practice, mainly this is the use of practical work in the lessons. This includes various observations, sketches, drawings, experiments, measuring and computational work, solving problems with production content, student reports, etc. In the process of performing practical work, students not only master vital skills and abilities, but also consolidate and comprehend theoretical knowledge.

One of the fundamental requirements for a lesson at school is to increase its educational role.

In the process of learning, students not only get acquainted with phenomena, facts, events as such, but also comprehend the patterns of development of nature and society. Learning the connections of scientific knowledge with social practice, they develop a scientific worldview, develop cognitive abilities and creative forces. In other words, the lesson at school is not only teaching, but also educating.

The lesson at school is not limited to equipping students with knowledge, but includes the education of independence, an inquisitive and creative attitude to mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. The acquired knowledge cannot remain "on the surface", they must become the internal content of the student, to which they constantly turn in their lives and activities. That knowledge is solid, which was acquired in the process of hard work, and the school is obliged to develop activity and independence in a person, as well as equip students with methods of independent work. After all, education does not end with school, but continues after graduation.

The organization of the lesson depends on the nature of education at individual levels of education. With the transition from one age level of education to another, the nature of students' activities changes: independence in mastering knowledge increases; students become more independent.

The process of assimilation by students of knowledge, skills and abilities includes their education, comprehension, consolidation, repetition in various types of practice. Lessons are organized and conducted in different ways. In some lessons, new material is predominantly studied, in others a conclusion and repetition of what has been learned is carried out, in others - a variety of practical work of students. Some lessons begin with a presentation and explanation of knowledge by the teacher, others - with the practical work of students, others - with generalizations of students, etc.

The construction of each individual lesson depends on what place it occupies in the overall system of lessons. Before planning a single lesson, it is necessary to determine the sequence of lessons on the topic of the curriculum as a whole. Such planning largely predetermines the typology of individual lessons included in their system.

Question about lesson typologies is one of the hardest. In the pedagogical and methodological literature, more than a dozen different classifications of lessons have been published, but there is still no single classification. This is due to a number of circumstances: the study of the nature of learning at certain stages of school development, the complexity and versatility of the educational process that takes place in the classroom.

For example, the I. N. Kazantsev in his monograph "Lesson in the Soviet school" categorizes lessons according to three basic principles.

1. By content (i.e., for example, mathematics lessons are divided according to their content into arithmetic, algebra, geometry lessons).

2. Didactic goals (here we mean specific educational tasks, i.e. introducing students to a circle of new knowledge, developing skills and abilities, applying knowledge in practice). Concerning I. N. Kazantsev points to the following lesson types:

1) the first (introductory) lessons at the beginning of the school year;

2) introductory when studying major topics or sections of the program;

3) lessons of mastering new knowledge on the current educational material;

4) consolidation of the studied knowledge;

5) development of students' skills and abilities;

6) application of knowledge in practice;

7) repetitive-generalizing;

8) training and testing;

9) lessons in analyzing the quality of knowledge of schoolchildren on the basis of their written or other practical work;

10) final lessons that complete the academic year.

3. Ways of conducting (these are lectures, conversations, lessons-excursions, etc.).

Classifies lessons differently S. V. Ivanov, which comes from the characteristics of the learning process, its constituent parts. Main types of lesson S. V. Ivanov thinks:

1) introductory;

2) a lesson of primary acquaintance with the material;

3) assimilation of new knowledge;

4) application of acquired knowledge in practice;

5) skill lesson;

6) consolidation, repetition and generalization;

7) control;

8) mixed, or combined.

Many variants of the existing classifications of lesson types have in common that they are based on the difference between lessons depending on the main goal prevailing in them: the assimilation of ready-made knowledge, their consolidation through repetition, the application of knowledge in practice, training in order to develop a skill or skill, current or generalizing repetition, testing the knowledge and skills of students. If two or more didactic goals are almost equally represented in a lesson, it is one or another variant of a combined lesson.

2. Problem-Based Learning

During the problem learning the teacher widely uses verbal, visual and practical teaching methods. In problem-based learning, the presentation is carried out through a problem story, a problem lecture, a creative problem task, an unexpected question, a proposed action.

The essence of the problematic presentation is as follows: the teacher sets a problem that he himself solves, but at the same time shows the solution path in its true and accessible to students contradictions, expresses the train of thought when moving along the solution path. The purpose of this method is that the teacher shows examples of scientific knowledge, scientific problem solving, and students control the credibility of this progress, mentally follow the logic, in this manner mastering the stages of solving integral problems.

A problem statement can be based on materials from the history of science or on the path of evidence-based disclosure of a method for solving a problem. Of course, with great success, problem-based learning is used by subject teachers of the humanities. The complexity of using the problematic method lies in the fact that the high professionalism of the teacher is mandatory and necessary.

Direct outcome of problem-based learning - mastering the method and logic of solving a given problem or even a group of problems, but still without the ability to apply them independently. In problem-based learning, problem-search or heuristic conversation is often used. In the course of this conversation, students are asked a number of logically related questions, in response to which students should express their assumptions and try to prove the correctness of their words, thus showing independence in mastering knowledge.

Visual aids take on a slightly different purpose in problem-based learning. They are used not to facilitate the memorization of new material, but to set educational tasks and create any problem situations in the lesson. An example is manuals in which a series of drawings are depicted, with the help of which an educational problem is posed. It, in turn, requires quite a long independent reflection, analysis and comparison.

Problem-search exercises are used when students can independently perform any specific types of mental and practical work. This contributes to the most successful comprehension of the material.

The legitimacy of this method lies in the fact that the truth of knowledge, as well as the effectiveness of the methods of activity that are prescribed to students, must not only be affirmed and illustrated, but must be proved in order to familiarize students with certain methods of seeking knowledge, in order to form an absolute conviction in the truth of the knowledge communicated. In general, the problematic type of training is used not only to master new educational material, but also serves as the most important means of developing the skills of creative educational and cognitive activity.

3. Modular learning technology

Modular learning technology - one of the youngest alternative technologies, which has recently received large-scale use. Modular learning got its name from the word "module", one of the meanings of which is "functional node". Module - this is a logically completed part of the educational material, which ends with a control action (test, control work or settlement and graphic work). Under modular learning technology understand the implementation of the learning process by dividing it into subgroups of "functional nodes" - significant actions and operations that are performed by the student more or less unambiguously, which allows you to achieve the planned learning outcomes.

The rating system of control (100 points) takes into account all the vigorous activity of students. The use of rating systems allows using the principle of systematic control of knowledge and skills and an individual approach to the student in the learning process. The essence of modular learning lies in the fact that it allows each student to achieve the goals of educational and cognitive activity completely independently (or with unobtrusive advice from the teacher).

Training modules serve as a means of modular training. A module can also be considered a training program, which is individualized in terms of content, teaching methods, level of independence, pace of learning. For example, the development of modular courses in a socio-pedagogical college is one of the promising areas of work for the Pedagogical Technologies Office. A distinctive feature of these developments is that the modular courses are aimed at a competent approach to learning.

Competence is usually called the performance of work at a certain level. The introduction of any new technology, its use opens up new opportunities for fulfilling the needs of the individual in the development of creative and mental potential, increases the time for independent work, and establishes uniform levels of competence.

Modular learning allows you to solve such problems of education as the optimization of learning content based on activity-modular approach, providing the possibility of any change (the so-called program variability), individualization of educational programs, practical activities and control over the success of training on the example of assessing observed actions. At each successive stage of mastering the program, the competence of students / students is determined. The structure of the module is a combination of the following objects: "M" - the module is a group of skills, abilities and knowledge that students / students must demonstrate; "P" - the result of the action (skills, abilities and knowledge) necessary to complete the course program; "KD" - the criterion for evaluating the activity - the quality of the work that the student / student must demonstrate; "DT" - description of the levels - the context in which the results of the activity should be illustrated.

4. Modern models of organization of training

The process of updating the content of education, its modernization and development are associated, first of all, with overcoming the already established social restrictions, understanding the very content of education. This problem can only be partially solved by separating the structural components of the content of education in the following logical chain: "culture - education - social order - pedagogical modeling", and thereby approach the correct solution of the problem. Consider the relationship between the concepts of education and training. Training is a clear representation (pedagogical content) of education. Bring together training and education goals and means to achieve goals. Specific subject matter - modeling the content of education - that epistemological component, which will make it possible to bring students' own personal-historical experience as close as possible to the socio-historical one, received by someone and sometime. Let us dwell on the theoretical foundations of modeling. In practice, filling the content of education with real material is an eternal debatable issue. The following are involved in the resolution process: representatives of the education system:

1) ministry;

2) methodical services;

3) the administration of the educational institution.

