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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Sociology. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
LECTURE No. 1. Sociology as a science 1. Subject, object, functions and methods of sociology Term sociology comes from two words: the Latin "societes" - "society" and the Greek "logos" - "word", "concept", "doctrine". Thus, sociology can be defined as the science of society. The same definition of this term is given by the famous American scientist J. Smelser. However, this definition is rather abstract, since many other sciences also study society in various aspects. In order to understand the features of sociology, it is necessary to determine the subject and object of this science, as well as its functions and research methods. The object any science is a part of the external reality chosen for study, which has a certain completeness and integrity. As already noted, the object of sociology is society, but at the same time science studies not its individual elements, but the whole society as an integral system. The object of sociology is a set of properties, connections and relationships that are called social. concept social can be considered in two senses: in a broad sense, it is analogous to the concept of "public"; in a narrow sense, the social represents only an aspect of social relations. Social relations develop between members of society when they occupy a certain place in its structure and are endowed with a social status. Therefore, the object of sociology is social connections, social interaction, social relations and the way they are organized. The subject science is the result of a theoretical study of a selected part of external reality. The subject of sociology cannot be defined as unambiguously as the object. This is due to the fact that throughout the historical development of sociology, views on the subject of this science have undergone significant changes. Today we can distinguish the following approaches to the definition of the subject of sociology: 1) society as a special entity, different from individuals and the state and subject to its own natural laws (O. Comte); 2) social facts, which should be understood as collective in all manifestations (E. Durkheim); 3) social behavior as a person's attitude, i.e., an internally or externally manifested position focused on an act or abstaining from it (M. Weber); 4) scientific study of society as a social system and its constituent structural elements (base and superstructure) (Marxism). In modern domestic scientific literature, the Marxist understanding of the subject of sociology is preserved. It should be noted that this is fraught with a certain danger, since the representation of society in the form of a basis and a superstructure leads to ignoring the individual and universal values, denying the world of culture. Therefore, a more rational subject of sociology should be considered society as a set of social communities, layers, groups, individuals interacting with each other. Moreover, the main mechanism of this interaction is goal-setting. So, taking into account all these features, we can determine that sociology - this is the science of general and specific social patterns of organization, functioning and development of society, ways, forms and methods of their implementation, in the actions and interactions of members of society. Like any science, sociology performs certain functions in society, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) cognitive (cognitive) - sociological research contributes to the accumulation of theoretical material about various areas of social life; 2) critical - the data of sociological researches allow to check up and estimate social ideas and practical actions; 3) applied - sociological research is always aimed at solving practical problems and can always be used to optimize society; 4) regulatory - the theoretical material of sociology can be used by the state to ensure social order and exercise control; 5) predictive - based on the data of sociological research, it is possible to make forecasts for the development of society and prevent the negative consequences of social actions; 6) ideological - sociological developments can be used by various social forces to form their position; 7) humanitarian - sociology can contribute to the improvement of social relations. Another hallmark of sociology as a science is its range of research methods. In sociology method - this is a way of constructing and substantiating sociological knowledge, a set of techniques, procedures and operations of empirical and theoretical knowledge of social reality. There are three levels of methods for studying social phenomena and processes. First level covers general scientific methods used in all humanitarian fields of knowledge (dialectical, systemic, structural-functional). Second level reflects the methods of related sociology of the humanities (normative, comparative, historical, etc.). Methods of the first and second levels are based on the universal principles of knowledge. These include the principles of historicism, objectivism and consistency. The principle of historicism involves the study of social phenomena in the context of historical development, their comparison with various historical events. The principle of objectivism means the study of social phenomena in all their contradictions; It is unacceptable to study only positive or only negative facts. The principle of consistency implies the need to study social phenomena in an inseparable unity, to identify cause-and-effect relationships. К third level include methods that characterize applied sociology (survey, observation, analysis of documents, etc.). Actually sociological methods of the third level are based on the use of a complex mathematical apparatus (probability theory, mathematical statistics). 2. Sociology in the system of the humanities It is quite obvious that if the object of sociology is society, then it is in close contact with other social and humanitarian sciences that study this area of reality. It cannot develop in isolation from them. Moreover, sociology includes a general sociological theory that can serve as the theory and methodology of all other social and human sciences. Sociological methods of studying society, its elements, members and their interactions are actively used today in many other sciences, for example, political science, psychology, anthropology. At the same time, the dependence of sociology itself on these sciences is obvious, since they significantly enrich its theoretical base. Another significant reason for the close relationship between many social and humanitarian sciences, including sociology, is their common origin. Thus, many independent social sciences originated within the framework of social philosophy, which, in turn, was a branch of general philosophy. Close connection sociology and social philosophy manifests itself primarily in a very wide area of coincidence of the object of study. However, there are significant differences between these sciences, which make it possible to single out sociology as an independent science. First of all, it is the subject of research. If sociology is aimed at studying the social relationships of members of society, then social philosophy explores social life from the point of view of a worldview approach. Even more, these sciences are different in the method of research of their subject area. Thus, social philosophy is focused on general philosophical methods, which is reflected in the theoretical nature of the research results. Sociology, on the other hand, mainly uses sociological methods proper, which makes the results of the study more practical. However, these differences only emphasize the independence of sociology as a science, but do not diminish the importance of its relationship with social philosophy. Based on specific historical realities, social philosophy seeks to identify general trends and patterns. Sociology, using the knowledge of these regularities, analyzes the place and role of a person in the life of society, his interaction with other members of society within various social institutions, explores the specifics of communities of different types and levels. communication sociology with history is also the closest and most necessary. In addition to the common object of study, these sciences also have common research problems. So, both sociology and history in the process of research are confronted with the presence of certain social patterns, on the one hand, and with the existence of individual, unique phenomena and processes that significantly change the trajectory of historical movement, on the other. The successful solution of this problem in both sciences is a priority, and therefore each of them can use the successful experience of the other. In addition, the historical method is quite in demand in sociology. The use of the achievements of sociology in historical science is also of great importance, since it allows historians to analyze historical phenomena from the standpoint of a descriptive-factual approach. The accumulated statistical material makes it possible to more fully reveal the essence of historical processes and phenomena and rise to broad and deep historical generalizations. An important component of social life is material production. This results in a close relationship sociology with economics. Moreover, in the system of sociological knowledge there is such a discipline as economic sociology. The place of a person in the labor system has a significant impact on his position in the social structure. On the other hand, under the influence of various social processes and changes, there is a change in the labor activity itself. Another science related to sociology is psychology. The area of intersection of these sciences is primarily the problem of man in society. However, despite the close relationship of the object of sciences, their subjects are largely different. Psychology is mainly focused on the study of the personal level of the individual, his consciousness and self-awareness, the scope of sociology is the problems of relations between individuals as members of society, i.e., the interpersonal level. To the extent that a scientist studies a person as a subject and an object of social connection, interactions and relationships, considers personal value orientations from social positions, role expectations, etc., he acts as a sociologist. This difference led to the emergence of a new discipline - social psychologywhich is still part of sociology. There is also a close relationship between sociology и political science. The nature of this connection is determined by the fact that, firstly, social communities, social organizations and institutions are the most important subjects and objects of policy; secondly, political activity is one of the main forms of life of the individual and his communities, directly affecting social changes in society; thirdly, politics as a very broad, complex and multifaceted phenomenon manifests itself in all spheres of public life and largely determines the development of society as a whole. In addition, the field of study of both of these sciences includes such a social phenomenon as civil society. At the same time, it must be remembered that political life is always based on social patterns, the analysis of which is necessary in the study of political processes and phenomena. So, it is quite obvious that sociology is in close relationship with the system of social sciences and humanities and is its element. 3. Structure of sociology Sociology is a differentiated and structured system of knowledge. System - an ordered set of elements interconnected and forming a certain integrity. It is precisely in the clear structuring and integrity of the system of sociology that the internal institutionalization of science is manifested, characterizing it as independent. Sociology as a system includes the following elements: 1) social facts - scientifically substantiated knowledge obtained during the study of any fragment of reality. Social facts are established through other elements of the system of sociology; 2) general and special sociological theories - systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at resolving the issue of the possibilities and limits of cognition of society in certain aspects and developing within certain theoretical and methodological areas; 3) branch sociological theories - systems of scientific sociological knowledge aimed at describing individual spheres of social life, substantiating the program of specific sociological research, and providing interpretation of empirical data; 4) data collection and analysis methods - technologies for obtaining empirical material and its primary generalization. However, in addition to the horizontal structure, systems of sociological knowledge are clearly differentiated into three independent levels. 1. Theoretical sociology (level of fundamental research). The task is to consider society as an integral organism, to reveal the place and role of social ties in it, to formulate the basic principles of sociological knowledge, the main methodological approaches to the analysis of social phenomena. At this level, the essence and nature of the social phenomenon, its historical specifics, and the relationship with various aspects of social life are revealed. 2. Special sociological theories. At this level, there are branches of social knowledge that have as their subject the study of relatively independent, specific subsystems of the social whole and social processes. Types of special social theories: 1) theories that study the laws of development of individual social communities; 2) theories that reveal the laws and mechanisms of the functioning of communities in various spheres of public life; 3) theories that analyze individual elements of the social mechanism. 3. Social engineering. The level of practical implementation of scientific knowledge in order to design various technical means and improve existing technologies. In addition to these levels, macro-, meso- and microsociology are distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge. As part of macrosociology society is studied as an integral system, as a single organism, complex, self-governing, self-regulating, consisting of many parts, elements. Macrosociology primarily studies: the structure of society (which elements make up the structure of early society and which elements of modern society), the nature of changes in society. As part of meso-sociology groups of people (classes, nations, generations) existing in society, as well as stable forms of life organization created by people, called institutions: the institution of marriage, family, church, education, state, etc. At the level of microsociology, the goal is to understand the activities of an individual, motives, the nature of actions, incentives and obstacles. However, these levels cannot be considered separately from each other as independently existing elements of social knowledge. On the contrary, these levels must be considered in close relationship, since understanding the overall social picture, social patterns is possible only on the basis of the behavior of individual subjects of society and interpersonal communication. In turn, social forecasts about a particular development of social processes and phenomena, the behavior of members of society are possible only on the basis of the disclosure of universal social patterns. Theoretical and empirical sociology are also distinguished in the structure of sociological knowledge. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it relies on empirical research, but theoretical knowledge prevails over empirical, since it is theoretical knowledge that ultimately determines progress in any science and in sociology too. Theoretical sociology is a set of diverse concepts that develop aspects of the social development of society and give their interpretation. empirical sociology is more of an applied nature and is aimed at solving urgent practical issues of public life. Empirical sociology, unlike theoretical sociology, is not aimed at creating a comprehensive picture of social reality. This problem is solved by theoretical sociology by creating universal sociological theories. There is no core in theoretical sociology that has remained stable since its founding. There are many concepts and theories in theoretical sociology: the materialistic concept of the development of society by K. Marx is based on the priority of economic factors in the development of society (historical materialism); there are various concepts of stratification, industrial development of societies; convergence, etc. However, it must be remembered that certain social theories are not confirmed in the course of the historical development of society. Some of them are not realized at this or that stage of social development, others do not stand the test of time. The specificity of theoretical sociology is that it solves the problems of studying society on the basis of scientific methods of cognition of reality. In each of these levels of knowledge, the subject of research is specified. This allows us to consider sociology as a system of scientific knowledge. The functioning of this system is aimed at obtaining scientific knowledge both about the entire social organism and about its individual elements that play a different role in the process of its existence. Thus, sociology is a multidimensional and multilevel system of scientific knowledge, which consists of elements that concretize the general knowledge about the subject of science, research methods and ways of its design. 4. The system of main categories and laws in sociology Like any other science, sociology has its own categorical apparatus. The categorical or conceptual apparatus is one of the most important questions for any science. Categories, concepts of each science primarily reflect the quality of objective reality, which is the subject of this science. The subject matter of sociology is social phenomena. Since social phenomena always have social qualities, the categories of sociology are aimed primarily at characterizing these qualities. Social characteristics are always dynamic and appear in the most varied shades of the "whole", that is, the social phenomenon itself as a whole. This unity and diversity, the constancy and mobility of any social phenomenon in its specific state is reflected in the relevant categories, concepts and laws of sociology. A feature of the categorical apparatus of sociology is its universality. This is due to the fact that many concepts of modern sociology came to science from related sciences and disciplines. Among the most used categories of sociology, one can single out society, stratification, mobility, a person, community, social, etc. The system of categories and concepts in sociology has a complex structure and subordinate dependence of concepts. social law - it is an expression of the essential, universal and necessary connection of social phenomena and processes, primarily the connections of people's social activity or their own social actions. There are general and specific laws in sociology. The general laws of sociology are the subject of study of philosophy. The specific laws of sociology are studied precisely by sociology and constitute its methodological basis. In addition to this classification, there are other types of laws that differ on the following grounds: By duration: 1) laws characteristic of the social system in any period of its existence (the law of value and commodity-money relations); 2) laws that are characteristic only for one or several social systems that differ in specific properties (the law of transition from one type of society to another). By way of manifestation: 1) dynamic - determine the dynamics (direction, forms, factors) of social changes, fix a clear sequence of social phenomena in the process of change; 2) statistical - reflect the general tendencies of social phenomena, regardless of the ongoing changes, characterize social phenomena as a whole, and not their specific manifestations; 3) causal - fix the existing causal relationships between various social phenomena; 4) functional - fix strictly repeating and empirically observed links between social phenomena. However, despite the rather extensive theoretical material, the question of the laws of sociology is very acute. The fact is that in the course of historical development, many historical events went beyond the existing laws. Therefore, it can be argued that laws in fact turn out to be only a description of probable development trends. This is an important argument of opponents of the possibility of creating universal universal sociological laws. Therefore, today it is customary to talk not about sociological laws, but about sociological patterns. These patterns are based on the existence in society of determinants that determine the life of society: power, ideology, economics. A typology of social patterns can be made in five categories, which reflect the forms of communication existing between social phenomena: 1) regularities that fix the unchanging links between social phenomena, their mutual conditionality. i.e. if there is a phenomenon A, then there must necessarily be a phenomenon B; 2) patterns that fix the trends in the development of social phenomena, reflecting the impact of changes in social reality on the internal structure of a social object; 3) regularities that establish regularities between the elements of social subjects that determine its functioning (functional regularities) (example: the more actively students work in the classroom, the better they master the educational material); 4) patterns that reinforce causal relationships between social phenomena (causal patterns) (example: a necessary condition for increasing the birth rate in the country is the improvement of social conditions for women); 5) patterns that establish the likelihood of links between social phenomena (probabilistic patterns) (example: the growth of women's economic independence increases the likelihood of divorces). At the same time, it must be remembered that social patterns are implemented in a concrete form - in the activities of people. And each individual person carries out his activities in the specific conditions of society, in the conditions of specific socio-political or production activities, in the system of which he occupies a certain production and social position. If we are watching one person, we will not see the law. If we observe a set, then, taking into account the deviations of each individual in one direction or another, we obtain the resulting, i.e., regularity. Thus, it can be argued that the objectivity of social regularity is a series of cumulative actions of millions of people. 5. Basic paradigms of sociology First of all, it must be pointed out that paradigm - this is a set of basic provisions and principles that underlie a particular theory, which have a special categorical apparatus and are recognized by a group of scientists. For the first time the term "paradigm" was introduced into scientific circulation by an American philosopher and historian of science. T. Kuhn. Based on this definition, it can be argued that the concept of a paradigm is wider than the concept of a theory. Sometimes a paradigm is understood to mean major theories or groups of theories, as well as generally recognized achievements in a given field of science. It should also be noted that the presence of several paradigms in sociology also confirms its status as an independent science. All sociological paradigms can be divided into three levels: macroparadigms, microparadigms and universal general paradigms. In addition to this classification, there are others. One of the most common among them is the classification of the Russian sociologist G. V. Osipova, who singled out the following groups of sociological paradigms: 1) paradigms social factors (structural functionalism and the theory of social conflicts); 2) paradigms social definitions (symbolic interactionalism and ethnomethodology); 3) paradigms social behavior (theories of exchange and social action). In Western sociological thought today there are five main paradigms: functionalism, conflict theory, exchange theory, symbolic interactionalism, ethnomethodology. Thus, at the moment there is no general scientific opinion about the system of sociological paradigms. However, it is necessary to dwell in detail on the characteristics of the most common paradigms in sociology. The paradigm of social conflict. The theory of conflict, the founder of which is considered Georg Simmel, in sociology was developed by a number of researchers: R. Dahrendorf (Germany), L. Koser (USA), K. Boulding (USA), M. Crozier, A. Touraine (France), Y. Galtung (Norway), etc. Supporters of this theory consider conflict as a natural phenomenon of social life. Its basis is the objectively existing differentiation in society. The conflict performs a stimulating function in society, creating prerequisites for the development of society. However, not all conflicts play a positive role in society, so the state is entrusted with the function of controlling conflicts so that they do not develop into a state of increased social tension. Theory of social exchange. This paradigm was developed most intensively by American researchers. J. Homans, P. Blau, R. Emerson. The essence of the paradigm is that the functioning of a person in society is based on the exchange of various social benefits. The interaction between the subjects of social relations has a value-normative character. This concept is intermediate between macrosociological and microsociological paradigms. This is precisely its main value. Symbolic internationalism. This paradigm was also developed within the American sociological schools. J. Mead, G. Bloomer, T. Shibutani, T. Partland and others. The basis of symbolic internationalism is the assertion that people interact through the interpretation of symbols and signs. Social progress is considered by sociologists as the development and change of social meanings that do not have a strict causal conditionality, depending more on the subjects of interaction than on objective reasons. Ethnomethodology. A paradigm closely related to symbolic internationalism (it is also based on the study of social interaction) was developed by the American sociologist G. Garfinkel. The basis of this paradigm is the study of the meanings that people attach to social phenomena. This concept arose as a result of the expansion of the methodological base of sociology and the inclusion in it of methods for studying various communities and primitive cultures and translating them into the language of procedures for analyzing modern social and cultural phenomena and processes. Neo-Marxist paradigm. It was developed by a number of representatives of the Frankfurt School - M. Horkheimer, T. Adorno, G. Marcuse, J. Habermas. The neo-Marxist concept is based on such a social phenomenon as alienation, which is considered as a socio-economic phenomenon. This paradigm has become a revision of the foundations of Marxism and, above all, the desire to justify the gap between "labor" and "interaction" in the sense that the former as the dominant type of relationship is being replaced by the universal interaction of people in all spheres of life. Of course, the wealth of paradigms of sociology is not exhausted by this list. However, today they are the leaders in sociological research and the construction of sociological theories. Particular attention in modern sociological paradigms is paid to interpersonal interactions, the dynamics of personality development, changes in social meanings and meanings that reveal the transformation of broad social structures. In general, it should be noted that in modern sociology a tendency towards pluralism of various paradigms is very clearly manifested, which is expressed in increased differentiation of the system of sociological knowledge. This feature sharply poses the problem of developing and implementing a single theoretical and methodological line in sociology. This fact allows us to speak of sociology as a "multi-paradigm" science. LECTURE No. 2. Formation and main stages in the development of sociology 1. Features of the pre-scientific study of society An important aspect of the study of sociology, like any other science, is the study of the history of its formation and development. Although sociology as a science took shape in the XNUMXth century, even before that, thinkers were interested in the problem of society for many centuries. Undoubtedly, the views of these scientists need to be considered, since so far there has not been a single theoretical direction in sociology, and their study can provide significant assistance in this process. Moreover, it would be simply stupid to reject the rich theoretical material created at the pre-scientific level of sociology. In the period antiquities the first complete picture of society was given within the framework of social philosophy Plato ("Laws", "On the State") and Aristotle ("Politicians"). It was Plato who first developed the doctrine of social stratification in his works. He distinguishes three estates that should exist in an ideal society: rulers-philosophers; warriors and producers: merchants, artisans and peasants. Aristotle also proposed his theory of social stratification. According to it, the society is divided into: the rich stratum (plutocracy), the middle class and the dispossessed class. Moreover, the philosopher notes that for the normal functioning of society, the majority should be precisely the middle class. It is easy to see that this theoretical proposition has not lost its relevance even in modern times. Close attention to the problems of social stratification of ancient scientists was not accidental. The transition from the primitive communal system to the early class society was accompanied by a deepening of the processes of social differentiation of the population and an intensification of the struggle between different strata of society, which reached its climax in ancient Rome. As for the nature of knowledge itself, in antiquity it had primarily a mythological, idealistic and utopian meaning. The main goal of ancient socio-philosophical concepts was the desire to improve society, save it from internal conflicts and prepare it to fight against external danger. В middle Ages studies of society were strongly influenced by Christianity and the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore were exclusively theological in nature. The core of the worldview was the medieval Christian religion. In this regard, there was a reorientation of philosophical interest from the values of earthly life to the problems of the absolute, supernatural world order. Social antagonism is translated into the plane of the struggle between two worlds: divine and earthly, spiritual and material, good and evil. Another important trend of medieval thought was Arabic social thought. It also took shape under the influence of the world religion - Islam. The second source of the formation of Arab social thought was the concepts of Plato and Aristotle. The central themes were the problems of the state and power. Significant theoretical developments appeared in the issue of the evolution of society and, above all, the state. A feature of Arab political thought was the study of various social communities. So, one of the most prominent thinkers of the Arab Middle Ages Ibn Khaldun closely studied the behavior of large social groups, making up the "anatomy of human society." The largest and most significant events of the late Western Middle Ages were Renaissance and Reformation. In their socio-historical essence, they were anti-feudal, early bourgeois phenomena. This period was characterized by such social trends as the breaking of feudal relations and the emergence of early capitalist relations, the strengthening of the positions of the bourgeois strata of society, and the secularization of public consciousness. Of course, all this was reflected in the views of the thinkers of that time. Concepts of self-worth of the individual, dignity and autonomy of each individual were developed. However, not all thinkers adhered to this concept. So, N. Machiavelli, and after and T. Hobbes noted the anti-social and anti-social nature of people, the asocial essence of man. However, in general, the era of the Renaissance and the Reformation can be called the era of humanism. The main achievement of this period was the appeal to the person, his motivation, his place in the social system. В new time the development of sociology is characterized by a change in previous irrational-scholastic views on man and society, which are leaving their leading positions and are being replaced by emerging concepts of a rational nature, oriented towards the principles of scientific (positive) knowledge. During this period of development of social thought, ideas about the mores of people, public morality and traditions, the nature of nations and peoples, social objects (Voltaire, Diderot, Kant and etc.). At the same time, terms arose that determined the formation of the categorical and conceptual apparatus of the future sociological science: society, culture, classes, structure, etc. A distinctive feature of this period of social thought was the diversity of the spectrum of theories and concepts. One of these rational social theories was the general sociological theory developed by K. Marx и F. Engels. The founders of this concept believed that the process of social development of society is based on materialistic and social revolutionary principles. Another direction of rational theories was positivism. The founders of this approach put the spiritual aspects of social life in the first place. An important trend that determined the development of social thought was the transition from the disciplines of the physical and mathematical cycle to biology, which had a significant impact on social philosophy (evolutionary theory, organicism, etc.). 2. Social and theoretical prerequisites for the emergence of sociology as a science So, sociology as an independent science arose in the late 30s and early 40s. XNUMXth century In the nineteenth century European society finally and irrevocably enters the path of capitalist development. It was a time of extreme instability in public life. During this period, it was characterized by social upheavals and a crisis in social relations. This was evidenced by the following phenomena: the uprising of the Lyon weavers in France, the Silesian weavers in Germany, the Chartist movement in England, the French Revolution of 1848. These trends sharply raised the question of the need to create a general theory capable of predicting where humanity is heading, what guidelines can be relied upon find their place and their role in this process. It was under the influence of social upheavals that one of the classical paradigms of sociology, Marxism, was formed. The founders of this trend believed that the concept of scientific socialism, the core of which is the theory of socialist revolution, should become such a generalizing theory. In parallel, there are theories of a reformist way of resolving social conflict and the development of society. Another important theoretical source for the formation of sociological theories was natural science discoveries (the discovery of the cell, the creation of the theory of evolution). However, in addition to theoretical prerequisites, the formation of sociology was conditioned by the creation of a certain methodological base that made it possible to study social processes. The methodology and methods of concrete sociological research were developed mainly by natural scientists. Already in the XVII-XVIII centuries. John Graunt и Edmund Halley developed methods for quantitative research of social processes. In particular, D. Graunt applied them in 1662 to the analysis of the mortality rate. And the work of a famous physicist and mathematician Laplace "Philosophical Essays on Probability" is built on a quantitative description of population dynamics. In the XNUMXth century, in addition to social upheavals and revolutions, there were other social processes that required study precisely with the help of sociological methodology. Capitalism was actively developing, which led to a rapid growth in the urban population due to the outflow of the rural population. This trend has led to the emergence of such a social phenomenon as urbanization. This, in turn, led to a sharp social differentiation, an increase in the number of poor people, an increase in crime, and an increase in social instability. Along with this, a new stratum of society was forming at a tremendous pace - the middle class, which was represented by the bourgeoisie, who stood for stability and order. There is a strengthening of the institution of public opinion, an increase in the number of social movements advocating social reforms. Thus, on the one hand, the "social diseases of society" were clearly manifested, on the other hand, those forces that were interested in their "treatment" and could act as customers of sociological research capable of offering a "cure" for these "diseases" objectively matured. . Of great importance for the development of the methodology and methodology of empirical sociological research was the work of one of the largest statisticians of the XNUMXth century. Adolphe Quetelet "On Man and the Development of Capabilities, or the Experience of Social Life" (1835). Some researchers believe that it is from this work that one can begin counting the time of the existence of sociology, or, as A. Quetelet put it, "social physics." This work helped the science of society move from the speculative derivation of empirically untested laws of history to the empirical derivation of statistically calculated patterns using complex mathematical procedures. Finally, before becoming an independent science, sociology had to go through a process of institutionalization. This process includes the following steps: 1) the formation of self-awareness of scientists specializing in this field of knowledge. Scientists are aware that they have their own specific object and their own specific methods of research; 2) creation of specialized periodicals; 3) the introduction of these scientific disciplines into the curricula of various types of educational institutions: lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, universities, etc.; 4) creation of specialized educational institutions for these branches of knowledge; 5) creation of an organizational form of association of scientists of these disciplines: national and international associations. Sociology has gone through all these stages of the process of institutionalization in various countries of Europe and the USA, starting from the 40s. XIX century. 3. Sociological view of O. Comte Considered the founder of sociology Auguste Comte (1798-1857) - a French thinker who proposed a project to create a positive science, the essence of which is to study the laws of observed phenomena based on reliable facts and connections. It was he who coined the term sociology in his A Course in Positive Philosophy, published in 1839. For Comte, sociology is a science that studies the process of improving the human mind and his psyche under the influence of social life. He believed that the main method, the tool with which scientists will study society, is observation, comparison (including historical comparison) and experiment. Comte's main thesis is the need for a rigorous verification of those provisions that sociology considered. He considered true knowledge to be those obtained not theoretically, but through social experimentation. Comte substantiated the need for the emergence of a new science on the basis of the law on the three stages of development of human intellectual development: theological, metaphysical and positive. First, theological, or fictitious, the stage covers antiquity and the early Middle Ages (before 1300). It is characterized by the dominance of a religious worldview. On the second, metaphysical stage (from 1300 to 1800) man refuses to appeal to the supernatural and tries to explain everything with the help of abstract entities, causes and other philosophical abstractions. And finally, on the third positive stage a person refuses philosophical abstractions and proceeds to the observation and fixation of permanent objective connections, which are the laws that govern the phenomena of reality. Thus, the thinker opposed sociology as a positive science to theological and metaphysical speculations about society. On the one hand, he criticized theologians who viewed man as different from animals, considered him a creation of God. On the other hand, he reproached the metaphysical philosophers for having understood society as a creation of the human mind. The transition between these stages in various sciences occurs independently and is characterized by the emergence of new fundamental theories. So, the first social law put forward by Comte within the framework of the new science was the law on the three stages of human intellectual development. The second was law on the division and cooperation of labor. According to this law, social feelings unite only people of the same profession. As a result, corporations and intra-corporate morality arise, which can destroy the foundations of society - feelings of solidarity and harmony. This is another argument for the need for the emergence of such a science as sociology. Sociology must fulfill the function of substantiating a rational, correct state and social order. It is the study of social laws that will allow the state to pursue a correct policy, which should implement the principles that determine the structure of society, ensuring harmony and order. Within the framework of this concept, Comte considers in sociology the main social institutions: the family, the state, religion - from the point of view of their social functions, their role in social integration. Comte divides the theory of sociology into two independent sections: social statics and social dynamics, in which it is easy to see the scientist's obvious sympathy for physics. social static studies social ties, phenomena of social structure. This section highlights the "structure of the collective being" and explores the conditions of existence inherent in all human societies. social dynamics should consider the theory of social progress, the decisive factor of which, in his opinion, is the spiritual, mental development of mankind. A holistic picture of society, according to Comte, gives the unity of the statics and dynamics of society. This is due to his representation of society as a single, organic whole, all parts of which are interconnected and can only be understood in unity. Within the framework of these views, Comte contrasted his concepts with the concepts of individualistic theories, which considered society as a product of an agreement between individuals. Based on the natural nature of social phenomena, Comte opposed the reassessment of the role of great people, pointed out the correspondence of the political regime to the level of development of civilization. The significance of Comte's sociological concept is determined by the fact that, on the basis of a synthesis of the achievements of social science of that period, he first substantiated the need for a scientific approach to the study of society and the possibility of knowing the laws of its development; defined sociology as a special science based on observation; substantiated the natural nature of the development of history, the general contours of the social structure and a number of the most important institutions of society. 4. Classical sociology of the early XNUMXth century At the beginning of the XX century. Significant changes took place in public life, which could not but affect the development of sociological knowledge. Capitalism entered its advanced stage, which was characterized by revolutions, world wars, unrest in society. All this required the development of new concepts of social development. One of the most prominent representatives of sociology who influenced the creation of classical sociology was E. Durkheim (1858-1917). The French sociologist largely relied on the positivist concept of O. Comte, but went much further and put forward the principles of a new methodology: 1) naturalism - the establishment of the laws of society is similar to the establishment of the laws of nature; 2) sociologism - social reality does not depend on individuals, it is autonomous. Durkheim also argued that sociology should study objective social reality, in particular that sociology should study social facts. social fact - this is an element of social life that does not depend on the individual and has a "coercive force" in relation to him (way of thinking, laws, customs, language, beliefs, monetary system). Thus, three principles of social facts can be distinguished: 1) Social facts are fundamental, observable, impersonal phenomena of social life; 2) the study of social facts must be independent of "all innate ideas," that is, the subjective predisposition of individuals; 3) the source of social facts is in society itself, and not in the thinking and behavior of individuals. In the study of social facts, Durkheim recommended the widespread use of the method of comparison. He also suggested the use of functional analysis, which made it possible to establish a correspondence between a social phenomenon, a social institution and a certain need of society as a whole. Here finds expression another term put forward by the French sociologist - the social function. Social function - this is the establishment of a connection between the institution and the need of society as a whole determined by it. The function is the contribution of a social institution to the stable functioning of society. Another element of Durkheim's social theory, which unites it with Comte's concept, is the doctrine of consent and solidarity as the fundamental principles of social order. Durkheim, following his predecessor, puts forward consensus as the basis of society. He distinguishes two types of solidarity, the first of which historically replaces the second: 1) mechanical solidarity inherent in undeveloped, archaic societies in which the actions and deeds of people are homogeneous; 2) organic solidarity, based on the division of labor, professional specialization, economic interconnection of individuals. An important condition for the solidary activity of people is the correspondence of their professional functions to their abilities and inclinations. At the same time as Durkheim lived another prominent theorist of sociological thought - M. Weber (1864-1920). However, his views on society differed significantly from the French thinker. If the latter undividedly gave priority to society, then Weber believed that only an individual has motives, goals, interests and consciousness, the term "collective consciousness" is more a metaphor than an exact concept. Society consists of a set of acting individuals, each of which strives to achieve its own, and not social, goals, since it is always faster to achieve a specific goal and this requires less cost. To achieve individual goals, people unite in groups. The tool of sociological knowledge for Weber is the ideal type. ideal type is a mental logical construction created by the researcher. They serve as a basis for understanding human actions and historical events. Society is just such an ideal type. It is intended to sum up in a single term a huge set of social institutions and relationships. Another research method for Weber is the search for the motives of human behavior. It was he who first introduced this method into the category of sociological and clearly developed the mechanism for its application. Thus, in order to understand the motivation of a human action, the researcher needs to put himself in the place of this person. Knowing the whole chain of events and how most people act in certain cases allows the researcher to determine exactly what motives guided a person when he committed a particular social action. Only in conjunction with it can social statistics become the core of the methodological basis of sociology. It was the method of studying the motives of human activity that formed the basis of the theory of social action. Within the framework of this theory, Weber identified four types of it: goal-oriented, value-rational, traditional, and affective. An important element of Weber's social teaching is also the theory of values. Valuables - this is any statement that is associated with a moral, political or any other assessment. Weber calls the process of value formation the reference to values. Attribution to values is a procedure for both selection and organization of empirical material. Weber also paid considerable attention to the study of questions of the sociology of power. In his opinion, the organized behavior of people, the creation and functioning of any social institutions is impossible without effective social control and management. He considered bureaucracy, a specially created apparatus of management, to be the ideal mechanism for implementing power relations. Weber developed theories of the ideal bureaucracy, which, according to the thinker, should have the following characteristics: 1) division of labor and specialization; 2) a clearly defined hierarchy of power; 3) high formalization; 4) impersonal character; 5) career planning; 6) separation of the organizational and personal life of the members of the organization; 7) discipline. 