But a special case may be such problems that the teacher solves directly together with his students, adjusting the content of the training in the course of the process. When discussing the modeling of the content of education, the following is introduced: concept system:

1) education as a process - a way of transferring the cultural heritage of society to a person. Education - a means of socialization, as well as the physical and spiritual formation of a person, which is focused on certain ideals, on historically determined social stamps established in the public consciousness. Education as a process of introducing a person to culture occurs through the internalization and inclusion of cultural components in the world of human subjectivity;

2) education as a result (or, in other sources, erudition) - a set of cultural components that a person has for his further formation and development as a subject of socio-economic activity, replenishing the cultural potential of civilization;

3) from philosophical and anthropological positions, education can be viewed as a way of becoming a person in culture, a tendency to understand and understand meanings, and develop one's own existential position. Education - the realized possibility of self-education, or the formation of personality. This process is continuous. A person is considered as a set of possibilities of "becoming a person", which is to be realized. This totality is a search for oneself in society, oneself in humanity and oneself in the Universe.

It is recommended to use highly qualified specialists to model the content of general education.

LECTURE No. 13. Academic performance and methods for its assessment

Academic record - an integral part of the process of schooling. The teacher teaches and at the same time takes into account how students perceive what is being studied, master the ability to apply knowledge, how they comprehend, remember, and experience the process of mastering them. Evaluation of success orients students both in relation to the level of their achievements in educational activities, and in the development of the moral and volitional qualities necessary to achieve high academic performance.

Assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities should be objectively correct, i.e. correspond to the true level of student achievement. Such accounting allows you to manage the process of mastering knowledge, skills, i.e., mental and practical actions, their sequence, introduces the necessary adjustments into the activities of the teacher and students and serves as a means of improving the learning process, increasing its efficiency, and overcoming repetition. When teaching, the teacher not only gives certain information to students or arranges for them to receive it from other sources, but also takes care of how students perform the given work, what is the quality of the knowledge and skills they receive.

The significance of continuity in recording progress is especially great in work with young children, when the process of mastering the methods of mental activity and the skills of independent work is just beginning. At subsequent stages, accounting continues to retain its importance, especially if students are working on difficult and complex material. The specificity of taking into account knowledge in school is that it has a teaching and educational value here. Thinking over the accounting indicators, the teacher and his students decide what form and content their subsequent work should be, and what should be their main efforts.

Checking the assimilation of the material by schoolchildren, the teacher takes care of the strength of his memorization, the development of memory, and the education of their habit of work. Accounting for progress, therefore, stimulates the cognitive activity of students. Accounting helps students to force themselves to perform certain actions, which thereby contributes to the education of the will.

In pedagogy, there is an opinion that the desire to get high scores necessarily gives rise to the pursuit of only marks and indifference to knowledge itself. This takes place only when the record of progress is incorrectly set, in conditions of exaggerated attention to grades on the part of parents and teachers, when grades are used as bait or a threat to the student. If, on the other hand, evaluation is a natural consequence of a normally proceeding learning process, the record of progress cannot cause such an incorrect attitude of children towards it.

Recording of progress also organizes the work of the teacher. As the methods and forms of teaching improved, grades became more and more indicators of the teacher's pedagogical skills and began to play an increasingly important role in improving the quality of the teacher's work.

As a result, with the correct implementation of the process of recording progress, the teacher most correctly assesses the success of students, creates in them the desire to improve knowledge, and contributes to their mental and moral development.

1. Types of accounting for student progress

current account - this is a type of accounting that ensures the timely assimilation and consolidation of educational material at each stage of training. The transition to the next stage is carried out on the condition that the previous task is completed. The teacher continuously keeps track of the results, based on his regular ongoing observations of the work of students. Current accounting contributes to the successful solution of the problems of correct, thorough and timely assimilation of knowledge, the development of students' cognitive abilities.

The current record of student progress includes the teacher's observation of their next academic work and checking the quality of knowledge, skills and abilities that students master at a certain stage of learning. When checking the material in the order of current daily accounting, it is mainly the knowledge that is associated with the study of new material that is checked. Current accounting also checks those knowledge and skills that often have to be relied upon in further educational work. This type of accounting is designed to prevent the forgetting of knowledge and skills, regulates the educational work of children and teachers, helps to identify gaps in the knowledge of students and teachers in time and eliminate them.

Thematic account. Having completed the study of the entire topic, the teacher returns to it more than once in the future, when studying others, since previously acquired knowledge is often organically included in the new material as its integral part.

For this type of accounting, iterative-generalizing thematic lessons are especially significant. Consolidation of knowledge is carried out all the time while the topic is being studied, but here it has a final meaning: students review the topic as a whole, understand its structure, systematize assimilation, establish new connections between knowledge, trace the development of phenomena, concepts, ideas. Control functions in such lessons should not be considered predominant, however, for some topics, in conclusion, it is advisable to conduct both a final test (written and practical work) and an assessment of knowledge. In high school, there is another form of performance accounting - this is offset. Tests involve the independent development of knowledge and skills, that is, the students themselves plan and organize their learning process. But there are also negative sides. If there is no current record of progress in the learning process, then some students stop conducting systematic independent work, and prefer to hastily prepare for tests and exams, which negatively affects the depth and strength of knowledge.

Periodic accounting. This is a record of knowledge carried out for a certain period of the academic year - in quarters and for half a year. With correctly set current and thematic accounting, quarterly scores can be displayed without special verification. But when the level of preparation of some part of the students at the time of deriving the final score raises doubts in the teacher, a special examination of the knowledge of only these students is necessary.

Final account. This type of accounting is carried out during the final repetition at the end of the academic year. That is, this is a reproduction of the most important questions of the course, the most concise overview of the topics covered, sections of the educational material, comprehension and deepening of the acquired knowledge at a higher level.

Methods for testing knowledge, skills and abilities - this is when the teacher has every reason to demand from students a report on the development of the material being studied and to assess the level learned by each student.

There are several tests of knowledge: oral, written and practical.

Oral check. Not so long ago, the prevailing method of testing knowledge at school was an individual survey, which took up to 40% of the time in each lesson. The use of an individual survey as a universal method reduces the teaching and educational value of the lesson, and here the center of gravity of mastering knowledge is transferred to students' homework, since an individual survey involves students' complete answers in the form of a coherent presentation of a question on this topic, which requires a lot of time to prepare. The following situation occurs in the lesson: it takes a lot of time to listen to the answers of a few students in the class, and often the cognitive activity of the majority of students decreases. But you should not completely abandon the individual survey, since such a survey is an important means of developing oral speech, memory, and thinking. And if you properly organize such a survey and ensure the activity of all students, then the result will be positive - listening to the answer of a friend, others critically comprehend it, repeating, deepening knowledge.

Consequently, the passivity of students during individual surveys is the result of an imperfect methodology for conducting it.

In addition to an individual survey, oral testing is carried out in the form of a conversation between the teacher and the class. In this case, the teacher's questions require short answers, so that a significant number of students and even the entire class participate in the conversation. This form of oral verification can be called fragmentary since here the answers are, as it were, fragmentary, incomplete, partial. When such a survey is concentrated at a specially allotted time and covers all students of the class, it is called frontal: with oral counting, checking knowledge of chronological dates, geographical nomenclature, grammatical forms, various definitions, rules, formulas that often have to be referred to.

Written verification. The main purpose of a written (and graphic) test is to identify the degree of mastery of students' skills and abilities in a given subject. It also allows you to judge the quality of knowledge - their correctness, accuracy, awareness, the ability to apply knowledge in practice, makes it possible in a short period to simultaneously check all students in the class. Written and graphic works include control dictations, presentations, essays, solving examples and problems, making drawings, diagrams, drawings, etc. The main purpose of such work is to verify and develop students' written speech, the ability to coherently, consistently, logically express your thoughts on paper.

In order to test students' knowledge, both short written and graphic works are used, for which 10-15 minutes are allotted.

Practical check. It tests the ability of students to apply theoretical knowledge in practice. Verification tasks of a practical nature are tasks that require experience, measurement, labor operations.

Performance appraisal plays an important role in various spheres of public and private life of people.

The modern school has adopted a digital five-point system for assessing students' knowledge, which contributes to the differentiated accounting of students' achievements in educational work and makes it easier for them to perceive the significance of the assessment. Already in the first quarter, first-graders understand what level of performance the scores "5" and "3" correspond to.

Direct objects of progress assessment - this is the knowledge, skills and abilities of students, their completeness, correctness, accuracy, strength, connection with life, the ability to apply them in practice, as well as oral, written, graphic, practical forms of their expression.

With regard to the form of expression of knowledge, logical sequence, grammatical and stylistic literacy, richness and expressiveness of speech are taken into account. With regard to various skills and abilities, their correctness, accuracy, and thoroughness are taken into account.