5. Sociology of Marxism. materialistic understanding of history. The concept of socio-economic formation and social revolution A completely different approach to understanding society than Comte put forward the founder of Marxism Karl Marx (1818-1883). He, together with F. Engels (1820-1895) proposed a materialistic theory of explanation of society and social life. At the same time, they also proceeded in the creation of their sociological theory from positivist attitudes, focused on the consideration of social phenomena by analogy with natural ones. The materialistic Marxist theory of society was based on a number of fundamental principles: 1) principle definitions of social being of social consciousness, which is the main feature of the materialism of Marxist sociology; 2) principle patterns of social development, the recognition of which indicates the presence in society of certain connections and relationships between processes and phenomena; 3) principle determinism, recognition of causal relationships between various social phenomena - the change in social life under the influence of a change in the means of production; 4) principle defining all social phenomena as economic phenomena; 5) principle prioritization of material social relations over ideological ones; 6) principle progressive progressive social development, which is realized through the doctrine of the change of socio-economic formations (in the natural sciences, these are certain structures connected by the unity of the conditions of education, the similarity of the composition, the interdependence of elements), the basis of which is the mode of production, i.e. a certain level of development of the productive forces and the level corresponding to it industrial relations; 7) principle natural-historical nature of the development of society, which reflected two opposite trends: the regularity of the process of development of society, on the one hand, and its dependence on the activities of people, on the other; 8) principle embodiments of social qualities in the human personalitydetermined by the totality of social relations; 9) principle agreement of empirical data and theoretical conclusions "with the historical interest of the era", i.e., the impossibility of abstracting scientific data from the subjective attitudes of the researcher. The creators of Marxist sociology themselves have repeatedly admitted that, by its very nature, it was very fundamentally politically and ideologically aimed at expressing the interests of the working class. Another important element of Marxism was the doctrine of social revolution. According to Marx, the transition from one formation to another is possible only through a revolution, since it is impossible to eliminate the shortcomings of the socio-economic formation by transforming it. The main reason for the transition from one formation to another is the emerging antagonisms. Antagonism - this is an irreconcilable contradiction of the main classes of any society. At the same time, the authors of the materialistic concept pointed out that it is precisely these contradictions that are the source of social development. An important element of the theory of social revolution is the conditions under which it becomes possible: it does not take place until the necessary social, primarily material, prerequisites mature in society. The doctrine of social revolution in Marxist sociology was not only theoretical but also practical. Thus, it was closely connected with revolutionary practice. Marxist sociology actually outgrows the framework of science in the generally accepted sense, it becomes a whole, independent ideological and practical movement of the masses, a form of public consciousness in a number of countries that adhered and adhere to the socialist orientation. According to the Marxist vision of social progress, capitalism is seen as the final stage in the development of an exploitative society, the basis of which is private property. The completion of this stage and the transition to a new one is carried out in Marxist theory as a result of the proletarian revolution, which should lead to the elimination of the class division of society as a result of the nationalization of all property. As a result of the social revolution, a new type of society arises in which there is only one class - the proletariat. Development in such a society is based on the free development of each of its members. The undoubted merit of Marxist sociology is the development within its framework of a number of basic categories of science: "property", "class", "state", "public consciousness", "personality", etc. In addition, Marx and Engels developed a significant empirical and theoretical material in the study of contemporary society by applying system analysis to its study. In the future, Marxist sociology was more or less consistently and successfully developed by numerous students and followers of Marx and Engels: in Germany - F. Mehring, K. Kautsky and others, in Russia - G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin etc., in Italy - A. Labriola, A. Gramsci and others. The theoretical and methodological significance of Marxist sociology is preserved to this day. 6. "Formal" school of sociology by G. Simmel, F. Tennis and V. Pareto The first representative of the "formal" school of sociology is considered G. Simmel (1858-1918). The name of this school was given precisely according to the works of this German researcher, who proposed to study the "pure form", fixing the most stable, universal features in social phenomena, and not empirically diverse, transient. The definition of the concept of "pure form", closely related to the concept of "content", is possible through the disclosure of the tasks that, according to Simmel, it should perform. Three of them can be distinguished: 1) correlates several contents with each other in such a way that these contents form a unity; 2) taking form, these contents are separated from other contents; 3) the form structures the contents, which it mutually correlates with each other. Thus, it is easy to see that Simmel's "pure form" is closely related to Weber's ideal type - both of which are an instrument of knowledge of society and a method of sociology. Another connection between the theories of Simmel and Weber is the priority in them of the human factor, but they use different methods for this. Thus, Simmel's use of the concept of "pure form" allows the sociologist to exclude from the process of studying human actions irrational factors: feelings, emotions and desires. If these psychological acts are excluded from the subject area of sociology, it becomes possible to study exclusively the sphere of values - the area of the ideal (or ideosocial, as Simmel himself defined it). Moreover, the sociologist should study not the content of the ideal, but isolated values. This allows you to get "building material" to create the geometry of the social world. Simmel's formal geometric method made it possible to single out society in general, institutions in general, and to construct a system in which sociological variables are freed from moralizing value judgments. Based on this, it can be stated that pure form is the relationship between individuals, considered separately from the psychological aspects. Another category introduced by Simmelm into scientific circulation is the social type. social type is a set of essential qualities of a person that become characteristic for him by virtue of his inclusion in a certain kind of relationship. Another German sociologist proposed his own typology of sociality F. Tennis (1855-1936). According to this typology, two types of human connections can be distinguished: community (community), where directly personal and family relations dominate, and societywhere formal institutions predominate. According to the sociologist, each social organization combines the qualities of both the community and society, therefore these categories become the criteria for classifying social forms. Tennis identified three such social forms: 1) social relations - social forms, which are determined by the possibility of the emergence of mutual rights and obligations of participants on their basis and are of an objective nature; 2) social groups - social forms that arise on the basis of social relations and are characterized by a conscious association of individuals to achieve a specific goal; 3) Corporation - a social form with a clear internal organization. The other main component of Tennis's sociological conception was the doctrine of social norms. The sociologist also classified them into three categories: 1) norms of social order - norms based on general agreement or convention; 2) legal regulations - norms determined by the normative force of facts; 3) moral standards - norms established by religion or public opinion. Another representative of the formal sociologist V. Pareto (1848-1923) considered society as a system that is constantly in a state of gradual disturbance and restoration of balance. The second fundamental link in the sociological concept of the researcher was the emotional sphere of a person, considered by the author as the basis of the social system. Based on this, Pareto developed the theory of residuals, which the researcher divides into two classes. First class is remnants of the "instinct of combinations". The remnants of this class underlie all social change and correspond to the psychological tendency of man to combine different things. The second class includes remnants of the "permanence of aggregates", expressing a tendency to maintain and preserve once formed ties. It is the opposition of these types of remnants that is the cause of the struggle of tendencies to preserve and change social life. Another important element of Pareto's teaching was the classification of social action. The sociologist distinguished two types of social action depending on the motivation factors: 1) logical social action carried out on the basis of reason and regulated norms; 2) non-logical social action characterized by people's ignorance of their perpetrators of the true objects of the connections between phenomena. The sphere of Pareto's attention also included the processes of persuasion. Investigating this phenomenon, the Italian sociologist identified the following types of it: 1) "simple assurances": "it is necessary, because it is necessary", "it is so, because it is so"; 2) arguments and reasoning based on authority; 3) appeal to feelings, interests; 4) "verbal evidence". Another phenomenon of social life studied by Pareto was elite. The thinker himself defined it as a selected part of the population, taking part in the management of society. Pareto pointed out that the elite is not permanent and in society there is a process of its change - the cycle of elites. The cycle of elites - this is a process of interaction between members of a heterogeneous society, as a result of which a change in the composition of a selected part of the population occurs by entering into it members from the lower system of society who meet two basic requirements for the elite: the ability to convince and the ability to use force where necessary. The mechanism through which the renewal of the ruling elite takes place in peacetime is social mobility. 7. American sociology: the main stages of development So, at the first stage of the formation of sociology (XIX - early XX centuries), three countries were the center of the development of science: France, Germany and England. However, already in the 20s. XNUMXth century the center of sociological research is shifting to the United States. A huge role in this process was played by the considerable assistance of the state and the support of most universities. This was the main difference from European sociology, which was mainly developed on an initiative basis. In the United States, sociology was originally formed as a university science. The world's first doctorate-granting sociology department was founded in 1892 at the University of Chicago. Another feature of American sociology was its empirical character. If in Europe sociologists tried to create universal theories reflecting all aspects of social life, and used general philosophical methods of cognition for this, then in the USA already in 1910 more than 3 thousand empirical studies were carried out in the country. The main subject of these studies was the study of the process of socialization of people, most of whom were migrants from Europe, to new social conditions. The most famous of these studies was the work F. Znanetsky "The Polish Peasant in Europe and America". It was in this work that the main methodological principles of concrete sociological research were developed, which remain relevant to this day. Another subject of empirical sociological research in the United States was the problem of labor and management. The main researcher in this area was Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). This scientist was the first to conduct a comprehensive study at enterprises and created the world's first system of scientific organization of labor. On the basis of his research, Taylor concluded that various production and organizational innovations in themselves are unprofitable, since they rest on the so-called "human factor". In Taylor's works, the term "restrictionism". Restrictionism is the deliberate restriction of production by workers, which is based on the mechanism of group pressure. Based on all the data obtained, Taylor developed many practical recommendations for optimizing the production process, which are very popular. Another researcher who significantly enriched the theoretical and empirical material of the sociology of labor and management was E. Mayo. Under his leadership, in the conditions of the most severe economic crisis in the countries of the USA and Western Europe, the Hawthorne experiments were carried out. As a result of these studies, it was found that the main influence on labor productivity is exerted by the psychological and socio-psychological conditions of the labor process. Based on the Hawthorne experiments, sociologists developed doctrine of "human relations". Within the framework of this doctrine, the following principles were formulated: 1) a person is a social being oriented towards others and included in the context of group interaction; 2) rigid hierarchy and bureaucratic organization are unnatural to human nature; 3) in order to increase labor productivity, it is necessary, first of all, to focus on meeting the needs of people; 4) individual rewards must be supported by favorable moral incentives. The most famous sociological school was the Chicago school, which arose on the basis of the first department of sociology in the United States, organized since the creation of the new University in Chicago. The founder and first dean of the Department of Sociology at the University of Chicago was Albion Small (1854-1926). Another "father" of American sociology was William Graham Sumner (1840-1910). These researchers were the first to establish liberalism as the main doctrine of the sociological school. Small and Sumner paid considerable attention to the study of the customs, traditions and mores of peoples. Until now, Sumner's ideas about the mechanisms for the formation of customs, their role in the development of society and strengthening the connection between generations have retained their significance; development of the concepts "we are a group" and "they are a group", "ethnocentrism" as the basis of intergroup interaction. The leaders of the second generation of the Chicago school were Park и Burgess. The main research topic of these scientists was the problems of urbanization, family, social disorganization. The park introduced a new term "social distance" into scientific circulation. Social distance is an indicator of the degree of closeness or alienation of individuals or social groups. Another achievement of these studies was the development of the concept of marginality. Another difference between American sociology and European sociology is its connection with social psychology. Instead of philosophical substance, the Americans focused on behavior and action. They were not interested in what is hidden inside the mind and what cannot be accurately measured. They were attracted by that which manifests itself outwardly in so-called open behavior. So appeared behaviorism (from the English behavior - behavior), subdued in the first half of all social sciences (economics, psychology, sociology, political science). Positive in the methodology of behaviorism is the desire for rigor and accuracy of sociological research. However, the absolutization of the behavioral aspect, external forms of research and quantitative methods of analysis leads to a simplified view of social life. On the border of sociology and social psychology, the concept of needs was created Abraham Maslow. The scientist divided all human needs into basic (for food, reproduction, security, clothing, housing, etc.) and derivatives (in justice, prosperity, order and unity of social life). Maslow created a hierarchy of needs from the lowest physiological to the highest spiritual. The needs of each new level become relevant, that is, urgent, requiring satisfaction only after the previous ones are satisfied. Hunger drives a person until he is satisfied. After he is satisfied, other needs come into play as motives for behavior. 8. Features of the historical development of Russian sociology Sociological thought in Russia was originally part of global sociology. This was due to the fact that sociology penetrated into Russia in the 40s. 40th century from the West and soon acquired a specific character based on the characteristics of the historical development of society. The development of sociological thought in Russia in the period from the 60s to the XNUMXs. XNUMXth century can be described as pre-sociological stage. At this stage, the program field of Russian sociology was formed. The further development of sociology in Russia can be divided into several stages: the first stage - 60-90s. XIX century, the second - the beginning of the XX century. - 1918, the third - 20-30s. XX century., the fourth - from the 50s. XNUMXth century to the present day. 1st stage (1860-1900). This period in the development of sociological thought is associated with the concepts of such thinkers as the populists, representatives of the subjective school, the naturalistic trend, and the psychological trend (Kovalevsky, Plekhanov). The development of sociology in this period of time was largely due to social changes: the complication of the social structure of Russian society, the rapid growth of urban estates, differentiation in the peasant environment, and the growth of the working class. At this stage, the positivist theory of O. Comte, whose ideas were well known and developed in Russia, became the basis of sociological thought. In 1846, Serno-Solonevich, reflecting on the composition of the social sciences, posed the question: does the current state of knowledge require the emergence of a new science that will investigate the laws of development of society as natural science explores nature? As a result, in the mid-60s XNUMXth century in Russian literature, the term "sociology" appears, which was considered as the highest science, based on the synthesis of scientific knowledge and exploring universal social laws. Initially, the accumulation of sociological information was facilitated by zemstvo statistics: surveys of peasants, the study of their lives. At this stage, various trends and schools of sociological thought were formed, which largely relied on the achievements of Western sociology, but had an important influence on the specifics of Russian concepts. Among them are the following: 1) geographical (L. I. Mechnikov) - the progress of society is determined primarily by natural, in particular, water resources. So, according to this theory, in the history of the development of societies, the most important role was played by those rivers that were the halo of their habitat; 2) organicism (A. I. Stronin) - society is a complex organism that functions on the basis of natural laws; 3) psychologism (P. L. Lavrov, N. K. Mikhailovsky) - the starting point of sociality is psychophysical relations, and the personality is placed at the center of the study; 4) Marxism (G. V. Plekhanov, V. I. Lenin). 2nd stage (1900-1920). At this stage of its development, Russian sociology is undergoing a process of institutionalization. The following events became manifestations of this process: the opening in 1912 of a social section at the Faculty of History of St. Petersburg University; the formation in 1916 of the Russian Sociological Society named after M. M. Kovalevsky; the introduction in 1917 of a degree in sociology; the creation of a department of sociology at the Petrograd and Yaroslavl universities; in 1920. The first faculty of social sciences in Russia with a department of sociology was opened at Petrograd University. A few years before the revolutionary events of 1917, under various pretexts, scientists and enthusiastic teachers managed to include sociology as a subject of study in the programs of some secondary educational institutions, various schools, and courses. In the last decade before the revolution, lectures on sociology were given at the Higher Courses for Women, in the biological laboratory of P. F. Lesgaft. The theoretical concepts of this period were characterized by the spread of neopositivism, combining functionalism and empirical research. The prominent representatives of this period of sociological thought were G. P. Zeleny, A. S. Zvonitskaya, K. M. Takhtarev, A. S. Lappo-Danilevsky and more At the same time, a kind of Christian sociology is being formed in line with religious philosophy. (N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov)that does not accept neopositivism and behaviorism. Along with the development of theoretical questions, empirical sociological research was developed. The central place in them is occupied by research on social and socio-psychological problems of labor and life of workers and peasants. 3rd stage (1920-1930s). At the third stage, the development of theoretical sociology continues. In the 20s, an extensive sociological literature was published: P. A. Sorokin ("Fundamentals of Sociology" in 2 volumes, 1922), V. M. Khvostov ("Fundamentals of sociology. The doctrine of the laws of the social process", 1928), N. A. Bukharin ("The Theory of Historical Materialism, a popular textbook of Marxist sociology", 1922), M. S. Salynsky ("The Social Life of People. An Introduction to Marxist Sociology", 1923), etc. The main focus of these works was to reveal the relationship between the history of Russian sociological thought and the sociology of Marxism, in an effort to formulate an original sociology of Marxism and determine its place in the system of Marxism. After a short period of academic freedom during the years of the New Economic Policy, a reaction sets in, and a number of prominent sociologists and philosophers (P. Sorokin, N. Berdyaev) are forced to leave Russia forever. The term "sociology" begins to acquire a negative connotation and is used mainly in connection with criticism of "bourgeois" sociology. Many journals and departments are closed, a considerable number of sociologists, economists and philosophers are subjected to repression and exile in camps. The expulsion in 1922 of a large group of scientists from Russia immediately affected the decline in the level of domestic sociology. It was during this period that the scientific activity of one of the most prominent representatives of world sociological thought began. Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968). This thinker, born in Russia, made a huge contribution to the development of sociology, which can only be compared with the contribution of Weber. Sorokin developed the theory of stratification and social mobility. P. Sorokin considers the world as a social universe, that is, a kind of space filled not with stars and planets, but with social ties and relationships between people. They form a multidimensional coordinate system, which determines the social position of any person. 