The success and knowledge of each student must be judged correctly and fairly. Incorrect assessments discourage and demobilize children. A correct assessment excludes both underestimation and overestimation of requirements. The teacher can only demand what the students could already learn. Therefore, it is necessary to put only such points that correspond to the actual level of student achievement. This means that if an excellent student answered only satisfactorily, then only "3" should be given to him for such an answer; if the average student, unexpectedly for the teacher, answered well, then he must definitely put "4". Although there are students who try their best, but their success is not great. Here it is necessary to refrain from giving them negative points for some time. If assistance is provided to such students, then they still have the prospect of obtaining positive marks, which encourages them to be more able to work, in contrast to the "deuce". Therefore, the assessment policy should not be to prevent the student from achieving higher scores, but rather, to look for opportunities to move him to a higher level of academic performance.

From the end of the 50s. XNUMXth century the so-called lesson points. They are set based on the results of all activities that took place in the lesson, and provide an opportunity to determine the level of student achievement. Sometimes a short answer from the spot, a little commentary, a little writing exercise can give a clear idea of ​​the quality of a student's knowledge. Lesson scores are sometimes given to five or six students at the end of the lesson. In many cases, this increases the cognitive activity of students.

The final marks for a quarter, half a year, for the academic year are displayed in accordance with the actual level of knowledge that has developed by the time the score was given. For example, if a student of the first grade read "3" in the first half of the year, "4" in the third quarter, and "5" in the fourth, then he is given a score of "5" for reading for the year, since by the end of the school year he began to read on "five". The same principle is used when deriving final scores for a quarter, half a year and a year for all subjects.

Based on the grades, the issue of transferring students to the next class is decided.

2. Causes of failure

underachievement the low level of knowledge of students in comparison with generally accepted standards is considered. In order to competently solve the problem of underachievement, one must know the circumstances that give rise to academic achievement and underachievement. The reasons for failure may vary. In some cases, teachers themselves are the culprits. The teacher believes that the student is inattentive in the lesson, that he is a loafer, incapable. But often under this lies the insufficiently prepared work of the teacher, who could not interest the student, develop his individual abilities, and involve him in the work in the lesson.

If, from the earliest grades, a student has lost interest in learning and goes to school simply because "everyone does it," then in connection with any failures, a certain prejudice against teaching is strengthened in him. Therefore, it is very important for a teacher to instill in his students that failures should not upset them, but teach them, temper their will. The teacher needs to constantly motivate the need for learning at each stage. The second reason for student failure may be the family. After all, learning is not limited to working in the classroom. With a child, especially at the initial stage of education, you need to work continuously, help him to comprehend knowledge. And if from the very beginning "abandon" the child, it is difficult to expect great success from him in further learning.

It is not uncommon for parents themselves to convince their children that education is far from being the most important thing in life, and that people used to get only five years of education and still achieve success in life.

The third source of underachievement is free children's society - a group of closest friends and comrades with whom he spends his free (and not always just free) time. If the company surrounding the student has a negative attitude towards learning, if academic success is not prestigious in the school (or non-school) team, the student will not strive for academic success. The fourth source of student failure may be himself. That is, if one mechanically, directly derives academic performance from school, family, comradely influences, this will mean that the child is simply a passive, weak-willed product of external circumstances. In fact, this is a very active and selective creature that perceives all sorts of influences. Consequently, the failure of a schoolchild, especially in high school, where people are already quite independent, is not so much to blame for someone as he himself.

But sometimes the failure of a student appears for reasons beyond the control of the student - the student unintentionally misses classes for a long time, for example, due to a serious or chronic illness. In this case, the teacher should treat the student more favorably, try to avoid the presence of gaps in the students' knowledge, and not turn his temporary poor progress into a permanent one. Also, if a student does not set himself a higher goal (entering a university), he does not consider it obligatory to try hard when studying.

3. Types of unsuccessful schoolchildren, their psychological characteristics

Despite the progressive development of pedagogical and psychological sciences, the problem of combating lagging students has not lost its relevance at the present time. In any educational group, you can find students who do not have time in learning for one reason or another. But in order to eliminate and prevent academic failure, it is necessary to know not only its causes. In the eyes of teachers, all failing students are exactly the same.

Due to the fact that in the conditions of the existing class-lesson system, the teacher is not able to implement individual and differentiated approaches to learning, therefore, the teacher is not able to determine the true reasons why the student cannot cope with the educational tasks set. According to the psychologist N. I. Murachkovsky, certain types of underachieving students can be conditionally distinguished. The basis classification he put two signs: the first characterizes the features of the mental activity of the student, the second - the orientation of the personality, its attitude to learning. As a result of consideration of these aspects, the following typology was obtained.

The first type of underachievers - students whose low quality of mental activity is combined with a positive attitude to learning.

The second type - schoolchildren in whom the high quality of mental activity is combined with a negative attitude towards learning.

to the third type underachievers include children in whom the low quality of mental activity is combined with a negative attitude towards learning.

If the teacher is familiar with such a typology and can independently determine which type of underachievers his students belong to, he can help each of the groups of underachieving students, applying an individual approach to each of them. One of the most common coping measures - this is the organization of additional classes with lagging behind during extracurricular time. Moreover, it is used for all students, regardless of what reason caused them to fall behind. So often the teacher leaves after the lessons the students from the first and second groups listed above, inviting them to perform the same tasks.

An additional lesson with students from the second group is justified to some extent, since they do not prepare for lessons at home. But what about the students from the first group? They are always conscientious about doing homework and need a different kind of corrective work. And if the teacher analyzes the tasks in detail with the first group, the second, which has great abilities, will lose interest in these classes. And the organization of additional classes with the third group after the end of the lessons may not only not bring positive results, but vice versa - weaken the already weakened body of the child, because the process of learning is given to him with difficulty. Thus, increasing the load may not only not help in solving problems, but also bring new ones. Therefore, the teacher must differentiate assistance to students depending on the reasons that caused poor progress.

4. Ways to prevent and eliminate poor progress

The problem of underachievement always worried all teachers. Leading educators and psychologists are trying to find ways to deal with academic failure. In order for this struggle to be effective, the teacher simply needs to know the reasons for the failure of students. At the same time, the situation can be complicated by the fact that academic failure is caused not by one, but by a number of reasons. In this case, the solution of one problem will not give a positive result as a whole. It is necessary to use a whole range of measures. Moreover, it is also important to take into account the individual characteristics of each lagging schoolchild, i.e., what type of lagging behind each of them belongs to. It is the combination of this knowledge that will allow the teacher to improve the performance of the class as a whole and of each student individually. Having determined the type of the lagging student, having clarified to the end all the reasons why this lag occurred, the teacher must develop a special program for correcting poor progress. It should include both additional classes with a teacher in the classroom, and self-preparation of the underachiever. Moreover, self-training should include not only independent work of the student, but also work with the help of parents and stronger classmates. In a programme must be taken into account:

1) the total amount of material to be worked out;

2) the nature of the selected material - easy or difficult, descriptive or analytical, what does it have to do with the material currently being covered;

3) the volume and degree of difficulty of this current material;

4) load on other subjects;

5) the state of health of the student;

6) his attitude to learning, the degree of personal organization, the ability to work independently;

7) family and living conditions; possible help from the teacher, family, comrades;

8) the period during which the student must complete the developed program.

Accordingly, in the program, the educational material must be divided into portions with an indication of the time frame for each portion to be worked out. Also, the program should contain instructions not only on what needs to be worked out and in what terms, but also how to work rationally, bearing in mind the large amount of material, the limited time frame and (in case of lagging behind due to illness) the student’s health that has not yet fully recovered. In addition, it is necessary that the program is in the hands of the student. This is very important both for business reasons - the student receives guidance for work, and for psychological reasons - he clearly sees the prospect of successfully completing his hard work, first distant, and then more and more approaching, and this mobilizes and gives strength. And, of course, the teacher must systematically control the process of program implementation. However, pedagogical practice shows that the most effective way to deal with poor progress is not to correct it, but to prevent it. If the teacher knows the reasons that can cause failure in the classroom, this will help him eliminate some of them already in preparation for the lesson. It is incomparably easier to prevent students from lagging behind than to deal with gaps in their knowledge later.

5. Indicators of the quality of the learning process and didactic directions for its improvement

The main indicators of the quality of the learning process are evaluation и marks. Under assessment understand the characteristics of the value, level or significance of any objects or processes. Estimate - it means to establish the level, degree or quality of something. The assessment is based on the information available and the results of the control carried out. Concepts "ratings" и "marks" close enough, but not identical. Evaluation - the concept is broader and more capacious, since it expresses the qualitative state of the student's preparedness, while the mark gives only a conditional quantitative characteristic of it. Mark - this is the result of evaluative reasoning, expressed by a score. Evaluation of knowledge as an indicator of the quality of education is one of the most controversial and debatable in the entire problem of knowledge accounting. This issue causes many difficulties in the practice of subject teachers, although it is a strong stimulating tool for students and is of great educational importance, provided that it is properly applied in the conditions of the pedagogical process. In fact, assessment in the educational system should only characterize the knowledge of students. It should not be presented as a reward or a means of punishment. In connection with grading, the words and instructions of the teacher should serve as encouragement or reprimand. In addition, marks should be given as objectively as possible. Both overestimation and excessive severity are considered unacceptable. General criteria for assessing students' knowledge are contained in programs that establish the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities that students should have in a given subject in each particular class. Assessment standards should be clearly defined, as they relate to the specific knowledge, skills and abilities of students in the subjects. When grading for a quarter, the teacher's daily observation of the student should play the most important role. The grade cannot be set as some kind of arithmetic mean, the teacher must certainly take into account the following requirements to students' knowledge

1) independence of thinking;

2) systematic knowledge;

3) activity;

4) the degree of disclosure of the material;

5) exactingness;

6) taking into account the age and individual characteristics of the student.

When conducting school exams, the teacher usually asks a series of questions, thereby trying to give an opportunity to a strong student to show his knowledge, as well as to additionally test the knowledge of a weak student. At present, mainly in the primary grades of general education schools, education is carried out without marks with detailed evaluative reasoning of the teacher and the group of students (according to Sh. A. Amonashvili). In an effort to prevent or eliminate the negative psychological impact of a deuce on a student, some teachers provide a student who received a deuce with the opportunity at any next lesson to correct it with a carefully prepared answer on the material for which he was given a deuce (according to V. F. Shatalov).

6. The main characteristics of the quality of knowledge

The quality of students' knowledge is checked using learning control (checking and evaluating learning outcomes). In a broad sense control is a test of something. In learning activities, control provides external feedback (control performed by the teacher) and internal feedback (student self-control). The systematic implementation of control allows the teacher to bring into the system the material learned by schoolchildren over a certain period, to identify success in learning, gaps and shortcomings in the knowledge, skills and abilities of individual students and the class as a whole. Control has an important educational and developmental value, contributing to the comprehensive study of schoolchildren by the teacher, expanding, deepening and improving knowledge, skills, and developing the cognitive interests of students.

Each student, actively participating in the control process, not only answers the teacher's questions and completes his tasks, but also comprehends the answers of his comrades, makes adjustments to them, and performs additional work on insufficiently mastered material.

Control is characterized by great educational value, since it increases the responsibility for the work performed not only by students, but also by the teacher, accustoms students to systematic work and accuracy in the performance of educational tasks.

There are certain requirements to the organization of control over the educational activities of students.

1. The individual nature of control, which requires control over the work of each student, over his personal educational activities, which does not allow the results of the teaching of individual students to be replaced by the results of the work of the team.

2. Systematic, regular control at all stages of the learning process, its combination with other aspects of the students' learning activities.

3. A variety of forms of conducting, ensuring the fulfillment of the teaching, developing and educating functions of control, increasing the interest of students in its conduct and results.

4. Comprehensiveness, which means that the control should cover all sections of the curriculum, provide a test of theoretical knowledge, intellectual and practical skills and abilities of students.

5. Objectivity of control, excluding deliberate, subjective and erroneous value judgments and conclusions of the teacher, based on insufficient study of schoolchildren or a biased attitude towards some of them.

6. A differentiated approach that takes into account the characteristics of each academic subject and its individual sections.

7. The unity of the requirements of teachers exercising control over the educational work of students in this class.

Consequently, in the process of control, the teacher can make a certain characteristic of the quality of knowledge of each student and group of students. This has its structure.

1. Orientation of the student in this subject (the ability to demonstrate the acquired knowledge).

2. Isolation of this subject from a number of others and the relationship of this subject with other sciences.

3. The ability to find application of the acquired knowledge in everyday life.

4. The ability to compare different subjects with each other and with their accumulated life experience (this stage should become fundamental when the student graduates from an educational institution).

7. Formation of students' readiness for self-study

Depending on the nature of the organization of the educational process, one can distinguish two main types of student activity. The first observed in the classroom, where the leading role is played by the teacher. The second type activity is revealed in the process of independent work in the classroom or at home. This type of activity is called self-learning. Didacts highlight the necessary and sufficient elements that make up self-learning: clarification of the purpose of the forthcoming work (the motivating activity of the teacher plays an important role here), planning the progress of its implementation; selection of means and methods its implementation, implementation of self-control and self-regulation of activities; introspection of results educational activity. Self-learning only at first glance it is the teacher's "magic wand", facilitating his work. In fact, to organize this kind of work, the teacher often spends more effort than in other types of work with students.

For sufficient strength, consistency, quality of knowledge acquired by students as a result of self-education, the teacher needs to create a number of conditions that ensure students' readiness for self-education. Firstly, obtaining new knowledge is impossible without the presence of basic, initial knowledge. Without such a basis, it is impossible to understand the essence of the phenomena studied later. Secondly, it is necessary as often as possible in ordinary lessons to practice the organization of independent work of schoolchildren, aimed at solving various problems and exercises in order to develop skills for applying knowledge; conducting independent observations and experiments; finding answers to teacher's questions that require not mechanical reproduction of knowledge, but their creative application in non-standard situations; assignments requiring independent work with reference literature. Thirdly, the teacher must constantly stimulate the independent cognitive activity of students, if necessary, provide assistance, form positive motives for self-learning in them. It has been noticed that the more a teacher teaches his students, and the less opportunities are given to them to independently acquire knowledge, think and act, the less energetic and fruitful the learning process becomes. Mental stress, overcoming difficulties develop the thinking of students, increase interest in learning, create a positive emotional mood among students.

The art of the teacher lies in arming students with knowledge, consistently leading them to more and more complex tasks and at the same time preparing them to perform these tasks. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the capabilities of students, their ability to independently acquire knowledge, skills and abilities. Even the slightest possibility of "intimidation" of students by self-study must be avoided. The transition to this type of work should be carefully thought out, planned in stages and presented in a proper way.

LECTURE No. 14. Characteristics of copyrighted educational programs

1. Didactic principles of K. D. Ushinsky

Ushinsky in his didactics provides for his time at a high scientific level a developed system for building the learning process at school. In this system, the leading place is occupied by his doctrine of didactic principles.

Such principles TO. D. Ushinsky thinks:

1) timeliness;

2) gradualness;

3) limitation;

4) constancy;

5) hardness of assimilation;

6) clarity;

7) self-activity of the student;

8) the absence of excessive tension and excessive lightness;

9) morality;

10) utility.

An analysis of the content of each of them clearly shows that under "morality" K. D. Ushinsky understood the educative nature of education, under "usefulness" - the connection of education with life, under "timeliness" and "limitation" - natural conformity in education, and under the rest " conditions" - what we call the didactic principles of teaching.

K. D. Ushinsky considered the main didactic principles:

1) the consciousness and activity of students in the learning process ("clarity", "self-activity of the student") - K. D. Ushinsky understood that the psychological content of the principle of consciousness makes the learning process active, i.e. ensures the activity of each student in the entire learning process; therefore, both consciousness and activity are inseparable from each other: activity is the form in which the student's conscious learning takes place. If learning does not accompany understanding, awareness of the entire content of learning, the whole process is only mechanical cramming, drill, and learning becomes passive;

2) visibility in learning - for K. D. Ushinsky, visibility is not some kind of "higher" or "universal" principle of learning, capable of replacing even a teacher, as representatives of the so-called "free education" often pointed out, but one of such learning conditions, which, under the guidance of a teacher, along with other conditions, ensures that students receive solid, full-fledged knowledge;

3) consistency ("graduality", "absence of excessive tension and excessive lightness") - the main task of this principle for Ushinsky is to build the entire learning process on the basis that it gradually, in a certain sequence, develops a unified system of knowledge and skills among students;

4) the strength of knowledge and skills ("hardness of assimilation") - special exercises are of great importance for consolidating knowledge and skills.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that K. D. Ushinsky, who considered all learning as a single process, pointed out that these didactic principles cannot exist independently, in their pure form, and in the learning process they are organically intertwined with each other and determine each other. Thus, the correctly used principle of visibility is at the same time the bearer of the principle of consciousness and activity of students, and the strength of assimilation of knowledge, etc., and, conversely, any consciousness in the learning process inevitably leads to the activity of students, to solid knowledge, etc. e. However, each principle has its own characteristics and its own patterns, without which it is impossible to build training correctly.

2. Didactic cycle of the learning process Frolov

Any activities consists of three parts:

1) orienting and motivational;

2) operational-executive;

3) reflective-evaluative.

The absence of the first part turns the activity into a chaotic accumulation of individual actions without a clear and distinct goal, when a person does not see a personal meaning in the actions performed, does not perceive them as significant, important, necessary for himself. The absence of the third part also leads to the loss of the purpose of the activity, since the person does not have the ability to assess his gradual progress towards the desired result, the possibility of achieving it, the prospects and consequences of his behavior in the future. The success of an activity, the ability to correct it, the development of one's creative abilities and self-improvement in general become very difficult in the absence or low level of formed reflection. Therefore, learning activity, like any other, must necessarily contain all three of these components, and the most important task of education - to teach students to build their activity as a full-fledged, reasonable one, in which all three parts are balanced, sufficiently developed, realized and fully implemented. This means that all actions, including control and evaluation, are carried out by the trainee himself. The formation of educational activity as a way of actively obtaining knowledge is one of the directions for the development of the student's personality.