4th stage (since 1950s). During this period, a revival of interest in sociology begins. The sociologists of the 50s and 60s, or, as they were later called, sociologists of the first generation, were tackling the difficult task of not only reviving, but actually re-creating this science. Largely thanks to the work B. A. Grushina, T. I. Zaslavskaya, A. G. Zdravomyslova, Yu. A. Levada, G. V. Osipova, V. A. Yadova etc., the scale of sociological research has expanded significantly in the country. In the middle of 1960, the first sociological institution was created - the Department of Sociological Research at the Institute of Philosophy of the USSR Academy of Sciences and the Laboratory of Sociological Research at Leningrad State University. Thus, it is easy to see that at this stage, sociology acquires mainly an applied empirical character. The subject of sociological research was the social structure of society, the time budget of workers, the social problems of labor, education, and the family. However, the data obtained are not combined, and no middle-level theories are created on their basis. Departments of sociology are beginning to open throughout the country, textbooks in this discipline are being created. Sociology is undergoing a process of institutionalization, the result of which is the emergence of the sociological faculty of Moscow State University, which turned out to be the first sociological faculty in the USSR after a long break. Today in Russia there is a huge number of sociological faculties that produce highly qualified sociologists. Sociological research is carried out in large quantities. There are public opinion research centers in the country that conduct sociological research throughout Russia and create numerous reports and forecasts based on their data. LECTURE No. 3. Society as an integral system 1. The concept of society A systematic approach to the analysis of society The category "society" is one of the key ones for sociological science. Therefore, it is not surprising that the development of this concept, its definition is very important for the disclosure of all sociology. Today, there are two approaches to understanding society. In the broad sense of the word society - this a set of historically established forms of joint life and activity of people on earth. In the narrow sense of the word society - this is a specific type of social and state system, a specific national-theoretical formation. However, these interpretations of the concept under consideration cannot be considered sufficiently complete, since the problem of society has occupied the minds of many thinkers, and in the process of developing sociological knowledge, various approaches to its definition have been formed. So, E. Durkheim defined society as supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. From the point of view of M. Weber, society is the interaction of people who are the product of social, i.e., focused on other actions. K. Marx presents society as a historically developing set of relations between people that develop in the process of their joint actions. Another theorist of sociological thought, T. Parsons, believed that society is a system of relations between people based on norms and values that form culture. Thus, it is easy to see that society is a complex category characterized by a combination of various features. Each of the above definitions reflects some specific features characteristic of this phenomenon. Only taking into account all these characteristics allows us to give the most complete and accurate definition of the concept of society. The most complete list of characteristic features of society was singled out by an American sociologist E. Shiels. He developed the following features characteristic of any society: 1) it is not an organic part of any larger system; 2) marriages are concluded between representatives of this community; 3) it is replenished at the expense of the children of those people who are members of this community; 4) it has its own territory; 5) it has a self-name and its own history; 6) it has its own control system; 7) it exists longer than the average life span of an individual; 8) it is united by a common system of values, norms, laws, rules. Considering all these features, we can give the following definition of society: it is a historically formed and self-reproducing community of people. Aspects of reproduction are biological, economic and cultural reproduction. This definition makes it possible to distinguish the concept of society from the concepts of "state" (an institution for managing social processes that arose historically later than society) and "country" (a territorial-political entity that has developed on the basis of society and the state). The study of society within sociology is based on a systematic approach. The use of this particular method is also determined by a number of characteristic features of society, which is characterized as: a social system of a higher order; complex system education; complete system; self-developing system, because the source is within society. Thus, it is not difficult to see that society is a complex system. System - this is a certain way ordered set of elements interconnected and forming some integral unity. Undoubtedly, society is a social system, which is characterized as a holistic formation, the elements of which are people, their interaction and relationships that are stable and reproduced in the historical process, passing from generation to generation. Thus, the following can be distinguished as the main elements of society as a social system: 1) people; 2) social connections and interactions; 3) social institutions, social strata; 4) social norms and values. As with any system, society is characterized by close interaction of its elements. Given this feature, within the framework of the system approach, society can be defined as a large ordered set of social processes and phenomena more or less connected and interacting with each other and forming a single social whole. Society as a system is characterized by such features as coordination and subordination of its elements. Coordination is the consistency of elements, their mutual functioning. Subordination is subordination and subordination, indicating the place of elements in an integral system. The social system is independent in relation to its constituent elements and has the ability to self-develop. On the basis of a systematic approach to the analysis of society, functionalism was developed. The functional approach was formulated by G. Spencer and developed in the works of R. Merton and T. Parsons. In modern sociology, it is complemented by determinism and an individualistic approach (interactionism). 2. The main subsystems of society Like any complex system, society consists of interconnected subsystems. Subsystem are intermediate complexes that are less complex than the system itself. The allocation of subsystems of society is also an important issue for sociological science. Therefore, it is not surprising that in different social theories there are different approaches to the allocation of subsystems of society. Thus, within the framework of Marxism, society consists of two subsystems: the base and the superstructure. Basis is a set of production relations that make up the economic structure of society. The superstructure includes organizations, ideas, and institutions. The superstructural ideas include political, legal, moral, aesthetic, religious, and philosophical views, which the authors of Marxism call forms of social consciousness. Certain organizations and institutions are associated with each form of social consciousness. The political institutions of society (parties, movements, authorities) are associated with political ideas, the institutions of law are associated with legal ideas, and the church and church organizations are associated with religious ideas. At the same time, according to Marxist teaching, it is the basis that determines the nature of the superstructure, between them there is a line of causal dependence. Thus, all superstructural phenomena in one way or another reflect the economic relations that make up the basis: some - directly (political, legal phenomena), others - indirectly (art, philosophy). The primacy and determining role of the basis in relation to the superstructure is a universal law. At the same time, the idea of determination of superstructures by an economic basis is inseparably linked with the idea of relative independence and constant activity of the superstructure. Relative independence of institutions of superstructure grows out of the social division of labor and the processes of gradual differentiation and isolation of diverse social functions associated with it. Around these functions are concentrated autonomous areas of social life. These spheres differ in content, typical characteristics, occupied by the place in society, since the nature of the social functions underlying them is different. However, the Marxist approach to the allocation of subsystems of society is not the only one. If in the Soviet sociological science this approach was considered decisive, today it gave way to the civilizational approach. Within the framework of this approach, the society is viewed as the aggregate of four regions or spheres. The words "region" and "sphere" are not used here in the natural science or mathematical sense. They make it possible to single out its parts in the whole society, each of which includes elements and relations united according to their place and role in the life of society. Economic sphere - this is the activity of the subjects of public relations in the production, distribution and consumption of the results of labor. In many respects this sphere is decisive in relation to others, as material production is the basic condition of people's life activity. It includes industrial and agricultural production, people's relations in the production process, the exchange of products of productive activity, and their distribution. The political sphere is the activity of the subjects of public relations to ensure agreement between members of society, to regulate its state. Power relations are the basis of this sphere of society. They also determine its specificity. The emergence of political power is determined by a clear awareness of political interests. Therefore, political power is always directed primarily at their satisfaction. This sphere of society includes the state, its institutions, political parties, law, and also the connection between them. Social sphere - this is the activity of the subjects of social relations, aimed at meeting their needs. This process is closely related to the level of economic development of society. There are two approaches to the consideration of the social sphere of society: 1) a set of organizations and institutions responsible for welfare, aimed at all segments of the population; 2) the totality of social organizations and institutions of social protection and social security of the unprotected segments of the population. The social sphere includes layers and classes, nations and national relations, institutions of education, health care, and leisure. Spiritual realm - activities of subjects of public relations in the production, consumption and transfer of spiritual values. The main functions that this sphere of society performs are the extraction of new knowledge, its transfer, and the formation of intangible values. The spiritual sphere covers science, morality, religion, art, scientific institutions, religious organizations, cultural institutions, and the corresponding activities of people. The core of the spiritual sphere of society is religion. All four spheres are interconnected and mutually influence each other. Despite the fact that, unlike Marxism, the civilizational approach recognizes the equality of all subsystems of society, it is possible to imagine their vertical structure depending on their own role in public life. Thus, the economic sphere plays the role of obtaining means of subsistence, being the foundation of society. The political sphere performs the function of management and is the top of society. The social and spiritual spheres are of a cross-cutting universal nature, penetrating the entire society and uniting its economic and political components. Summing up, it must be said that only the interconnection of all subsystems of society ensures its normal existence. 3. Typologies of societies In the process of development of sociological knowledge, many approaches to the classification of societies have developed. Classifications of the most typical societies are based on the identification of their main parameters. The very first typology of societies was proposed by the ancient Greek thinkers Plato and Aristotle. According to their views, all societies can be divided according to the forms of government into monarchies, tyrannies, aristocracies, oligarchies, and democracies. To date, the classification of societies on the basis of the political relations prevailing in them has not lost its relevance. In modern sociology, within the framework of this approach, there are totalitarian (the state determines all the main directions of social life), democratic (the population can influence state structures) and authoritarian societies (combining elements of totalitarianism and democracy). Within the framework of Marxism, the basis for the classification of societies is the mode of production of material goods. On this basis, six types of societies are distinguished: 1) a primitive communal society, which is characterized by a primitive appropriating mode of production; 2) Asian society, which is distinguished by a special type of collective ownership of land; 3) a slave-owning society, a specific feature of which is the ownership of people - slaves and the products of their labor; 4) a feudal society based on the exploitation of peasants attached to the land; 5) bourgeois society, in which there is a transition to the economic dependence of formally free wage workers; 6) communist society, which arises as a result of the establishment of an equal attitude of all to ownership of the means of production through the elimination of private property relations. According to another typology, which today occupies a leading place in sociology, one can distinguish between traditional, industrial and post-industrial societies. A traditional society is a society with an agrarian way of life, sedentary structures and a method of sociocultural regulation based on traditions. The behavior of individuals in it is based solely on customs, norms of traditional behavior, established social institutions (family, community). Any social transformations in such a society are impossible. A feature of this type of society is the low level of production rates. Modernity is characterized by a decrease in the number of traditional societies, but they still persist in Africa, the central part of Australia, and Indian reservations. The term "industrial society" was first introduced Henri Saint-Simon (1760-1825). This concept was further developed in the works R. Arona, W. Rostow, O. Toffler and other researchers. The theory of industrial society is based on the idea that as a result of the industrial revolution, a transformation of a traditional society into an industrial one takes place. An industrial society is characterized by the following features: 1) a developed and complex system of division of labor and professional specialization; 2) mechanization and automation of production and management; 3) mass production of goods for a wide market; 4) high development of means of communication and transport; 5) growth of urbanization and social mobility; 6) an increase in income per capita and qualitative changes in the structure of consumption; 7) formation of civil society. In the 60s. XNUMXth century in sociology, the theory of a post-industrial or information society is being formed. This theory was developed by such researchers as D. Bell, A. Touraine, J. Habermas. The development of computing and information technology is considered to be the basis for the transformation of an industrial society and its transformation into a post-industrial one. The main features of the information society are: 1) the global nature of information that breaks through state borders and organizational barriers; 2) the growth of opportunities for collecting, processing, storing, transmitting information, access to it; 3) the growth of the influence of information on various fields of activity; 4) expansion of democracy, decentralization of society. In society, there are different approaches to assessing the phenomenon of the information society. So, R. F. Abdeev writes that the consequence of the information revolution and the formation of the information society is the development of knowledge-intensive industries with minimal use of raw materials and energy. In the information society, life is ruled by intellect, knowledge, highly organized work, there is no unemployment and national problems, the people are satisfied with life. However, there are certain fears associated with the advent of the era of the information society. The negative side of the post-industrial society is the danger of increased social control by the state, the ruling elite through access to information and electronic media and communication over people and society as a whole. On the other hand, there is a danger of the formation of a two-class society: those who own information and those who will not have access to it for various reasons. Another common approach in modern sociology is the civilizational approach. Within this concept, there is also a classification of societies. At the heart of the civilized approach lies the idea of the originality of the path traveled by peoples. Within the framework of this theory, different researchers single out different civilizations, but all of them are characterized by the allocation of Egyptian, Chinese, Babylonian, European, Russian, Muslim, Greek and other civilizations. Every civilization is unique. The uniqueness of each civilization is determined not only by the material base and method of production, but also by the culture corresponding to them. Culture in this case is determined by the totality of a certain worldview, the way of life of the population and the morality of the people. All this together constitutes, according to the definition of the followers of this approach, the spirit of the people, which determines a certain attitude towards itself. Thus, we can say that within the framework of the civilizational approach, the culture that develops in them is the basis for the classification of societies. Summing up, it should be noted that there are many approaches to the classification of societies. However, among them there is no single universally recognized. This emphasizes the relevance of considering this issue. 4. Civil society, its features and foundations The term "civil society" goes back to the idea of Aristotle's policy. For him, civil society is equivalent to the concept of political society and is opposed to the concept of "family", on the one hand, and the concept of "ethnos" - on the other. Thus, initially the meaning of the term "civil society" can be defined in the words of Hegel as "the differentiation that stands between the family and the state." Today, the concept of "civil society" has acquired a more specific meaning, has received scientific definition, and it can be characterized as a set of social relations and institutions that function independently of the state and are able to influence it, a society of autonomous individuals and autonomous social subjects. The autonomy of civil society from the state does not cancel their relationship, but, on the contrary, promotes mutual control and mutual limitation of state and non-state structures. As a result of this, movement towards a rule of law state that coordinates its activities with the law and a responsible society that takes into account the objective needs of the state is stimulated. One of the most important tasks of civil society is to ensure that the state does not intrude into private life, but, on the contrary, protects it. The degree to which this imperative is implemented in the realities of public life is an important indicator of the existence of civil society. Civil society has features that distinguish it from other non-state entities: churches, public associations, traditional communities. Among these signs are the following: 1) complexity, interweaving of economic, organizational, political, socio-demographic and cultural-national relations; 2) decentralized nature, i.e. the impossibility of creating a civil society by centralized state authorities; 3) dynamism, mobility of various associations with the freedom of their emergence, liquidation, division, regrouping, reorientation; 4) democracy, which is determined by the independence and amateur character of civil associations; 5) dependence on the way of life of people, genetic and functional connection with the material life of society. In addition to the distinctive features, civil society has its own clear structure. Its elements exist in all spheres of society, which characterizes it as a complex social system. In the economic sphere, the elements of civil society are limited liability companies, joint-stock companies, production and agricultural cooperatives, consumer societies, individual entrepreneurs, etc. In the social sphere, civil society is represented by rural communities, housing cooperatives, homeowners' associations, local governments, and interest associations. In the socio-political sphere, these are various public associations and movements, lobbying formations, trade unions, and voters. In the spiritual sphere, manifestations of civil society are non-state mass media, religious associations, creative unions, cultural-national societies and autonomies. So, it is easy to see that civil society is a complex formation that covers various spheres of society. This is largely due to the versatility of the functional tasks that it performs. Among them: 1) reproduction of values, customs, norms that allow for a comfortable hostel; 2) formation and support of the environment in which an active social type of citizen is formed; 3) maintaining the moral foundations of society: decency, honesty, humanity, human dignity; 4) ensuring the formation of various forms of ownership, a diversified market economy; 5) regulation of relationships between individuals, groups, organizations, conflict resolution; 6) implementation of self-government in all spheres and at all levels of public life; 7) a combination of social symmetries and asymmetries in the structures of civil society, which allows maintaining social justice; 8) creation of forms of democratic opposition and democratic constructive opposition. Since civil society has access to all spheres and is actively involved in political life, it is it that contributes to the formation of the interests and needs of people. The interests and needs of people are often perceived as included in the social status of a person and citizen. In other words, they are perceived as a combination of a person's interest with his dignity. This combination is reproduced in the form of human and civil rights and freedoms. These rights are classified depending on the inclusion of a person in certain associations into three groups: 1) natural-anthropological, implemented within the framework of the family, local community, personal condition; 2) spiritual and cultural, expressing the dignity of a person as a thinking being, included in the sphere of world culture, spiritual traditions of the ethnic group; 3) agent-professional, realized as a person's ability to produce tangible and intangible values that act as goods and services and are consumed by other people. The formation of civil society in Russia began only at the beginning of the XNUMXth century, when the formation of legal political parties was rapidly taking place, and parliamentarism was taking shape. However, this process was interrupted by the Bolshevization of state power. The next stage in the development of civil society began only in the 90s. XNUMXth century However, this stage was complicated by a significant weakening of the state and the gap between it and society. Therefore, instead of public associations and organizations, organized criminal groups, corrupt officials, and criminal financial groups gained strength. As a result, powerful lobbyists and oligarchic elements became intermediaries between civil society and the state. As a result, a normal party system did not take shape, trade unions weakened, voter absenteeism increased, and civil society became atomized. All this points to the impossibility of talking today about the final formation of civil society in Russia. 5. Development of society. Concepts of evolution, progress and modernization Social development - this is a change in society, which leads to the emergence of new social relations, institutions, norms and values. The characteristic signs of social development are three features: irreversibility, direction and regularity. irreversibility - this is the constancy of the processes of accumulation of quantitative and qualitative changes. Directivity These are the lines along which accumulation takes place. Regularity is a necessary process of accumulating change. An important characteristic of social development is the period of time during which it is carried out. It should also be borne in mind that the main features of social development are revealed only after a certain period of time. The result of social development is a new quantitative and qualitative state of the social object, a change in its structure and organization. In sociological science, three approaches have been formed to consider the processes of development of society. 