Specificity This method consists in the consistent and purposeful development of the activity of the students themselves (understanding the learning task, mastering the methods of active transformations of the object of assimilation, mastering the methods of self-control). On this basis, the task arises of forming an increasing independence of the transition of students from the performance of one component of educational activity to others, i.e., the formation of ways of self-organization of activity. Didactics at the present stage of development of pedagogical thought believes that the main task of the teacher in the educational process is to manage the active and conscious activity of students in the learning process. Didactic cycle in prThe learning process can be divided into the following components:

1) planning the educational process;

2) organization of students' own work and educational activities;

3) stimulating the work of students;

4) control and regulation of the educational process;

5) analysis of the results of the work.

An analysis of the lessons being conducted shows that their structure and methodology largely depend on the didactic goals and tasks that are solved in the learning process, as well as on the means that the teacher has at his disposal. Teachers in the learning process seek to instill in the student a certain baggage of cultural values. In addition, the learning process is directly aimed at the socialization of the individual, but sometimes learning conflicts with the true interests of the student.

Education in our terms, it is part of the process of personality formation.

LECTURE No. 15. The teacher in the learning process

Pedagogical science in relation to the teacher acts simultaneously in prescriptive and explanatory functions, in addition, the connecting link between them is the work in practice of the teacher himself. The success of education and training directly depends on the effectiveness of the work of those who organize and manage the pedagogical process - teachers. In this regard, all sections of pedagogical activity are called upon to serve the teacher, giving him the means to work with students. But given that each teacher deals with many different situations and objects in their various combinations, then it is his duty to be not just a consistent executor of recommendations, but also a kind of creator of the pedagogical process. At present, a teacher cannot work, guided only by his own experience and initiative.

There are various materials, the purpose of which is to get an idea of ​​how and what to teach - curricula, programs, recommendations for teachers, textbooks, etc.

These manuals, on the one hand, are the applied result of pedagogical science, on the other hand, they are a project of educational activities developed on the basis of many scientific works and designed to fulfill the most important goals. In addition, a significant guideline in the work of each teacher is the best experience of other teachers. From the point of view of modern didactics, the main task of the teacher in the educational process is to manage the conscious and active activities of students. Examples of such management are: planning the educational process, organizing one's own work, organizing the educational activities of students, stimulating and intensifying the work of students, monitoring and regulating the educational process, and analyzing the results of the work done.

1. Planning the educational process

Planning the educational process It is subdivided into drawing up thematic and lesson plans of work. Such plans are regularly published in various methodological journals. In the lesson plans, the teacher sets tasks (cognitive, developmental and educational), as well as the main questions used when studying new material, repeating and consolidating what has already been covered, marking exercises for practical activities in the classroom, assignments for homework and methodological materials that are used in lesson.

General organizational work teachers can be divided into two stages.

1. Preparatory.

2. Executive.

Preparatory stage - preparation of visual didactic aids, handouts, search and selection of the necessary reference literature, preliminary preparation of tasks and exercises to test the knowledge of students and the formation of the necessary skills, selection and involvement of students in educational work to check the quality of assimilation of the material covered.

Executive stage - directly the activity of the teacher in the lesson and the organization of the activity of students associated with it (both active and passive).

Planning of educational work. The essence of planning lies in the rational distribution in time of the collective and individual labor of school employees necessary to achieve the goals. It is intended to reveal the content, functions and interaction of both individual school units and the entire system of school work as a whole and indicate practical measures aimed at the implementation of the tasks set.

Planning efficiency and the implementation of the planned activities depend on the observance of a number of conditions, primarily on the ability to analyze the results of the educational work of the school for the previous academic year. Here, an objective assessment of the quality of students' knowledge, their upbringing, skills and abilities of educational work and other types of activity, the development of intellectual forces and abilities of schoolchildren is of decisive importance. Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of students' quarterly tests, exam results, determining the level of knowledge, skills and abilities, studying the materials of methodological associations, pedagogical councils, production meetings, as well as studying the correlation of quantitative indicators with qualitative characteristics of the educational process and its results.

Long-term planning of school activities This is long term planning. An equally important condition for effective planning is a clear idea of ​​the prospects for the development of the school for the year and the next few years, the definition of the main goals and main tasks of the team, their real refraction on the scale of the district, city, region.

The development of a school-wide team is unthinkable without determining the long-term perspective of work, substantiating the long-term goals of teaching and educational activities, creative searches for more effective forms and methods of it, and establishing sustainable features of the work of this school in the next five years.

The five-year work plan of the school provides for the most significant indicators: the movement of the contingent of students; retraining and advanced training of teaching staff; system of pedagogical education of parents; transfer of students to the extended day mode. An important place is occupied by the development of measures to strengthen the educational and material base of the school, improve the living conditions, work and recreation of teachers and students.

Particular attention is paid to the creation of an educational and material base for labor training and the organization of socially useful, productive work of students. When developing long-term plans, it is necessary to take into account the progressive complication of the content of all educational work and the age characteristics of schoolchildren.

The complexity of such planning lies in the fact that the educational process goes beyond the class, the lesson, receiving its logical development in various forms of extracurricular and extracurricular activities and in the independent work of students. Life dictates the need for a holistic approach to the upbringing and development of the child, the construction of a single, integrated system of educational influences of the school, family and community.

The main task of planning is the focus of the teaching staff of the school on improving the efficiency of the quality of work.

2. Pedagogical diagnostics

First, the the adjective "pedagogical" characterizes the following features of this diagnosis. Pedagogical diagnostics is carried out for pedagogical purposes, that is, it is focused on obtaining new information on how to improve the quality of education and the development of the student's personality based on the analysis and interpretation of its results.

Second, the it provides fundamentally new meaningful information about the quality of the pedagogical work of the teacher himself.

Thirdly, it is carried out using methods that organically fit into the logic of the teacher's pedagogical activity.

Fourth, with the help of pedagogical diagnostics, the control and evaluation functions of the teacher's activity are strengthened.

Fifth, even some traditionally used means and methods of teaching and upbringing can be transformed into means and methods of pedagogical diagnostics.

In different types of activity, individual personality traits are formed. They most clearly appear in the goals of activity, in motives or incentives for activity (for the sake of which a person sets himself chosen goals), in the methods, means and ways that are used to achieve the goal, and in how a person relates to his activity.

Therefore, in the formation of personality, its orientation is distinguished. It includes motives such as needs and interests.

So, every teacher knows that in teaching any subject there are such tasks and tasks, on the basis of which it is possible to diagnose not only knowledge, skills, but also creative abilities and other personal qualities. For example, a problem in physics: come up with as many ways as possible to measure the acceleration of a car, justify your proposals - it has exceptionally great diagnostic power. Some students give up to ten solutions. And depending on the number of proposed solutions, originality, evidence, based on this example, it is possible to diagnose and rank the level of creative abilities of almost all students.

Along with diagnostic methods, such as purposeful observations of students, interview-type conversation, pedagogical testing has become more and more actively used in recent years.

Rules of pedagogical diagnostics.

1. Indicate the school, class, number of students, subject, Name teacher and the one who conducted the diagnostics, testing.

2. Formulate the goals and objectives of diagnostics, testing.

3. Determine the form of registration and collection of primary materials for diagnostics and testing.

4. Process and present diagnostic results in the form of diagrams, tables, diagrams.

5. Analyze and interpret the results obtained, explain their meaning.

6. Give an overall assessment, formulate pedagogical conclusions and recommendations.

7. Indicate where and how the results of diagnostics, testing can be used (for students, parents, teachers, education authorities).

For pedagogical diagnostics and identification of reserve opportunities for the quality of teachers' work, various methods can be applied: conversations such as interviews, tests, systematic observations.

3. ​​Individual approach in the system of didactic principles

Each student, in addition to the general ones, has his own individual properties. The specificity of knowledge, will, feelings, personality traits of a student can both positively and negatively affect the course of teaching, and may remain neutral. For example, a mobile student can be very attentive in class, which means that this feature of his temperament is neutral in relation to learning.

Interest in technology, design, independent creativity helps the child to learn successfully. And the innate inability to think abstractly slows down the process of mastering knowledge.

So there is a need for differentiation and individualization of training.

A differentiated approach allows you to make the most of the individual characteristics and abilities of each student individually. An individual approach for lagging behind and poorly performing students allows you to bring them to the level of well-performing children. For this, additional classes are organized, individual or group organization in the lesson is possible.

An individual approach to well-performing students allows them to use their abilities more productively and prevent the loss of interest in studying the subject.

To implement a differentiated approach to teaching, the teacher must constantly study the individual characteristics of the individual, the conditions in which the child lives. In addition, it is necessary to clearly define what features of temperament have a positive, negative and neutral effect on the student's activities and to determine the means of an individual approach with which the implementation of training is possible.