1. The development of society has a linear ascending character. It is assumed that society goes through a series of successive stages, each of which uses special ways of accumulating and transferring knowledge, communication, obtaining means of subsistence, as well as different degrees of complexity of society's structures. The supporters of this approach to the development of society include Marxists, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, F. Tennis and more 2. The development of society is cyclical, repetitive. In this case, the model describing the development of society and its changes is based on the analogy between society and nature. One example of cyclical processes in the life of societies can be considered the historical cycles that all civilizations go through - from their emergence through flourishing to decay. Representatives of this approach - N. Danilevsky, O. Spengler, L. Gumilyov and more 3. Non-linear development of society. The real course of events in the world, especially in recent decades, has shown that a non-linear vision of social change and social development is most consistent with the processes taking place in society. Scientists identify a "point of change" - a bifurcation, that is, a turning point after which changes and development in general can go not in the same direction, but in a completely different, perhaps even unforeseen direction. The non-linearity of social development means the existence of an objective possibility of a multivariate course of events. Thus, the choice of this or that sequence of development depends on the social subject. Supporters of the non-linear development of society are S. L. Frank, M. Hatcher, D. Kollman and others. By its nature, social development is divided into evolutionary and revolutionary. The nature of this or that social development depends primarily on the method of social change. Evolution is understood as gradual, smooth partial changes in society, which can cover various spheres of society - economic, political, social, spiritual. Evolutionary changes most often take the form of social reforms, involving the implementation of various measures to transform certain aspects of public life. Social reforms, as a rule, do not affect the foundations of the social system of society, but only change its parts and structural elements. At the same time, it should be remembered that the evolution of each society is always unique, as it is based on the genetic continuity of traditions. Under social revolution refers to relatively rapid comprehensive, fundamental changes in society. Revolutionary changes are spasmodic in nature and represent the transition of society from one qualitative state to another. A social revolution is always associated with the violent destruction of some social relations and the establishment of others. Most scientists see the social revolution as an anomaly, a deviation from the natural course of history. However, according to a number of Russian sociologists, evolutionary and revolutionary changes are related aspects of social development and are interrelated. The ratio of evolutionary and revolutionary forms of social development depends on the specific historical conditions of the state and era. The process of social development is inextricably linked with the term "social progress". social progress - this is the direction of development, characterized by the transition from the lower to the higher, to more perfect forms, which is expressed in their higher organization, adaptation to the environment, and the growth of evolutionary possibilities. To determine the progressiveness of a society in sociology, two of the most common criteria have traditionally been used: 1) the level of labor productivity and welfare of the population; 2) the degree of freedom of the individual. However, in modern conditions, these criteria of progress need some clarification. The first criterion as a whole continues to retain its significance as an indicator reflecting the economic and social spheres of the life of society. The second criterion, according to modern scientists, is losing its relevance. This is confirmed by the data of recent sociological studies, according to which a person ceases to need freedom so badly, which is replaced by responsibility. Thus, it can be noted that the second criterion of social progress in modern conditions should be singled out, rather, the level of development of socio-political means that ensure the satisfaction of the needs of members of society for freedom and responsibility. In addition, there is a need to highlight the criterion of social progress, which would reflect the spiritual and moral changes of mankind. The level of public morality can be considered as such a criterion. In addition to these criteria, modern social thought has developed a number of other criteria for social progress, including the level of knowledge, the degree of differentiation and integration of society, the nature and level of social solidarity, the growth of productive forces and the liberation of man from the actions of the elemental forces of nature and society, etc. LECTURE No. 4. Social structure and stratification 1. Social structure and its historical types Every system has its own structure. Structure is the structure and internal form of organization of the system, acting as a unity of stable relationships between its elements. It is easy to see that the concept of "structure" primarily combines two such terms as elements and the relationship between these elements. Thus, we can say that each structure has its own composition and its own internal connections. The social structure of society as an integral system is no exception. Therefore, for a more complete consideration of this term, let us dwell on the interpretation of the concepts of "social composition" and "social ties". Social composition is a set of elements that make up a social system. Individuals and their associations (social, political, economic, etc.) can be noted as such elements. Individual - this is the most general concept, which includes the most common properties of a person. The primary organization of individuals in society is the family. Family - this is the very first public association of people, the most important form of organization of life, based on marital union and family ties and performing the function of biological reproduction of their own kind. More complex forms of association are corporate and public organizations. Corporate associations - these are bodies created for the purpose of conducting joint economic activities. Public associations are bodies created for the implementation of socially significant goals. The second characteristic of the social structure is the social connection. social connection are stable interactions between the elements of a social system. In the structure of society, one can note the existence of such ties as biological, economic, political, socio-cultural, spiritual. Thus, social structure is a complex concept, and its interpretation can be made both in a broad and in a narrow sense. In a broad sense, the social structure is the structure of society as a whole, the system of connections between all its main elements. In the narrow sense of the word, social structure is a social class structure, a set of classes, social strata and groups that are in unity and interaction. In historical terms, the social structure of society in the broad sense of the word appeared much earlier than the social class structure. Thus, in particular, ethnic communities appeared long before the formation of classes, in the conditions of primitive society. Another important characteristic of any structure, including a social one, is its hierarchical nature. It is this characteristic of the social system that allows it to play a very important regulatory and organizing role in society, helping society at each new historical stage to adapt to changing conditions, developing those forms of interaction that allow it to respond to new requirements. The structured nature of human interaction makes it possible to maintain society in an orderly state and thereby preserve its integrity and boundaries. However, despite the many approaches to the consideration of the social structure of society, the most common is the theory of historical types of social structure. Within the framework of this theory, it is customary to distinguish four types of social structure of society: slave, caste, estate and class. The slave-owning type of social structure is characteristic primarily of ancient societies. The form of social connection in such societies is direct violence. The main elements of the system are two groups of people: some people have civil rights, others are completely deprived of them and, along with things, are turned into an object of private property. This position is most often inherited and thus fixed in generations. The caste type of social structure is characteristic of a number of eastern states, primarily India. In these societies, social ties are of a hereditarily prescribed socio-professional character and are reinforced by a religious order. Each caste is a closed group, which is assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy: there is a clear list of occupations for members of a certain caste, and a person cannot change his position in the caste system throughout his life. The estate type of social structure is characteristic of the states of the period of developed feudalism, including Russia. In this case, social communication is based on a clear consolidation of the social rights and obligations of representatives of each estate. These rights and obligations are also predominantly hereditary. However, here, unlike the caste system, a limited transition from one class to another is allowed. Class type of social structure. This type was scientifically developed in the works of the founders of Marxism. Class is defined by them as a large group of people united by their socio-economic status, which usually includes three variables - the prestige of the profession, the level of education and the level of income. Classes are social groups of legally free people with equal basic (constitutional) rights. Unlike the previous types, belonging to classes is not regulated by the state, is not established by law, and is not inherited. It should be noted that in modern sociology the class type of social structure is subjected to significant and justified criticism, therefore, in modern conditions, the question arises of developing new theories of social structure. 2. The social structure of modern Russian society In the process of developing democratic and market reforms, the social structure of Russian society has undergone a significant transformation. Currently, there are several models of the social structure of Russian society. Let's consider some of them. Domestic sociologist N. M. Rimashevskaya identifies the following elements in the social structure of Russian society: 1) "all-Russian elite groups", combining the possession of property in amounts comparable to the largest Western fortunes, and the means of power influence at the all-Russian level; 2) "regional and corporate elites", which have a significant fortune by Russian standards, as well as influence at the level of regions and sectors of the economy; 3) the Russian "upper middle class", which has property and incomes that provide it with Western consumption standards, claims to improve its social status and is guided by the established practice and ethical norms of economic relations; 4) the Russian "dynamic middle class", which has incomes that ensure the satisfaction of average Russian and higher standards of consumption, relatively high potential adaptability, significant social claims and motivations, social activity and an orientation towards legal ways of its manifestation; 5) "outsiders", characterized by low adaptation and social activity, low incomes and orientation towards legal ways of their acquisition; 6) "marginals", characterized by low adaptation and anti-social attitudes in their socio-economic activities; 7) "criminals" with high social activity and adaptation, but at the same time quite rationally acting contrary to the legal norms of economic activity. Scientist A. V. Dmitrov, taking three characteristics as the basis for structuring (income, level of education and prestige), he singled out five main social groups that are part of the social structure of modern Russian society: 1) the administrative elite (ruling elite), consisting of the old party nomenklatura of the first and second echelons, as well as the new political elite; 2) the working class, which, in turn, is divided according to sectoral and qualification characteristics; 3) intelligentsia; 4) the "new bourgeoisie", which is made up of entrepreneurs and bankers; 5) the peasantry. Academician of RAS T. N. Zaslavskaya on the basis of data from specific sociological studies, she tried to identify the main social groups that make up the structure of Russian society and determine their percentage. The most privileged, but the smallest (7%) is the "top layer". He, according to T. N. Zaslavskaya, is a real subject of reforms, since he includes elite and sub-elite groups that occupy an important place in the public administration system, as well as in economic and law enforcement agencies. At the same time, the directly ruling political and economic elite makes up only 0,5%, and the rest (6,5%) falls on large and medium-sized entrepreneurs, directors of large and medium-sized privatized enterprises. Following the top is "middle layer". It is more numerous (20%) and includes small entrepreneurs, managers of medium and small enterprises, the middle link of the bureaucracy, officers, the most qualified specialists and workers. The most numerous is "base layer". The main part of it is made up of such groups as the intelligentsia (specialists), semi-intelligentsia (assistant specialists), employees from the technical staff, workers of mass professions in the field of trade and services, as well as workers. This layer unites about 60% of the population of our country. Moreover, according to Zaslavskaya, the inability to realize their vital goals pushes representatives of this layer to express mass protest. Followed by the base "bottom layer". It is represented by low-skilled and unskilled workers, the unemployed, refugees, etc. They are characterized by low activity potential, inability to adapt to social conditions, their share in the structure of the population is 8%. The last layer in Zaslavskaya's classification was called the "social bottom" and amounted to 5%. It includes criminal and semi-criminal elements, as well as individuals with an antisocial type of behavior (drug addicts, alcoholics, vagrants, etc.). It should be noted that this structural model was proposed on the basis of a study of only the employed population, so the occupancy of the above layers can be specified and changed taking into account family status, a significant proportion of pensioners and disabled people, and non-working youth. 3. Theories of social stratification The phenomenon of social stratification is closely connected with the social structure of society. Social stratification is a hierarchical ordered social inequality, as well as a process as a result of which the subjects of social life occupy different positions in society and can be grouped according to certain social characteristics. Thus, we can say that social stratification is a dynamic manifestation of the social structure of society. Social stratification can also be defined as a set of vertically arranged social strata, in particular, the poor, the wealthy, the rich. In sociology, there are various methodological approaches to resolving questions about the nature, origins, and prospects for the development of social stratification. The functional approach considers stratification as a necessary, inevitable and universal phenomenon associated with the natural diversity of functions and social roles. The hierarchy of functions determines the hierarchy of social groups. The reward fits the role and is therefore fair. Stratification ensures the normal functioning of society. The conflict approach to the analysis of social stratification is based on the theory of struggle between different social groups. Thus, social stratification is not necessary, it is determined by the interests of those in power, therefore stratification is unfair and makes it difficult for the normal functioning of society. According to one of the representatives of this trend, M. Weber, the basis of social inequality is not only the level of income and ownership of property, as in Marx, but also the inequality of statuses. In modern sociological science, there is a classification of the elements of the stratification system, which are distinguished depending on one or another social criterion (Table 1). Table 1 Classification of elements of the stratification system 
The selected elements of stratification systems play a very important role in public life, performing the following functions: 1) activation of social development processes; 2) ensuring the functioning of all social institutions; 3) formation of the type of socio-political structure of the state. Among the various models of stratification systems, one can distinguish western and eastern. The Western stratification system includes seven structural elements: 1) the "upper upper class", which is formed by representatives of the elites of various spheres of public life (entrepreneurs, statesmen, famous artists, prominent scientists, senior military officials, etc.); 2) the "upper class", represented by managers of medium-sized firms, lawyers, university professors, owners of small enterprises; 3) "upper middle class", consisting of clerks, middle managers, engineers, skilled workers; 4) the "middle middle class" is represented by bank employees, insurance agents, teachers; 5) "lower middle class" - workers in the service sector (hairdressers, catering workers, postal workers, policemen, hotel employees); 6) the "middle lower class" consists of taxi drivers, semi-skilled workers, porters; 7) "lower lower class", which includes domestic servants, gardeners, porters, scavengers. The eastern stratification system is common in countries where the state has a huge influence on public life. This system has gained particular popularity in India, which is an ideal example for its consideration. 1. "Upper layer" (Kshatriyas) - in the beginning there were warriors who enslaved India and occupied a dominant position. 2. "Brahmins" or "Brahmins" - priests who provide ideological support for the upper stratum. 3. "Serving layer" (Vaishyas) - busy with servicing the "Higher layer". 4. "Shudras" (Dependent) - the main part of the population, has its own hierarchy. 5. "Les Misérables" (pariahs). It should be noted that in modern conditions, societies with a frozen or pronounced stratification system do not exist. There are mixed stratification systems, in addition, according to scientists, people are in constant motion, and society is in development. 4. Social mobility and group isolation Concept "social mobility" introduced into scientific sociological circulation P. Sorokin. He believed that society is a huge social space in which people move both physically, really, and conditionally, in the opinion of others and their own. Sorokin introduced the concept of "social space" and put into it a different meaning than it was before - the totality of all members of society as a whole. In this society, where people are not equal, they occupy different places in the ideas and opinions of others. Some of them are high, others are lower in the social space. Social space, according to Sorokin, is an abstract, conditional space where people and entire groups of people occupy one place or another in social representations. Social mobility is a change by an individual or group of its position in the social space. According to the directions of social movements, there are vertical и horizontal social mobility. Vertical mobility means such social movement, which is accompanied by an increase or decrease in social status. At the same time, the transition to a higher social position is called upward mobility, and to a lower one - downward mobility. Horizontal mobility involves social displacement that is not associated with a change in social status, for example, moving to another place of work in the same position, a change of residence. In accordance with the change by the social subject of his position in society, they distinguish between individual, characteristic of a steadily developing society, and group mobility, associated with a radical movement in society, when there is a change in the status of entire social groups and classes. In sociology, intergenerational and intragenerational mobility are also distinguished. The first involves a comparative change in social status among different generations, for example, the son of a worker becomes the president of the country, the second - a change in status within one generation. To quantify the processes of social mobility, indicators of its speed and intensity are usually used. Mobility rate can be thought of as the vertical social distance that an individual travels in a given period of time. The intensity of mobility is understood as the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. Social mobility is an important indicator and characteristic for any society, which reveals the degree of its openness. In an open society, achieved status is highly valued and there are relatively wide opportunities for transition from one social group to another. A closed society favors a prescribed status and makes it very difficult to move from one layer to another. Modern society assumes a mobile system of stratification and is characterized by high rates of social mobility. This is primarily due to the needs of socio-economic and scientific and technological development, with the need for a constant influx of highly educated specialists and professionals to key social positions who are able to generate ideas and solve complex problems of managing social processes. The possibilities of social mobility depend both on the socio-political and economic organization of society, and on the individual himself, his abilities and personal qualities. Ways to overcome barriers in the process of social movement are called channels of social mobility. The main ones are getting an education, advanced training, a political career, military service, a change in the social environment, marriage with a representative of a higher status group, etc. Thus, it is possible to single out the factors of social mobility, which are classified into two levels: the micro level and the macro level. At the micro level, there are such factors of social mobility as the direct social environment of the individual, as well as his total life resource. Macro-level factors include the state of the economy, the level of scientific and technological development, the nature of the political regime, the prevailing system of stratification, the nature of natural conditions, etc. The main obstacle to social mobility seems to be the phenomenon of group isolation that exists in society. This phenomenon was first considered by O. Comte. The researcher believed that the emergence of group isolation is the law of the development of society. As a result of their functioning, various social groups form their internal corporate morality, traditions and rules of conduct. This in a certain way contributes to the cohesion of the group and the optimization of its internal regulation. However, this is also a certain barrier to the transition from one social group to another. It is easy to see that this phenomenon really exists. This is especially evident in the slave, feudal and caste stratification systems. However, for modern society, this phenomenon does not lose its relevance. This is especially true for elite social groups, which are quite difficult to get into. The phenomenon of group isolation finds a vivid manifestation in modern Russian reality. LECTURE No. 5. Sociology of personality 1. Personality as a subject of social relations. Personality structure One of the central areas of sociology is the study of personality. This is due to a number of factors: 1) a person is one of the main subjects of social relations; 2) the functioning of society is impossible without taking into account the needs and interests of the individual; 3) personality is an indicator of social development. However, before proceeding to the consideration of personality, it is necessary to analyze such terms close to this concept as "man", "individual", "individuality". Human - this is the highest level of living organisms on Earth, the subject of socio-economic activity and culture. Individual - a single person as a representative of the genus. Individuality - specific natural and social qualities that have developed in a person on the basis of inherited biological prerequisites, his social status and upbringing. In the process of development of sociological knowledge, various approaches to the consideration and analysis of personality have been formed. Among them are six main approaches. 