Individual approach is one of the types of organization of work by a teacher. This is a type of work that takes into account the individual characteristics of students in order to involve them in the learning process. With an individual approach, the learning process takes into account mental abilities of students, their psychological characteristics, physical endurance.

The individual form of organization of educational activities provides for the direct work of the teacher with each student. Such work is characterized by a high level of independence, appropriate preparation of students, etc. It is carried out with programmed learning. The teacher, when working individually with students, should take into account the following provisions: the mental and physical abilities of students are not the same; the student is always individual, original, and there are no universal teaching methods; it is important to determine what each student is capable of at the moment of educational activity, and how to develop existing abilities; you cannot demand the impossible from a student; it is necessary to reveal all the possibilities of each student, to give him the joy of success in mental work; it is important to determine the individual path of success in the study and mental work of each student.

Individual work with students - laborious, but, in the end, productive occupation. This work is based on a differentiated approach to students. First of all, it is necessary to find out the individual characteristics of each student, and then begin to develop various options for individual work in the lesson. In this case, the level of knowledge, skills and abilities of each student must be taken into account. For independent work of students, task cards containing various options should be used so that each student completes his individual task. It is advisable to use task cards for practical tasks in almost every lesson.

To fill gaps in students' knowledge and eliminate factual errors, it is very effective to use a variety of self-control techniques, algorithmic and programmed exercises, since in them the material is divided into logical stages, doses. In each option, the most difficult questions that can cause errors are highlighted, and the simplest ones are left for independent decision, to identify the causes of misunderstanding of the material. In the system of exercises, moving from work under the direct supervision of the teacher to partial and further to completely independent work, students gradually cope with tasks of varying degrees of complexity. At the same time, the difficulty of the task and the degree of independence of its implementation gradually increase depending on the success of the previous task. The results of this painstaking work will be felt quite quickly. Individualized learning needs to be applied in all grades, but the younger the students, the more important individualized learning becomes.

In modern conditions of education, the study of the individual characteristics of children and the organization of an individual approach are becoming increasingly important. Modern living conditions provide a wide range of additional means, in addition to the school, to fulfill the tasks of the comprehensive development of the younger generation.

Children's radio programs, children's literature, and theater are of great cognitive importance. The culture and well-being of the family is increasing, which significantly affects the level of upbringing of children. In one family, a child is taught to be independent and discipline. In the other, the child is spoiled, does not want to do anything on his own. In the third - the child can be left to himself, and in his upbringing much depends on the group of children with whom he is friends.

4. Pedagogical tact and its role in learning

One of features of pedagogical work lies in the fact that he must protect and preserve the little man. This specific feature requires the teacher to have high pedagogical skills and a special pedagogical tact. In his work “How to educate a person”, V. A. Sukhomlinsky, summarizing the experience of educational work with students, writes: “The work of a teacher is incomparable and incomparable to anything. to see the subject of his creation… Every minute, every moment, the teacher must see each of his thirty or forty students, know what he is thinking at that moment…”

V. A. Sukhomlinsky emphasized that there should not be a single teacher in the school who would be burdened by the work of a teacher: "... a teacher must have a huge talent for philanthropy and boundless love for his work and, above all, for children ..."

Pedagogical tact and mastery of teaching are made up of a number of components, which include scientific knowledge in pedagogy and psychology, i.e., first of all, pedagogical knowledge, professional abilities, pedagogical ethics and pedagogical technique.

5. Pedagogical excellence

Pedagogical excellence - this is the possession of professional knowledge, skills and abilities that allow the teacher to solve pedagogical situations in accordance with the tasks that the teacher and the school as a whole face.

The basis of pedagogical tact is the general moral upbringing of the teacher. Pedagogical tact - this is a kind of implementation of pedagogical ethics in relation to students. Pedagogical tact - this is such a moral behavior of a teacher, which includes high humanity, sensitivity to a person, self-control, endurance, the ability to establish friendly relations in any situation. A teacher with pedagogical tact skillfully regulates his relations with students, parents, and work colleagues. In pedagogical tact, first of all, deep respect for a person is manifested. The teacher deals with the emerging personality of the student, and all his relations with the children should be based on the principle: as much exactingness to the person as possible and as much respect for him as possible.

A number of professional skills are associated with pedagogical tact. These are the ability to assess the pedagogical situation, to take into account the characteristics of the student, to foresee the possible effect that the pedagogical impact causes. Pedagogical tact is a sign of high pedagogical skill. Mastering tact requires a great and thoughtful work of the teacher on himself. The teacher must learn to constantly control his actions, be able to look, gesture to show his attitude to the actions of students. That is, pedagogical tact also implies that the teacher himself has purely external skills of expressing his feelings. Such a set of skills is an integral part of pedagogical skill and is called pedagogical technique.

Pedagogical technique allows the teacher to choose the right tone in communicating with students and their parents. Tone, style of relations with children, the correct choice of diction, facial expressions, gestures - all this is included in the concept of pedagogical technology.

LECTURE No. 16. Innovative educational processes

1. Innovation policy

In the innovation policy in the field of didactics, the following areas are distinguished:

1) forecast, analysis and evaluation of the main trends in the development of the school;

2) analysis of the content and overcoming important disagreements and problems in the process of functioning of the educational system of the school;

3) creation of a system of additional education and advanced education;

4) raising the level of educational culture of teachers in schools;

5) creation of organizational and legal acts and scientific and methodological support for the complex of targeted development programs implemented at the school;

6) creation and development of the socio-educational region of the school.

The innovative educational system involves the following tasks:

1) the formation in the minds of students of a holistic and scientifically based picture of the world - this should be the focus of the educational process and extracurricular activities;

2) the development of an active character and creativity in the younger generation;

3) the formation of civic consciousness, patriotism, responsibility for the fate of the motherland;

4) introducing students to universal values;

5) the formation of self-awareness, pedagogical support for the student's personal self-organization.

The state of innovative activity in the school at the moment can be observed in the following examples: the content of education, approbation of textbooks, teaching technology, methodological support, management of experimental, creative sites. The main criteria for innovative activity in the education system:

1) free access of students to large volumes of information, familiarization with culture, creativity;

2) preservation of the physical, mental and moral health of children;

3) the ability of the education system to include social programs aimed at solving the life problems of students;

4) the ability of innovative transformations to adapt to the needs of each child, to individualize education and upbringing, to determine an approach that ensures the psychological comfort of the student in the educational process;

5) democratic arrangement of joint coexistence of students and teachers; the ability of the school to provide a level of education that meets the requirements of universal morality and the achievements of students, manifested in cultural self-development.

2. Main forms of innovation activity

The main forms of innovation activity.

1. Individual experimental and innovative activities of teachers (individual reports).

2. Diagnostic plans, reports.

3. Seminars, meetings of departments, centers, councils (work plans, reports).

4. Scheduled consultations of teachers and the work of various creative groups.

5. Development of new local acts, scientific, methodological and managerial support for the educational activities of the school.

6. Scientific and practical conferences, open seminars, advanced training and retraining courses for teachers, etc.

Examples of innovation in the didactics and content of school education: the study of hygienic norms of the educational process at school, recreational and educational programs in the academic year.

3. Intensification of the learning process

With changes in society, priorities in the education system also change. Rigid centralization, monopolization and politicization of education are being replaced by tendencies to variability, individuality. A person in this consideration is the center and goal of education, taking into account his needs, interests, value attitude to the level and quality of education. In connection with the active penetration of the latest information technologies in the field of education, the problem of intensifying the learning process is more acute than ever. This is due to the increasing volume of information, the need to process it in a limited period of time, and extremely stringent requirements for school graduates. Intensification is listed in the encyclopedic dictionary as "intensification, increase in tension, productivity, efficiency." Different authors of pedagogical research offer different interpretations of the concept of "intensification of education". Yu. K. Babansky understands intensification as "an increase in the productivity of the teacher and student in each unit of time." S.I. Archangel defines the intensification of the educational process as "improving the quality of education and simultaneously reducing time costs." Intensification goals should be in line with the following requirements:

1) be tense, focused on the maximum possibilities of students and thus should cause high activity;

2) be achievable, real; overestimated goals lead to "self-disconnection" from solving the tasks;

3) conscious, otherwise they do not become a guide to activity;

4) promising, specific, taking into account the real learning opportunities of the team;

5) plastic, changing with changing conditions and opportunities for their achievement.

The goal of intensive learning consists of specific tasks. Educational tasks are the formation of knowledge and practical skills; educational - the formation of a worldview, moral, aesthetic, physical and other qualities of a person. Development tasks include the development of thinking, will, emotions, needs, abilities of the individual. The main factors of training intensification are the following:

1) increasing the purposefulness of training;

2) strengthening the motivation for learning;

3) increasing the informative capacity of the content of education;

4) application of active methods and forms of education;

5) accelerating the pace of learning activities;

6) development of skills of educational work;

7) use of computer and other technical means.