1. The dialectical-materialist approach, according to which a person is initially a social being, and his formation as a person occurs under the influence of four factors: the biology of the individual, his social environment, upbringing and self-education skills. 2. An anthropological approach, in which a person is considered as a carrier of universal human properties, as a generic concept denoting a representative of the human race, thus coinciding with the concepts of a person and an individual. 3. A normative approach, in which a person is defined as a social being with a number of positive qualities related to consciousness and activity. 4. A sociological approach, the essence of which is to understand each person as a person, which is considered as a concrete expression of the essence of an individual, a holistic embodiment and realization in him of a system of socially significant features and qualities of a given society. 5. Personalistic approach, in which personality is a set of mental reactions of a person to the opinion of others about him, and the main mechanism of its formation is "I - perception". 6. The biological-genetic approach assumes that a person's behavior is determined by his bioprogram. Analyzing all these approaches, it is possible to give a systematic definition of personality, which should be based on the following principles: 1) a person acts simultaneously as a subject and an object of both social and biological relations; 2) a person has a certain freedom to choose his behavior, which is caused by a mismatch of social and biological conditions; 3) a personality, being a biosocial phenomenon, combines both the features of the biological species of a person and the social community in which it exists; 4) the behavior of the individual depends on its unique personal characteristics, through which social and personal life experience is refracted. Given all these principles, personality can be defined as an integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocial relations and combines in him the universal, socially specific and individually unique. The study and analysis of personality as a complex social phenomenon involves the allocation of its structure. Based on these features of personality as a phenomenon, the following elements of its structure can be distinguished: biological, psychological and social. biological level includes natural, common in origin personality traits (body structure, age and gender characteristics, temperament, etc.). Psychological level personality unites its psychological characteristics (feelings, will, memory, thinking). Psychological features are in close relationship with the heredity of the individual. Finally, the the social level of the individual is divided into three sublevels: 1) proper sociological (motives of behavior, interests of the individual, life experience, goals), this sublevel is closely connected with social consciousness, which is objective in relation to each person, acting as part of the social environment, as material for individual consciousness; 2) specific cultural (value and other attitudes, norms of behavior); 3) moral (morality, morality). When studying a personality as a subject of social relations, sociologists pay special attention to the internal determinants of its social behavior. These determinants include primarily needs and interests. Needs - these are those forms of interaction with the world (material and spiritual), the need for which is due to the peculiarities of the reproduction and development of its biological, psychological, social certainty and which are realized, felt by a person in any form. Interests are the perceived needs of the individual. The needs and interests of the individual lie at the basis of her value attitude to the world around her, at the basis of her system of values and value orientations. 2. Typology of personality An important component of the sociological doctrine of personality is its typology. Social personality type - this is a way for a person to carry out various types of activities, a certain set of personality traits that expresses the individual's belonging to a social group. The concept of "social type of personality" captures the reflection of the totality of recurring social qualities of individuals included in any social community. As already mentioned, personality is a complex multi-level phenomenon, which leads to the existence of various variations. Sociology has accumulated considerable material on this problem. Let us dwell on the most developed and existing classifications. For the first time, an attempt was made to create a classification system of personality E. Spranger in 1914. The researcher developed six "ideal types" of personality based on their motivation. 1) theoretical type - focus on obtaining new knowledge; 2) economic type - the basis of behavior is a pragmatic orientation; 3) social - the desire for communication, focus on the social environment; 4) aesthetic - a tendency to impressions, experiences and self-expression; 5) political - the desire for dominance and the distribution of social roles, as well as a tendency to submit; 6) religious - orientation towards the search for the higher meaning of life, communication with God. At the same time, E. Spranger points out that all these types do not occur in their pure form, and in addition, there are many variations in the manifestation of the same type. Another common classification in sociology is the division of personalities into basic and ideal. The basic personality is the personality most characteristic of certain social conditions. ideal type is a person who best meets certain social conditions. Thus, it is easy to see that in this case the basis of classification is the relationship between the individual and the existing social conditions. The difference between these personality structures is significant. The ideal, in principle, will never receive its final realization, but at every given moment it receives its embodiment in the basic personality type. However, it is easy to see that both of these types can also be divided into many subtypes, which may be based on other criteria. Another classification is the typological system of E. Frome. The basis of his classification is the orientation of the individual in relations with society. So, at the heart of an unproductive personality lies an unproductive orientation, that is, an inability to express oneself. A productive personality is based on a productive orientation - the ability to change one's environment, to express oneself. However, the researcher himself notes that there are no individuals with one type of orientation. Usually, each personality combines both productive and unproductive orientations. The only question is which one dominates. American sociologist D. Riesman proposed the division of all types of personality, based on their orientation, into internal, external, and "differently oriented". An internally oriented person has the ability to maintain a balance between the needs to achieve his vital interests and the environment. An externally oriented person is deprived of such an opportunity. Personality "otherwise oriented" is able to respond to changes in the surrounding society. Among the developments of domestic scientists in this area, one can note the allocation of a new type of personality, which developed in the 30s. XNUMXth century under the influence of the socialist form of organization of public life. This type is called command-administrative personality type. This type of personality is characterized by such qualities as conformism, lack of autonomy, fear of conflicts, lack of focus on the results of work, lack of initiative, unwillingness to take risks, distrust of the new, hostility to change, intolerance to various deviations. In modern conditions, under the influence of market reforms and democratic values, a new democratic type of personality is being formed in Russia. 3. Social statuses and roles. The role of the status-role structure of society One of the most widespread theories of personality in modern sociology is the status-role concept. Within the framework of this concept, a person is considered as an activity subject, occupying a certain place in society and performing a set of functions in accordance with it. The status-role concept was developed in the writings of American sociologists J. Meade и R. Minton. The theoretical material of this theory was significantly enriched by the works of T. Parsons. The role theory of personality describes its social behavior with two basic concepts: "social status" and "social role". So, according to this concept, each person occupies a certain place in society. This place is determined by a number of social positions that imply the existence of certain rights and obligations. It is these positions that are the social statuses of a person. Thus, it is easy to see that each person has several social statuses at the same time. However, one of the statuses is always the main or basic one. As a rule, the basic status expresses the position of a person. Social status - an integral indicator of the social status of an individual, a social group, covering the profession, qualifications, position, nature of the work performed, financial situation, political affiliation, business ties, age, marital status, etc. In sociology, there is a classification of social statuses into prescribed and acquired. Prescribed status - this is the position of a person in society, occupied by him regardless of personal merit, but imposed by the social environment. Most often, the prescribed status reflects the innate qualities of a person (race, gender, nationality, age). Acquired status This is the position in society achieved by the person himself. However, a person can also have a mixed status, which combines both types. A striking example of mixed status is the state of marriage. In addition to these types, there are also natural and professional official statuses. Natural status of the individual - the place of a person in the system of social relations, determined by the essential and relatively stable characteristics of a person. Professional and official status is a social indicator that captures the social, economic and industrial position of a person in society. Thus, social status refers to the specific place that an individual occupies in a given social system. The concept of "social role" is closely related to the concept of "social status". Social role is a set of actions that a person holding a given status in the social system must perform. Moreover, each status involves the performance of not one, but several roles. A set of roles, the fulfillment of which is prescribed by one status, is called a role set. Obviously, the higher the position of a person in society, i.e., the greater his social status, the more roles he performs. So, the difference between the role set of the President of the State and the worker of a metal-rolling plant is quite obvious. The systematization of social roles was first developed by Parsons, who identified five grounds for classifying a particular role: 1) emotionality, i.e. some roles involve a wide manifestation of emotionality, others, on the contrary, contain it; 2) method of obtaining - depending on the type of status, they can be prescribed or achieved by a person independently; 3) scale - the scope of authority for one role is clearly established, for others it is undefined; 4) regulation - some roles are strictly regulated, such as the role of a civil servant, some are blurred (the role of a man); 5) motivation - performing a role for one's own benefit or for the public good. The implementation of a social role can also be viewed from several angles. On the one hand, this is a role expectation, which is characterized by a certain behavior of a person depending on his status, which is expected by the surrounding members of society. On the other hand, this is a role performance, which is characterized by the actual behavior of a person, which he considers to be correlated with his status. It should be noted that these two role aspects do not always coincide. At the same time, each of them plays a huge role in determining a person's behavior, since social expectations have a strong impact on a person. There are usually four elements in the normal structure of a social role: 1) description of the type of behavior corresponding to this role; 2) instructions (requirements) associated with this behavior; 3) assessment of the performance of the prescribed role; 4) sanctions - the social consequences of a particular action within the framework of the requirements of the social system. Social sanctions by their nature can be moral, implemented directly by the social group through its behavior (contempt), or legal, political, environmental. It should be noted that any role is not a pure model of behavior. The main link between role expectations and role behavior is the character of the individual. That is, the behavior of a particular person does not fit into a pure scheme. 4. Socialization of the individual. Mechanisms and agents of socialization As already mentioned, personality is a biosocial phenomenon. And if biological characteristics are inherited, then social qualities are acquired by a person in the process of socialization. Socialization can be defined as the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values necessary for his successful functioning in a given society. Thus, in the process of socialization, a person acquires the qualities necessary for him to fulfill social roles. The process of socialization is two-way: on the one hand, it is the transfer of experience by society to the individual, and on the other hand, it is the process of assimilation of social experience by the individual. In sociological science, it is customary to distinguish two main types of socialization: 1) primary - the assimilation of norms and values by the child; 2) secondary - the assimilation of new norms and values by an adult. Socialization is a set of agents and institutions that shape, guide, stimulate or limit the development of a person's personality. Socialization agents - these are specific people responsible for teaching cultural norms and social values. Socialization institutions are institutions that influence the process of socialization and direct it. Depending on the type of socialization, primary and secondary agents and institutions of socialization are considered. Primary socialization agents - parents, brothers, sisters, grandparents, other relatives, friends, teachers, leaders of youth groups. The term "primary" refers to everything that makes up the immediate and immediate environment of a person. Agents of secondary socialization - representatives of the administration of the school, university, enterprise, army, police, church, employees of the media. The term "secondary" describes those who stand in the second echelon of influence, having a less important impact on a person. Primary institutions of socialization is a family, school, peer group, etc. Secondary institutions - this is the state, its bodies, universities, the church, the media, etc. The process of socialization consists of several stages and stages. 1. Stage of adaptation (birth - adolescence). At this stage, there is an uncritical assimilation of social experience, the main mechanism of socialization is imitation. 2. The emergence of a desire to distinguish oneself from others is the stage of identification. 3. The stage of integration, which can take place either safely or unsuccessfully. 4. Labor stage. At this stage, the reproduction of social experience, the impact on the environment. 5. Post-labor stage (old age). This stage is characterized by the transfer of social experience to new generations. At each stage of socialization, a person is influenced by certain factors, the ratio of which at different stages is different. In general, there are five factors that influence the process of socialization: 1) biological heredity; 2) physical environment; 3) culture; 4) group experience; 5) individual experience. The biological heritage of each person provides "raw materials", which are then transformed into personality characteristics in a variety of ways. It is thanks to the biological factor that there is a huge variety of individuals. The physical environment plays an important role in the formation of personality, since climate, natural resources and other natural indicators are of great importance. The culture of each society also has a huge impact on the process of socialization. Every society develops one or more personality types that match its culture. Duboys called a personality that has features characteristic of a given society, modal. A modal personality is understood as the most common type of personality that has some features inherent in the culture of society as a whole. Group and personal experiences are also included in the process of socialization. Each person, according to C. Cooley, builds his "I" on the basis of the perceived reactions of other people with whom he comes into contact. Cooley defines three stages in the formation of the mirror self: our perception of how we look at others; our perception of their opinion; our feelings about this opinion. Each personal experience is unique because it cannot be repeated exactly. The picture of individual experience is complicated by the fact that the individual does not simply summarize it, but integrates it. Thus, we can say that the process of socialization is influenced by two most important environments surrounding a person: natural and social. Due to the fact that the social environment is an objective condition of socialization, its constituent elements also have a certain influence on this process. Such elements of society are called agents of socialization, as already mentioned, agents of socialization are people and institutions associated with it and responsible for its results. The main agents of socialization are the family, various types of communities (collectives, ethnic groups, nationalities, classes, social strata), society as a whole - everything that includes and surrounds a person. Each sphere of social life (material and spiritual) is involved in the process of socialization - targeted and non-directed education. So, the most intensive process of socialization is carried out in childhood and adolescence. By the time a person reaches his professional and official status, the process of socialization, as a rule, reaches a certain completion. The socialization of adults differs in that it is mainly a change in external behavior (the socialization of children is the formation of value orientations), adults are able to evaluate norms (and children only learn them). Adult socialization aims to help a person acquire certain skills. For example, to master a new social role after retirement, change of profession or social status. Another point of view on the socialization of adults is that adults are gradually abandoning naive children's ideas (for example, about the steadfastness of authorities, about absolute justice, etc.), from the idea that there is only white and black. An important process of socialization is the process of identification. Identification - this is the process of assimilation by an individual of the norms, values and qualities of the social group to which he belongs or would like to belong. LECTURE No. 6. Social communities 1. Types of social communities and their characteristic features Social community is one of the important components of society. Social communities of various kinds and types are forms of joint life activity of people, forms of human community. That is why their study is an important area of sociological science. A social community is a real-life, empirically fixed set of individuals, distinguished by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of the socio-historical process. Social communities are relatively stable aggregates of people who differ in more or less the same features (in all or some aspects of life) of conditions and lifestyle, mass consciousness, in one way or another by the commonality of social norms, value systems and interests. Thus, the following can be distinguished as the main features of social communities: 1) reality - social communities are not speculative abstractions or experimental artificial formations, but exist in reality, in reality itself. Their existence can be empirically fixed and verified; 2) integrity - social communities are not a simple collection of individuals, social groups or other social groups, but integrity with the resulting characteristics of integral systems; 3) acting as an object of social interaction - social communities themselves are the sources of their development. The formation and functioning of social communities occurs on the basis of social ties, social interaction and relationships. Social communities are distinguished by a huge variety of specific historical and situationally determined types and forms. Thus, in terms of quantitative composition, they vary from the interaction of two people to numerous international, economic and political movements. According to the duration of existence - from lasting minutes and hours to living centuries and millennia of ethnic groups, nationalities, nations. According to the density of communication between individuals - from closely knit teams and organizations to very vague, amorphous formations. Various types of communities are formed on various objective bases. The following characteristics can be distinguished as such grounds: 1) the nature of social production (production team, socio-professional group); 2) ethnicity (peoples, nations), which differ in the specifics of economic activity, the natural environment and other qualities; 3) natural socio-demographic factors (sex, age, belonging to a social stratum, for example, students, etc.); 4) cultural characteristics (various cultural associations: theatrical, cinematographic, etc.); 5) political orientations (political parties and social movements). All social communities can be divided into mass and group. Mass communities - these are populations of people distinguished on the basis of behavioral differences that are situational and not fixed. Mass communities are characterized by the following features: 1) are structurally undivided amorphous formations with rather extended boundaries, with a direct qualitative and quantitative composition, without a clearly defined principle of entering them; 2) they are characterized by a situational way of formation and existence, since they function within the boundaries of a particular activity, are impossible outside of it and therefore turn out to be unstable formations that change from case to case; 3) they are characterized by a heterogeneous composition, an intergroup nature, that is, these societies overcome class ethnic and other boundaries; 4) due to their amorphous formation, they are not able to act as structural units of wider communities. Group communities - these are sets of people who are distinguished by a stable nature of interaction, a high degree of cohesion, and homogeneity; they are most often incorporated into larger social societies as building blocks. Any community is formed on the basis of the same living conditions of the people from which it is formed. However, the totality of people becomes a community only when they can realize this sameness, show their attitude towards it. In this regard, they develop a clear understanding of who is "their own" and who is "stranger". Accordingly, there is an understanding of the unity of their interests in comparison with other communities. Awareness of this unity is inherent in any social community. At the same time, there is a direct relationship between the nature of the basis of society and the awareness of unity; the more common conditions underlie their formation, the greater the unity of this community. Therefore, the awareness of unity is most inherent for ethnic communities: nations, peoples, nationalities. 