The most important principles of the intensive learning process include:

1) the principle of motivation;

2) the principle of awareness;

3) the principle of activity programming;

4) the principle of assessing the assimilation of activities;

4) the principle of independence in cognition;

5) the principle of activity.

X. Abley believes that learning requires the release of energy and motivation. The success of training is determined by three most important factors: mental abilities, its motivation in relation to the goals of training, learning and work techniques (teaching methods).

4. Principles of designing the learning process

The main task of didactics is to search for various options for the schemes of the educational process in order to come to the most effective and theoretically justified way for students to move from ignorance to knowledge. The solution of this problem is reduced to the disclosure of the principles of designing the learning process, the identification of the components - links of the educational process with their specific functions. Note that in each link the general tasks of learning are realized: the assimilation of knowledge, the development of thinking and speech of students, imagination, memory, etc. At the same time, each individual link performs specific functions. For example: on one segment of the educational process, the main task is to explain the teacher, the perception and understanding of new material by students, on the other - the analysis of assimilation and assessment of students' knowledge. With the correct formulation of the test and assessment of knowledge, all students without exception, each of them mentally reproduces the necessary knowledge, listens with acceptable criticism to the answer of the one called to the board, carefully monitors the implementation of the experiment, and is ready to continue this experiment at any moment. From the foregoing, it follows that in each link, general and specific learning functions are uniquely combined.

link - a separate component of the learning process, which is a coil of its spiral movement. Each link can be characterized by a special type of cognitive activity of students in accordance with its specific functions. Full knowledge, abilities and skills, a high level of general development of students and their ideological orientation are achieved in the work of those teachers who have perfectly mastered the principles of designing the educational process and operate with options for combining its links. In general, the educational process turns out to be fruitless when an individual link is inferior, but the correct implementation of individual processes located randomly does not bring a positive effect both in terms of the assimilation of knowledge and the overall development of students. The links of the educational process include:

1) statement of the problem and awareness of cognitive tasks;

2) the perception of objects and phenomena, the formation of concepts, the development of observation, imagination and thinking of students;

3) consolidation and improvement of knowledge, instilling skills and abilities; application of knowledge, skills and abilities;

4) analysis of students' achievements, verification and evaluation of their knowledge and identification of the level of mental development.

The learning process in a particular subject area is characterized by a certain sequence, a natural transition from one facts, concepts and laws to others. The material of each individual topic, learned by students, is designed to lead them to new, more complex topics. The integrity of the educational process is supported by the unity of the leading ideas of science, which manifest themselves as new material is studied. All teaching is conducted from the contemplated to the understood, from the concrete to the abstract, from the phenomenon to the principle or law, from the facts to the theory.

5. Use of programmed learning in school

In modern didactics, depending on the nature of the organization of the learning process, the following can be distinguished: types of training: explanatory-illustrative, problem-based and programmed learning. Distinctive features of these methods lie in the nature of the cognitive activity of students, organized and directed by the teacher. Programmed learning is defined as a didactic system in which the educational process is carried out by the teacher according to a specially designed individual program containing the planned educational material, divided into small portions and instructions on the procedure and nature of the actions of each student and allowing constant monitoring of the assimilation of educational material. In program teaching, the teacher reports the first part of the material and explains it, poses a control question, and reports the second part of the material. The basic ideas of programmed learning are not new. The impetus for their development and integration into a system was some discrepancy between the state of the so-called traditional teaching methods and the growth in the amount of knowledge to be mastered.

With all the effectiveness of individual learning, traditional teaching methods do not give up their positions (they are advantageous due to their mass character). In the conditions of the class-lesson system, the teacher does not have the opportunity to completely switch to individual learning, therefore, when building a lesson, he focuses on the "average" student. It is also not possible to monitor the stage-by-stage level of assimilation of new material. That is why it became necessary to create a new method in which the material is given not in a continuous stream, but in small, logically interconnected doses. The quality of assimilation of each such dose is checked in a timely manner. That is, speaking in terms of cybernetics, the method of programmed learning provides a stable feedback in the learning process. That is, a distinctive feature of programmed learning is the individualization of the educational process in the classroom system. Programmed learning is defined as an operationally controlled formation of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Like other methods, programmed learning, along with undeniable advantages, has a number of disadvantages. This type of work is not universal for each class, therefore, it requires the development of its own approach to each educational team, a careful step-by-step study of the entire course of the lesson, a clear and indisputable logic of presentation of the material. And this, in turn, requires the expenditure of not only physical strength, but also time.

Also, positive results with this type of work are achieved with the appropriate equipment of the teacher and students with technical teaching aids, which is not always possible to implement. The introduction of new information technologies into the teacher's practice (the creation of computer classes, the use of electronic textbooks and training programs) will allow the teacher to use programmed learning in his daily work, which will allow him to move on to more individual work with students.

6. Selection of material for the organization of problem lessons, requirements for it

Schoolchildren should be taught to apply their knowledge and skills, preparing them for future activities. Educational activity should be creative, which corresponds to problem-based learning. Thinking always begins with a problem situation. Problem situations reflect the presence of certain contradictions of objective reality, which manifest themselves, in particular, in scientific and educational processes. From a didactic point of view problem situation - this is a means designed by the teacher and the form of educational activity of students organized by him, causing them cognitive difficulty, overcoming which becomes the motive of creative thinking. Psychologically problem situation - this is a conscious difficulty, the overcoming of which requires a creative search. Without awareness of the presence of difficulties, there is no need for search, and without the need for search, creative thinking does not develop.

The prerequisites for the ability to see and solve problems are created by the entire learning process, which ensures the assimilation of a fairly wide range of knowledge and skills. Students must learn to apply previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities in new situations, see problems in a familiar situation, see the structure of an object (problem conditions), see a new function of an object, look for alternative solutions, combine new ones from known solutions. Cognitive abilities can be formed in schoolchildren only in the process of solving problematic tasks on the basis of acquired knowledge.

When studying new material, the teacher must choose which method of problem-based learning he will use. Here, the main method of problem-based learning is the research method. When using it in the learning process, the teacher includes problematic tasks of an increasing level of complexity, which students must solve on their own. These tasks have a wide variety of forms: text tasks, long-term research tasks, critical analysis of works of art, conducting an experiment, etc.

heuristic method - here the presentation of educational material by the teacher and the creative search of students are combined. However, this creative search does not refer to the process of solving the problem by students as a whole, but only to one or some of its stages. The teacher's task here is to report specially selected facts, and students must draw conclusions from them.

The next method of problem-based learning is a problem-based presentation of the material. The problematic presentation differs from the information presentation in that the teacher selects and sets out scientific problems, discoveries not in their completed form, but tells the process of solving the problem, the history of the discovery, briefly reproduces the path to evidence-based knowledge and the discovery of new scientific knowledge. The problem statement makes higher demands on the teacher's knowledge in the relevant field of science. He must be fluent in the educational material, know in what ways the corresponding science came to the truth.

As a result, if the teacher has correctly chosen the material and method of problem-based learning, then all this will have a strong educational impact on students.

7. Development of cognitive independence in problem-based learning

Regardless of where informant teaching finds its application - in primary, secondary or high school - it is possible to identify characteristics that are compared with the corresponding features of problem-based learning.

Communicative teaching is based on the transfer of ready-made information to students by teachers or a textbook, as well as on the more or less effective memorization of it by students. There are various forms for this transmission: dialogue, speech, lecture, book. The second characteristic feature of communicating teaching is the emergence of gaps, unexpected difficulties. That is, students can lose focus and miss out on some of the information. Another feature often cited when showing the negatives of informal teaching is the difficulty of applying the same pace of learning to students. It often happens that the teacher focuses on strong students, but the weak can only keep up with them. In solving problems as a whole class, there are significant difficulties in choosing the pace of work for capable, average and less capable students. They are more easily overcome in group work, since everyone in the group solving the problem must be active. Group work it also helps to check the results achieved, the group knows how all its members work, and in case of low activity of some students, they can be replaced by others.

Another characteristic feature of traditional teaching is associated with difficulties in monitoring learning outcomes. Not all students are able to learn all the information in the lesson, so they have to finish learning a lot at home on their own. In this situation, the percentage of assimilation of knowledge depends on the individual qualities of the student himself - on the level of development, activity and interest of the student in this topic.

Currently, this teaching is called problematic. Problem teaching is not based on the transfer of ready-made information, but on the acquisition of new knowledge and skills by students by solving theoretical and practical problems. An essential characteristic of this teaching is the research activity of the student, which appears in a certain situation and forces him to ask himself questions-problems, formulate hypotheses and test them in the course of mental and practical operations. This activity is most often directed towards reality and, when it comes to solving practical problems, even leads to its transformation.