2. Social group as an object of sociological study. Types of social groups P. Sorokin noted that "... outside the group, history does not give us a person. We do not know an absolutely isolated person who lives outside communication with other people. We are always given groups ...". Society is a collection of very different groups: large and small, real and nominal, primary and secondary. Social group - this is a set of people who have common social characteristics, performing a socially necessary function in the general structure of the social division of labor and activity. Such signs can be gender, age, nationality, race, profession, place of residence, income, power, education, etc. The first attempts to create a social theory of groups were made in the XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. E. Durkheim, G. Tarde, G. Simmel, L. Gumplovich, C. Cooley, F. Tennis. In everyday life, the concept of "social group" is given a variety of interpretations. In one case, this term is used to refer to a community of individuals physically and spatially located in the same place. An example of such a community can be individuals who are at a certain moment in a certain area or living in the same territory. Such a community is called an aggregation. Aggregation - this is a certain number of people gathered in a certain physical space and not carrying out conscious interaction. The significance of a social group for an individual lies primarily in the fact that a group is a certain system of activity, given its place in the system of social division of labor. In accordance with the place in the system of social relations, sociologists distinguish large and small social groups. large group is a group with a large number of its members, based on various types of social ties that do not imply mandatory personal contacts. Large social groups, in turn, can also be divided into several types. Nominal groups - a set of people allocated for the purposes of analysis on some basis that does not have social significance. These include conditional and static groups - some constructions used for ease of analysis. If the sign by which groups are distinguished is chosen conditionally (for example, high or low), then such a group is purely conditional, if the sign is significant (occupation, gender, age) - it approaches real. Real groups - these are communities of people who are capable of self-activity, that is, they can act as a single whole, united by common goals, are aware of them, strive to satisfy them with joint organized actions. These are groups such as class, ethnos and other communities that are formed on the basis of a set of essential features. Large social groups rarely act as an object of sociological research, which is due to their scale. Much more often, a small social group acts as an elementary particle of society, concentrating in itself all types of social ties. A small social group is a small number of people who know each other well and constantly interact. G. M. Andreeva defines this phenomenon as a group in which social relations act in the form of direct personal contacts. Thus, the main group-forming factor in this case is direct personal contact. The small group has a number of distinctive features: 1) a limited number of members, usually from 2 to 7 people, but not more than 20; 2) members of a small group are in direct contact, interacting for a certain time; 3) each member of the group interacts with all members; 4) belonging to a group is motivated by the hope of finding in it the satisfaction of personal needs; 5) members of the group have common goals, as a rule, they develop common rules, standards, norms and values. There are two initial forms of a small group: a dyad and a triad. Dyad - This is a group consisting of two people, characterized by a more intimate relationship, for example, a couple in love. Triad - active interaction of three people, for whom emotionality and intimacy are less characteristic, but the division of labor is more developed. There are various approaches to the classification of small groups. Within one of them, it is customary to distinguish primary and secondary groups. Primary group - a kind of small group, characterized by a high degree of solidarity, closeness of its members, unity of goals and activities, voluntary entry and informal control over the behavior of its members, for example, a family, a group of peers, a company of friends, etc. For the first time, the term "primary group "introduced into scientific sociological circulation C. Cooley. The author considered it as an elementary cell of the entire social organism. The study of primary groups is important because of their enormous influence on the moral and spiritual education of a person. Stereotypes developed in such groups become part of the culture, moral postulates and role settings for a huge number of people. The secondary group is a social group whose social contacts and relations between members are impersonal. Emotional characteristics in such a group fade into the background, and the ability to perform certain functions and achieve a common goal comes to the fore. A secondary group can be called social communities interconnected by an external connection, which, however, has a significant impact on their behavior. In the classification of small groups, reference groups are also distinguished. The reference group is a real or imaginary group with which the individual relates himself as a standard and to norms, goals, the values of which he is guided in his behavior and self-esteem. The development of this social phenomenon was carried out by an American sociologist G. Hyman. In the course of his research, he found out that each person includes himself in several reference groups at once, although he does not formally belong to them. When considering small social groups, it is also customary to single out membership groups - groups to which an individual actually belongs. In everyday life, there are frequent cases when a value conflict arises between membership groups and reference groups. The result of this may be a rupture of interpersonal ties, which threatens to destroy the social group. In modern society, such phenomena are of significant proportions. First of all, this is due to the development of information technology. Official morality, if it is not supported by the media, is rejected in the process of socialization. 3. Social quasi-groups. The social phenomenon of the crowd. Features of the behavior of people in the crowd In addition to these types of social groups in sociology, groups are distinguished that appear unintentionally and are of a random nature. Such spontaneous unstable groups are called quasigroups. A quasi-group is a spontaneous (unstable) formation with a short-term interaction of some kind. One of the most striking examples of a quasigroup is a crowd. Crowd is a temporary meeting of people united in a closed space by a common interest. The social structure of the crowd, as a rule, is simple - the leaders and all other participants. Physically limited space leads to social interaction even when people in a crowd try to avoid interpersonal contact. Depending on the nature of the behavior and the formation of the crowd can be divided into several types. random crowd has the most indefinite structure. For example, a gathering of people on the street near a traffic accident. In this form, crowds of people unite either insignificant goals or completely aimless pastime. Individuals are weakly emotionally included in a random crowd and can freely separate themselves from it. However, with a certain change in conditions, such a crowd can quickly rally and acquire a general structure. Conditioned crowd - a meeting of people, pre-planned and relatively structured. For example, a crowd gathered in a stadium to watch a football match. In this case, the crowd is "conditioned" in the sense that the behavior of its members is influenced by certain, predetermined social norms. expressive crowd - a social quasi-group, which is usually organized for the personal pleasure of its members with the activity of people, which in itself is a goal and result. For example, a meeting of people at a rock festival. Active crowd. The term "acting" means the whole complex of actions of the crowd. One of the most important forms of the acting crowd is a gathering - an emotionally excited crowd, gravitating towards violent actions. Gatherings tend to have leaders who are unidirectional in their aggressive intentions and require strict conformity from all members. The actions of the gathering are directed at a specific object and are of a short-term nature. After that, the congregation, as a rule, breaks up. A common example of a gathering is a cheering crowd, which has a very narrow focus and quickly disintegrates after reaching the goal. Another form of the acting mob is the revolting mob. It is a violent and destructive collective explosion. Such a crowd differs from a congregation in that in riots, behavior is less structured, less purposeful, and more erratic. The revolting crowd may consist of different groups pursuing their own goals, but acting at a critical moment in a similar way. This type of crowd is least susceptible to various random phenomena from the outside, its actions are in most cases unpredictable. Despite the fact that crowds vary greatly in character and behavior, there are common features that are characteristic of the behavior of people in any crowd: 1) suggestibility. People who are in a crowd tend to be more suggestible. They are more likely to accept the opinions, feelings, and actions of the majority; 2) anonymity. The individual feels unrecognizable in the crowd. The crowd often acts as a whole, its individual members are not perceived and distinguished as individuals; 3) spontaneity. The people who make up the crowd tend to behave more spontaneously than under normal circumstances. As a rule, they do not think about their behavior and their actions are dictated solely by the emotions prevailing in the crowd; 4) invulnerability. Since the people who make up the crowd are anonymous, they begin to feel outside social control. For example, when an act of vandalism is carried out by football fans, each of the participants in the action relieves himself of responsibility, acting together with everyone as a whole. In the crowd, individual and status differences, social norms and taboos that operate in "normal" conditions, lose their meaning. The crowd compels individuals to act and rage in the same way, crushes any attempt at resistance or doubt. Here analogies with a furious stream, mudflow, etc. are understandable. But these are only analogies: the behavior of the most violent crowd has its own logic, and this is the logic of social action, the participants of which act as social beings. In an active crowd, especially in a close-knit one, one can always find a more or less definite and stable own structure. It is based on some traditional behavioral stereotype (religious or ethnic xenophobia, blood feud, "lynch law", etc.) and a role mechanism (for example, instigators, activists, screamers, etc.). Something similar exists in a situation of a disunited, panicky crowd (the stereotype "save yourself as best you can" and the corresponding distribution of roles). Role-playing this set in the crowd is poor, the functions are reduced to trigger and amplifying. 4. Sociology of ethnic communities In the scientific literature, an ethnic community is usually understood as a stable set of people living, as a rule, in the same territory, having their own original culture, including a language that has self-consciousness, which is usually expressed in the name of the ethnic group - Russia, France, India, etc. An integrative indicator of the existing community is ethnic self-awareness - a sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group, awareness of one's unity and difference from other ethnic groups. An important role in the development of ethnic self-consciousness is played by ideas about a common origin, territory, traditions, customs, etc., that is, such elements of culture that are passed down from generation to generation and form a specific ethnic culture. The question of the study of ethnic groups is very important for sociology, since ethnic groups are the most stable social community. The most developed concept of ethnic groups today is the concept of ethnogenesis by LN Gumilyov. In his book "Ethnogenesis and the Biosphere of the Earth", the researcher developed the theory of "passionarity". Gumilev sees the natural and biological character of the ethnos in the fact that it is an integral part of the bioorganic world of the planet, arises in certain geographical and climatic conditions. Any ethnic group is the result of the process of human adaptation to the natural and geographical conditions of habitat. Ethnos is a phenomenon of the biosphere, and not of culture, the emergence of which is of a secondary nature. Gumilyov in his theory tried to reveal the reasons for the death of some ethnic groups and the emergence of others, which, in his opinion, the cultural concept of the ethnic group does not explain. The main reason for the birth and development of ethnic communities is the presence in them of "passionaries" - the most energetic, gifted and developed people and "subpassionaries" with opposite qualities. From this category of people vagabonds, criminals are formed, which are characterized by "irresponsibility and impulsiveness." The emergence of passionaries and subpassionaries is a process of genetic mutations in a population. Mutants live on average for about 1200 years, the same is the life span of an ethnos, the flowering of its material and spiritual culture, created thanks to the activity of energetic passionaries. A decrease in the number of passionaries and an increase in the number of subpassionaries leads to the death of the ethnos. Natural and climatic conditions play a very important role, since it is under their action that a certain stereotype of behavior is developed that is characteristic of a given ethnic community. The generally accepted classification of ethnic groups in sociology is the allocation of their three types: tribe, nationality and nation, differing in the level of development. Tribe - this is a type of ethnic community, inherent mainly in the primitive communal system and based on consanguineous unity. The tribe is formed on the basis of several clans and clans, leading a common origin from one ancestor. People in this community are united by common primitive religious beliefs (fetishism, totemism), the beginnings of political power (council of elders, leaders), and the presence of a common spoken dialect. In the course of development, tribes unite and create alliances that jointly carry out migration and conquest, which leads to the formation of nationalities. Nationality - this is a type of ethnic community that arises during the period of decomposition of the tribal organization and is no longer based on blood, but on territorial unity. The nationality differs from the tribal organization in a higher level of economic development, the presence of culture in the form of myths, fairy tales, foundations. The nationality has a well-formed language, a special way of life, religious consciousness, institutions of power, and self-awareness. Nation - this is the historically highest type of ethnic community, which is characterized by the unity of territory, economic life, culture and national identity. The process of creating a nation as the most developed form of an ethnic group takes place during the period of the final formation of statehood, the broad development of economic ties, general psychology, a special culture, language, etc. A pronounced feature of the modern era is the tendency towards the national-ethnic revival of many peoples, their desire to independently solve the problems of their own existence. Among the main reasons for the national revival of peoples and their political activity, the following should be noted: 1) the desire of peoples to strengthen all elements of social justice, leading to restrictions on their rights and opportunities for development within the framework of former colonial empires and some modern federal states; 2) the reaction of many ethnic groups to the processes associated with the spread of modern technological civilization, urbanization and so-called culture, leveling the living conditions of all peoples and leading to the loss of their national identity; 3) the desire of peoples to independently use the natural resources located on their territory and playing a role in meeting their vital needs. To achieve the task of ethnic revival, the willingness of the nation to understand its true interests, as well as the interests of other nations, and to find common ground is necessary. 5. Organization as an object of study of sociology The term "organization" is used in several meanings: 1) as an ordering of any object; then organization is understood as certain structures, structure and type of connections as a way of uniting parts into a whole; 2) as a type of activity; organization is a process that includes the distribution of functions, the establishment of stable relationships, coordination; 3) as an artificial association of people to solve any problems. In Western sociological thought, the organization is presented as an arbitrary agreement of people who have united in the process of work, distributing and assigning to each member of the organization a certain function for the most effective operation of the entire organization as a whole. All united people are supposed to have common interests, and in the ideal type of organization - the coincidence of the goals of the organization with the goals of each of its members. Distinctive characteristics of social organization is a certain structure of social relations of individuals and a system of beliefs and motivating orientations distributed by them. There are four approaches to defining an organization: 1) an organization is a community of interacting human beings, which is the most widespread in society and contains a central coordination system, which makes the organization look like a complex biological organism (D. March and G. Simon); 2) an organization is a kind of cooperation of people that differs from other social groups in consciousness, predictability and purposefulness (C. Barnard); 3) an organization to achieve specific social goals must be formalized, have a formal structure (P. Blau, W. Scott); 4) an organization is a social association (human groups) consciously constructed and reconstructed for specific purposes (A. Etzioni). In Western sociology, there are several main approaches to the analysis of organizations. Rational approach. Within the framework of this approach, the organization is conceived as an "instrument" of a rational means to achieve clearly defined goals. The organization in this case is considered as a set of separate independent parts that can change and replace each other without violating the integrity of the system. Proponents of this approach, represented by M. Weber, do not attach importance to informal relations between members of the organization. natural model. An organization is a kind of organism that is characterized by organic growth, the desire to continue its existence and maintain the balance of the system. According to this model, the organization can continue its functioning even after the successful achievement of its goals. For representatives of this direction, the main task is to maintain the balance of the organization. Much attention is paid to informal relations in the organization. The concept of "organization-machine", developed by a French engineer and researcher A. Fayol, notes the impersonality of the organization and the formal-rational relations between workers and a clear hierarchy of management. At the same time, the task of the organization is to control, coordinate and plan the work of different parts of the organization. Thus, a person is considered as an elementary cell in the control system. Interactionist model considers social interaction and communication as fundamental processes of any organization. The positive side of this model is the statement about the impossibility of a strictly rational and formal construction of an organization in which living human personalities work with their own interests, needs, values, which cannot but affect the process of performing their functions. Therefore, it is necessary to accept the limitations of the rational model and the impossibility of a complete formalization of people's behavior. So, there are many definitions of the organization, from which the concept of the organization as a rational system aimed at achieving goals is usually distinguished. At the same time, social interaction in an organization is an integral part of the general process of social interaction in society as a whole, and therefore it is impossible to isolate a member of the organization from society, it is necessary to see in him a human person with his own interests and needs. The study of organizations in social sociology has been shaped by the dominant ideology. For a long time, domestic sociologists mainly studied the sociology of labor, small groups, social planning, without conducting research in the field of organizational management. Only with the beginning of the socio-economic and political transformations in the 80-90s. XNUMXth century there was a need to study the managerial nature of organizations. 6. Essence, structure and typology of social organizations The social essence of the organization is manifested in the implementation of its goals through the achievement of personal ones. Without this union between the whole and the elements, there is no organization as a system. People will unite and work in an organization only when they receive what each of them needs, i.e. income, education, realization of their abilities, professional advancement. Thus, we can talk about the organization as a social system, the elements of which are people, groups, collectives. At the same time, any organization itself is an element of the social system. Society can be viewed as a set of interacting organizations. They are the most common forms of human community, the primary cells of society. The organization plays the role of an intermediary between a person and society, and the social life of an organization is a constant resolution of contradictions between the interests of an individual, organization and society. From a sociological point of view, the structure of a social organization is determined by its value-normative standards that regulate the placement and interconnection of social positions (positions) with their inherent role prescriptions. A characteristic feature of the social structure of an organization is the obligatory hierarchical ordering of social positions, which make it possible to coordinate the social positions of various levels with their inherent range of rights and obligations. On the basis of this hierarchy, a kind of ladder of job dependencies arises, which implies the obligatory subordination of the lower levels of personnel to the highest. In addition, the social positions and roles that make up the social structure of the organization are distinguished by a very strict and unambiguous normative regulation, which prescribes to each member of the organization a strictly defined range of job duties and an appropriate level of responsibility. One of the prerequisites for the successful functioning of the organization is the possibility of a career for its members, the so-called "vertical mobility" or successful promotion through the hierarchical ladder of official positions. It should be noted that a modern worker must constantly improve his skills. Firstly, it enables the staff to constantly update their knowledge and professional skills in accordance with the changing conditions of production, and secondly, advanced training is an indispensable condition for a career or simply "fitness for the position". Another important condition for the functioning of a formal organization is a system of well-established communication, i.e., the interconnection of information flows circulating between various parts of the organization. Communication is necessary for making managerial decisions and rational coordination of people's activities. The mutual exchange of information between different parts of the organization is the most important condition, a means of business communication and social interaction of members of the organization. There are many approaches to the typology of organizations in the sociological literature. In the first approach, which is called traditional, there are three types: 1) enterprises and firms (manufacturing, trading, servicing); 2) institutions (financial, cultural, scientific, managerial, educational, medical); 3) public organizations (religious, professional, voluntary). The second approach is based on the division of organizations on the basis of social relations: economic, social, cultural, managerial. In each of these types there is a significant similarity that determines the goals and functions of organizations. The American sociologist A. Etzioni divides all organizations into three main groups: 1) voluntary, whose members unite on a voluntary basis (political parties, trade unions, clubs, religious associations); 2) forced, whose members become by force (army, prison, psychiatric hospital); 3) utilitarian, whose members unite to achieve common and individual goals (enterprises, firms, financial structures). Modern Russian sociologists distinguish mainly the following types of organizations: 1) business, membership in which provides employees with a livelihood (enterprises, firms, banks); 2) public, which are mass associations, membership in which allows satisfying economic, political, social, cultural and other needs (political parties, social movements); 3) intermediate, combining the features of business and public organizations (cooperatives, partnerships); 4) associative, arising on the basis of mutual