The didactic process is based here on an independent search for knowledge, both those that are the very solution of the problem, and those that are acquired in the course of formulating the problem, in the process of solving and comparing the results. The solution of the problem creates the conditions for a structural approach to the education of reality. Trying to solve the problem, the student covers the entire structure with his thought, reflects on the mutual relationship of its individual elements, and then discovers the missing elements or connections between them unknown to him and thus complements the structure. A constant return to the structure contributes not only to solving the problem, but also to a solid mastery of knowledge.

8. Using gaming teaching methods as a means of mastering knowledge and testing it

Play is the main activity of school children. But even in the lives of children of primary school age, it occupies a large place and even forms a component in their new main activity - in learning. Therefore, it is necessary not to expel the game from the school, but to organize the gaming activity of younger students, using it for the purposes of education and upbringing.

In primary education, a special place is occupied by the so-called educational, or didactic games. AT The basis of such games is one or another cognitive content, mental and volitional effort of the child, aimed at solving problems, actions and rules that determine the course of the game. Didactic games use a variety of processes of mental activity, so these games are sometimes considered in accordance with the indicated processes: a game for attention, for the development of observation, etc.

The game, being interesting and similar in experience to the activities of children, contributes to the creation of a cheerful, joyful mood, the development of activity, independence and initiative of children, the strengthening of their friendship and camaraderie based on joint actions and the desire to achieve common goals. The mental effort available to the child, the activity of visual, auditory, motor analyzers, entertaining questions, surprise, appropriate jokes, imagination and the joy of movement - all this contributes to the active state of the cerebral cortex. And all this contains the game. It increases the fun of learning, encourages children to actively acquire knowledge, and contributes to the formation of learning motives.

In the learning process, the didactic game can be applied in its various parts. Puzzle games can be used to arouse children's interest in the content of the lesson and to activate their thinking. In reading lessons, the teacher uses dramatization games that encourage children to read expressively in roles. Games with circular examples and games like loto are used as exercises in consolidating certain knowledge of arithmetic.

In the first grade, children get acquainted with such geometric shapes as a circle, square, triangle, oval, etc. Usually here, children use a description instead of an exact name, "objectify" the shapes: an oval is "it's like an egg"; triangle - "like a roof". Didactic games that challenge children in an entertaining way to find objects of a given shape among the surrounding things encourage them to look more closely at their surroundings, compare and group objects according to shape.

Games are also used in imaginary travel - travel games that help students learn geographical, historical knowledge.

Pathfinder games, for example, when studying geographical areas, aim to "find" something: one group writes down the names of minerals and places of their development, the other makes a brief description of rivers and lakes, the third makes a list of plants, the fourth - the names of animals and birds living in the given area.

An important place in the learning process is occupied by spelling games that arouse students' keen interest in spelling rules. In the process of such a game, children imperceptibly practice the application of the learned rules.

LECTURE No. 17. Classification of teaching aids

1. The system of teaching aids in the educational process

In the XNUMXst century the computer is gradually gaining its place in society and becoming an integral part of any educated person, it gradually enters every family and becomes as necessary a thing in everyday life as electricity, telephone or television. The effectiveness of students learning a course in any subject area largely depends on how the educational process is organized and carried out. The main components of this process are the following:

1) scientifically based curriculum of the course;

2) well-thought-out and optimal methodology for conducting classes;

3) educational and material base (EMB) corresponding to modern trends in education;

4) necessary advanced training facilities.

Without detracting from the importance of the first two components, we can absolutely say that the leading role in the study of the course by students is played by the SLM and advanced learning tools. It should be taken into account that the system of teaching aids is individual for each subject area. The educational and material base is a set of premises, grounds and structures, which, in turn, are equipped with educational equipment and equipped simulators and various material training aids. They are used to impart skills and theoretical knowledge to trainees. The educational and material base is gradually being improved with the development of science and technology, pedagogy in relation to the needs of today and in accordance with the requirements of the mandatory documents of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. For the study room, a convenient room for classes is selected. It must not only meet sanitary and hygienic standards, but also have adjacent premises for storing various property. All theoretical and part of practical classes are held in the office (some practical classes are held in specially designated rooms). One of the most important and most common means of teaching in school is the textbook. The textbook plays a significant role in the teaching of the course, which is related to all other educational visual aids and has a great influence on the content and design of the sequence of all teaching aids. Being the central subject of the system of studying the course, the textbook fully reflects the content of knowledge that students must learn, it defines their depth and volume, as well as the content of the necessary skills and abilities. Exemplary TCO set modern classroom:

1) personal computer-multimedia;

2) universal video projector;

3) video recorder;

4) a telescanner on a video camera;

5) a microphone for the teacher;

6) teacher's control TV;

7) acoustic system;

8) control unit with remote control panel; Printer;

9) laser pointer;

10) electronic board (smart board).

Significant financial difficulties should be taken into account due to the fact that all elements of the SMB are fully created in the basic school of the district (city), and often there is simply not enough money for this. In the future, the volume and strengthening of the SBA of all schools should be gradually increased.

2. Teaching aids (TCO)

Teaching aids (TUT) is a set of technical devices and special didactic materials, the purpose of which is to improve the quality of the educational process.

Under didactic materials in this case are understood as: films, filmstrips, transparencies, codograms, sound recordings, special computer programs. Due to the fact that the intensity of the educational process increases with the combination of verbal-logical and visual methods of transferring knowledge, special visual aids correspond to the verbal explanations of the teacher.

The student learns the world around him, like any person, with the help of the senses. However, note that the throughput of different channels is not the same. Here are just the main channels for obtaining information: auditory analyzer, visual analyzer.

The considered ear-brain system is capable of transmitting up to 50 bits per second. The throughput of the visual analyzer is much greater. Studies show that students receive information in different ways: 90% - with the help of vision, 9% - with the help of hearing, and only 1% - with the help of other organs. Consider this issue from a different point of view, namely: what part of the information remains in the memory of the student in the form of scientific knowledge. But here, too, the visual analyzer prevails.

Types and classification of modern TSS. AT the concept of TCO includes the following components: carriers of educational information and technical devices (equipment), with the help of which this information is perceived by students. The equipment happens of two types:

1) informational (tape recorder, film projector, radio, TV, VCR);

2) universal (local television systems, computer systems, simulators).

Information media can be divided into screen, sound, screen-sound and computer learning tools. Screen tools create the illusion of reality using the image on the screen. These include silent cinema, film fragments, banners, eppy objects, filmstrips, transparencies.

transparencies - images created by a photographic method on transparent glass or film. These images are projected onto the screen using a slide projector.

Banners - these are images on a transparent material that are printed (possibly manually). Demonstration on the screen occurs with the help of overhead projectors or overhead projectors. Banners can be divided into completed, unfinished and a series of banners.

eppyobjects - these are images on an opaque material projected onto a screen in reflected beams using an epiprojector. Sound teaching aids are radio broadcasts and sound recordings. Sound recordings are usually found on magnetic tape. In the 80-90s. XNUMXth century recordings were most often made on phonograph records, today the method of recording on compact discs is more common. Radio broadcasts are also a technical means of education. You can listen to them in class if the time of the lesson and the time of the broadcast coincide.

3. Independent work of students, its types

In didactics, a student's independent work is understood as his activity, which he performs without the direct participation of the teacher, but on his instructions, under his guidance and supervision. A student who has the skills of independent work, learns the educational material more actively and deeply, turns out to be better prepared for creative work, for self-education and continuing education.

Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the rapid "aging" of information necessitates continuous replenishment of knowledge. However, the spontaneous formation of rational methods of teaching, working with a book - the main source of information, as experience shows, proceeds slowly and ineffectively. Therefore, students need to be taught methods of independent study.

It is possible to distinguish such types of independent work of students, how to work with a book, educational and reference literature, compiling notes, which is a traditional and long-tested type of independent work; solving problems and performing exercises, where the independence of students' actions must be constantly monitored and verified; laboratory work and a frontal experiment, which allows you to independently find the application of the knowledge gained, work with handouts; reviewing the responses and speeches of comrades, supplementing them; preparation of reports and abstracts; observing experiments and drawing conclusions based on their results, thinking through and designing schemes and installations; production of some devices and teaching aids (posters, album schemes); performing practical tasks during excursions; setting up some experiments and making observations at home.

According to the main didactic goal, they can be divided into three groups of works aimed at:

1) acquisition and expansion of knowledge;

2) mastery of skills and abilities;

3) application of knowledge, skills, abilities.

Like many classifications in pedagogy, this division of methods is conditional, since any independent work will include all three of the above types of work. Depending on the content of the educational material, the peculiarities of its presentation in the textbook, the available equipment and other factors, the teacher plans to use in the educational process certain types of independent work of students or their combination, guided by the principles of didactics (gradual increase in difficulties, creative activity of students, differentiated approach to them, etc.).

When choosing a specific method of planned independent work, the teacher must take into account the individual characteristics of students. Tasks proposed for self-fulfillment should have a clear goal, an unambiguously defined methodology for their implementation and arouse their interest. The latter is achieved by the novelty of the content or form of the task, the disclosure of the practical significance of the issue under consideration, the research nature of the tasks.

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