realization of interests (clubs, informal groups). Within the framework of another classification, two main types of organizations are distinguished: administrative and public. The former are subdivided into: 1) industrial and economic, as well as financial; 2) administrative and management (government bodies of various levels); 3) scientific and research organizations; 4) institutions of culture and leisure services for the population. Public organizations include political parties and voluntary public organizations, creative unions and others. The typology of organizations according to their sectoral characteristics is widespread in the domestic sociological literature: industrial and economic, financial, administrative and managerial, research, educational, medical, sociocultural, etc. LECTURE No. 7. Social institutions 1. The concept of a social institution. Signs, role and significance of social institutions The foundation on which the entire society is built is social institutions. The term comes from the Latin "institutum" - "charter". For the first time this concept was introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist T. Veblein in the book The Theory of the Leisure Class in 1899. A social institution in the broad sense of the word is a system of values, norms and relationships that organize people to meet their needs. Outwardly, a social institution looks like a set of individuals, institutions, equipped with certain material resources and performing a specific social function. From the content side, it is a certain system of expediently oriented standards of behavior of certain individuals in specific situations. Social institutions have a historical origin and are in constant change and development. Their formation is called institutionalization. institutionalization - this is the process of defining and consolidating social norms, connections, statuses and roles, bringing them into a system that is able to act in the direction of satisfying some social need. This process consists of several stages: 1) the emergence of needs that can only be satisfied as a result of joint activities; 2) the emergence of norms and rules governing interaction to meet emerging needs; 3) adoption and implementation in practice of the emerging norms and rules; 4) creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute. Institutes have their own distinctive features: 1) cultural symbols (flag, emblem, anthem); 2) codes of conduct (oath, oath); 3) ideology, philosophy (mission). Social institutions in society perform a significant set of functions: 1) reproductive - consolidation and reproduction of social relations, ensuring the order and framework of activities; 2) regulatory - regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior; 3) socialization - the transfer of social experience; 4) integrative - cohesion, interconnection and mutual responsibility of group members under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and a system of roles; 5) communicative - dissemination of information within the institution and to the external environment, maintaining relationships with other institutions; 6) automation - the desire for independence. The functions performed by the institution can be explicit or latent. The existence of latent functions of the institution allows us to talk about its ability to bring more benefits to society than originally stated. Social institutions perform the functions of social management and social control in society. Social institutions govern the behavior of community members through a system of sanctions and rewards. The formation of a system of sanctions is the main condition for institutionalization. Sanctions provide punishment for inaccurate, negligent and incorrect performance of official duties. Positive sanctions (gratitude, material incentives, creation of favorable conditions) are aimed at encouraging and stimulating correct and proactive behavior. The social institution thus determines the orientation of social activity and social relations through a mutually agreed system of expediently oriented standards of behavior. Their emergence and grouping into a system depend on the content of the tasks solved by the social institution. Each such institution is characterized by the presence of an activity goal, specific functions that ensure its achievement, a set of social positions and roles, as well as a system of sanctions that ensure the promotion of desired and the suppression of deviant behavior. Social institutions always perform socially significant functions and ensure the achievement of relatively stable social ties and relationships within the framework of the social organization of society. Social needs unsatisfied by the institution give rise to new forces and normatively unregulated activities. In practice, it is possible to implement the following ways out of this situation: 1) reorientation of old social institutions; 2) creation of new social institutions; 3) reorientation of public consciousness. In sociology, there is a generally recognized system for classifying social institutions into five types, which is based on the needs realized through institutions: 1) family - reproduction of the clan and socialization of the individual; 2) political institutions - the need for security and public order, with their help political power is established and maintained; 3) economic institutions - production and earning a livelihood, they ensure the process of production and distribution of goods and services; 4) institutions of education and science - the need for obtaining and transferring knowledge and socialization; 5) the institution of religion - the solution of spiritual problems, the search for the meaning of life. 2. Social control and deviant behavior As already mentioned, one of the main functions of social institutions is to ensure social control. Social control is the normative regulation of people's behavior in social systems. It is a mechanism for maintaining public order, including norms and sanctions. So, the main mechanisms of social control are norms and sanctions. Normal value - the rule that exists in a given society and is accepted by an individual, a standard, a pattern of behavior that determines how he should behave in a given situation. Norm - socially approved invariants of behavior. Norm - the interval of permissible actions. Norms are formal and informal. Sanctions - rewards and punishments associated with the implementation of norms. Sanctions can also be classified into several types: 1) formal; 2) informal; 3) positive; 4) negative. Phenomena that do not fit into the framework of social norms are called deviation. Deviant behavior is actions, human activities, social phenomena that do not correspond to the norms established in a given society. In the sociological study of deviant behavior, the influence of the value orientations of the individual, his attitudes, the features of the formation of the social environment, the state of social relations, and institutional forms of ownership are analyzed. As a rule, social deviations are associated with a persistent distortion of value orientations typical of society and social groups. The main direction of the sociological study of the problem of deviation is aimed at identifying its causes. Within the framework of sociology, the following theories have developed on this issue. 1. Charles Lombarzo, William Sheldon believed that certain physical personality traits predetermine the deviation of the personality from the norm. So Sheldon divides people into 3 types: 1) endomorphs - plump, not prone to deviant behavior; 2) mesomorphs - athletic physique, may be characterized by deviant behavior; 3) ectomorphs - thin, hardly prone to deviant behavior. 2. Z. Freud saw the cause of deviations in the fact that conflicts constantly occur within each personality. It is the internal conflict that is the source of deviant behavior. In any person there is an "I" (a conscious beginning) and a "super-I" (the unconscious). There are constant conflicts between them. "I" tries to keep the unconscious in a person. If this fails, then the biological, animal essence breaks out. 3. Emile Durkheim. Deviation is determined by the process of socialization of the individual. This process may or may not succeed. Success or failure is associated with a person's ability to adapt to the system of social norms of society. Moreover, the more a person shows creative activity, the more chances to live his life successfully. Success is influenced by social institutions (family, institute of education, fatherland). 4. R. Merton believed that deviant behavior is a consequence of the mismatch between the goals generated by the social structure and culture and the socially organized means of achieving them. Goals are something to strive for, a basic component in the lives of all walks of life. Means are evaluated in terms of the possibility of achieving the goal. They must be portable and efficient. Based on this premise, deviant behavior occurs only if the balance between goals and means to achieve them is disturbed. Thus, the main reason for the deviation is the gap between the goals and means of achieving these goals, which occurs due to unequal access to the means of different strata of groups. On the basis of his theoretical developments, Merton identified five types of deviant behavior depending on the attitude towards goals and means to achieve them. 1. conformism - the agreement of the individual with the goals generally accepted in society and the means to achieve them. The assignment of this type to deviant is not accidental. Psychologists use the term "conformity" to define a person's blind following of other people's opinions, so as not to create unnecessary difficulties in communicating with others, to achieve their goals, sometimes sinning against the truth. On the other hand, conforming behavior makes it difficult to assert one's own independent behavior or opinion. 2. Innovation - acceptance by the individual of goals, but a preference to use non-standard means to achieve them. 3. ritualism - rejection of generally accepted goals, but the use of standard means for society. 4. retreatism - complete rejection of public attitudes. 5. Insurgency - changing social goals and means in accordance with their will and raising them to the rank of socially significant ones. Within the framework of other sociological theories, the following types are distinguished as the main types of deviant behavior: 1) cultural and mental deviations - deviations from the norms of culture. May be hazardous or non-hazardous; 2) individual and group deviations - an individual, an individual rejects the norms of his subculture. Group - illusory world; 3) primary and secondary. Primary - prank, secondary - deviant deviation; 4) culturally acceptable deviations; 5) over-intellectuality, over-motivation; 6) culturally condemned deviations. Violation of moral standards and violation of the law. 3. Economy as a social institution The economy as a social institution is a set of institutionalized modes of activity, models of social actions that form various types of economic behavior of people and organizations to meet their needs. The core of the economy is work. Work is the solution of problems associated with the expenditure of mental and physical effort, with the goal of producing goods and services that satisfy human needs. E. Giddens identifies six main characteristics of the work. 1. Money. Wages or salaries for most people - the main source of satisfaction of their needs. 2. Activity level. Professional activity is often the basis for the acquisition and implementation of knowledge and capabilities. Even if the work is routine, it offers some structured environment in which the energy of a given person can be realized. Without work, the possibility of realizing knowledge and abilities may decrease. 3. Variety. Employment gives access to situations beyond the domestic environment. In a work setting, even when the tasks are relatively monotonous, an individual may derive satisfaction from performing duties that are not like household chores. 4. Structuring time. For people who have a regular job, the day is usually organized around the rhythm of work. Although it can sometimes be depressing, it gives a sense of direction in daily activities. For those who are unemployed, boredom is a big problem, and such people develop an apathy towards time. 5. Social contacts. The work environment often engenders friendship and the opportunity to engage in collaborative activities with others. In the absence of contacts at work, the circle of friends and acquaintances of a person decreases. 6. Personal identity. Employment is usually valued for the sense of personal social stability it provides. In historical retrospect, the following main types of economic activity are distinguished: 1) in a primitive society - hunting, fishing, gathering; 2) in slave-owning and feudal societies - engaging in agriculture; 3) in an industrial society - commodity-industrial production; 4) in a post-industrial society - information technology. There are three sectors in the modern economy: primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary sector of the economy includes agriculture, mining and forestry, fishing, etc. The secondary sector includes enterprises that convert raw materials into manufactured goods. Finally, the tertiary sector is associated with the service industry, with those activities that, without directly producing material goods, offer the rest of any services. There are five primary types of economic systems or types of economic activity. The state economy is a set of public enterprises and organizations working for the benefit of the entire population. In every modern society there is a public sector of the economy, although its share varies. World practice shows that the total nationalization of the economy is ineffective, since it does not give the proper economic effect, as well as the general privatization of enterprises. The private economy dominates in modern developed countries. It arose as a result of the industrial revolution at the stage of industrial society. Initially, the private economy developed independently of the state, but economic cataclysms raised the question of strengthening state regulation of the private sector in the economy. barrack economy - this is the economic behavior of military personnel, prisoners and all other people living in a confined space, "barracks" form (hospitals, boarding schools, prisons, etc.). All these forms are characterized by "camp collectivity" of their life, obligatory and forced performance of functions, dependence on funding, as a rule, from the state. The shadow (criminal) economy exists in all countries of the world, although it refers to criminal activity. This type of economic behavior is deviant, but it is closely related to the private economy. The English sociologist Duke Hobbes, in his book Bad Business, develops the idea that it is impossible to draw a clear line between professional economic behavior and everyday business activity. In particular, banks are sometimes rated as "elegant robbers". Among the traditional forms of mafia economic activity: trade in weapons, drugs, live goods, etc. A mixed (additional) economy is the work of a person outside the sphere of his professional employment. Sociologist E. Giddens calls it "informal", noting the "bifurcation" of labor into professional and "additional", for example, the work of a doctor on a personal plot, which is carried out at a non-professional level. Additional work sometimes requires a huge investment of time and energy from a person, and the result is low. The economy as a social institution is designed to satisfy primarily the material needs of man. 4. Political public institutions Politics as a social institution is a set of certain organizations (authorities and administrations, political parties, social movements) that regulate the political behavior of people in accordance with accepted norms, laws, and rules. Each of the political institutions carries out a certain type of political activity and includes a social community, layer, group, specializing in the implementation of political activities to manage society. These institutions are characterized by: 1) political norms governing relations within and between political institutions, and between political and non-political institutions of society; 2) material resources necessary to achieve the goals. Political institutions ensure the reproduction, stability and regulation of political activity, the preservation of the identity of the political community even with a change in composition, strengthen social ties and intra-group cohesion, exercise control over political behavior. The focus of politics is power and control in society. The main carrier of political power is the state, which, relying on law and law, carries out compulsory regulation and control over social processes in order to ensure the normal and stable functioning of society. The universal structure of state power is: 1) legislative bodies (parliaments, councils, congresses, etc.); 2) executive bodies (government, ministries, state committees, law enforcement agencies, etc.); 3) judicial authorities; 4) army and state security agencies; 5) state information system, etc. The sociological nature of the activity of the state and other political organizations is connected with the functioning of society as a whole. Politics should contribute to the solution of social problems, at the same time, politicians tend to use state power and representative bodies to satisfy certain pressure groups. The state as the core of the sociological system provides: 1) social integration of society; 2) safety of life of people and society as a whole; 3) distribution of resources and social benefits; 4) cultural and educational activities; 5) social control over deviant behavior. The basis of politics is power associated with the use of force, coercion in relation to all members of society, organizations, movements. The subordination of power is based on: 1) traditions and customs (traditional domination, for example, the power of a slave owner over a slave); 2) devotion to a person endowed with some higher power (the charismatic power of leaders, for example, Moses, Buddha); 3) conscious conviction in the correctness of formal rules and the need to comply with them (this type of subordination is typical for most modern states). The complexity of sociopolitical activity is associated with differences in social status, interests, positions of people and political forces. They influence the differences in the types of political power. N. Smelser cites the following types of states: democratic and non-democratic (totalitarian, authoritarian). In democratic societies, all political institutions are autonomous (power is divided into independent branches - executive, legislative, judicial). All political institutions influence the formation of state and power structures, form the political direction of the development of society. In authoritarian and totalitarian societies, the natural functions of political institutions are deformed, political parties and public organizations are more or less subordinate to the ruling elite. Democratic states are associated with representative democracy, when the people for a certain period of time transfer power to their representatives in the elections. These states, mostly Western, are characterized by the following features: 1) individualism; 2) constitutional form of government; 3) the general agreement of those who are controlled; 4) loyal opposition. In totalitarian states, leaders seek to retain power, keeping the people under complete control, using a unified mono-party system, control over the economy, the media, and the family, conducting terror against the opposition. In authoritarian states, approximately the same measures are carried out in milder forms, in the conditions of the existence of the private sector and other parties. The sociopolitical subsystem of society is a spectrum of different vectors of power, control, and political activity. In an integral system of society, they are in a state of constant struggle, but without the victory of any one line. Crossing the border of measure in the struggle leads to deviant forms of power in society: 1) totalitarian, in which the military-administrative method of government dominates; 2) spontaneous market, where power passes to corporate groups that merge with the mafia and wage war with each other; 3) stagnant, when a relative and temporary balance of opposing forces and control methods is established. In Soviet and Russian society, one can find manifestations of all these deviations, but totalitarianism under Stalin and stagnation under Brezhnev were especially pronounced. 5. Social institutions of education and science The education system is one of the most important social institutions. It ensures the socialization of individuals, through which they develop the qualities necessary for indispensable life processes and transformations. The institution of education has a long history of primary forms of knowledge transfer from parents to children. Education serves the development of the individual, contributes to its self-realization. At the same time, education is of decisive importance for society itself, providing the fulfillment of the most important tasks of a practical and symbolic nature. The education system makes a significant contribution to the integration of society and contributes to the formation of a sense of common historical destiny, belonging to this single society. But the education system has other functions as well. Sorokin notes that education (especially higher education) is a kind of channel (elevator) through which people improve their social status. At the same time, education exercises social control over the behavior and worldview of children and adolescents. The education system as an institution includes the following components: 1) educational authorities and institutions and organizations subordinate to them; 2) a network of educational institutions (schools, colleges, gymnasiums, lyceums, universities, academies, etc.), including institutions for advanced training and retraining of teachers; 3) creative unions, professional associations, scientific and methodological councils and other associations; 4) educational and scientific infrastructure institutions, design, production, clinical, medical and preventive, pharmacological, cultural and educational enterprises, printing houses, etc.; 5) textbooks and teaching aids for teachers and students; 6) periodicals, including journals and yearbooks, reflecting the latest achievements of scientific thought. The institution of education includes a certain area of activity, groups of persons authorized to perform certain managerial and other functions on the basis of established rights and obligations, organizational norms and principles of relations between officials. The set of norms that regulate the interaction of people about learning indicates that education is a social institution. A harmonious and balanced education system that meets the modern needs of society is the most important condition for the preservation and development of society. Science, along with education, can be regarded as a social macro-institution. Science, like the education system, is a central social institution in all modern societies and is the most complex area of human intellectual activity. More and more, the very existence of society depends on advanced scientific knowledge. Not only the material conditions for the existence of society, but also the ideas of its members about the world depend on the development of science. The main function of science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality. The purpose of scientific activity is the acquisition of new knowledge. Purpose of education - transfer of new knowledge to new generations, i.e. youth. If there is no first, then there is no second. That is why these institutions are considered in close relationship and as a single system. In turn, the existence of science without education is also impossible, since it is in the process of education that new scientific personnel are formed. The formulation of the principles of science has been proposed Robert Merton in 1942 Among them: universalism, communalism, disinterest and organizational skepticism. The principle of universalism means that science and its discoveries are of a single, universal (universal) character. No personal characteristics of individual scientists (gender, age, religion, etc.) matter in assessing the value of their work. Research results should be judged solely on their scientific merit. According to the principle of communalism, no scientific knowledge can become the personal property of a scientist, but should be available to any member of the scientific community. The principle of disinterest means that the pursuit of personal interests does not meet the requirements for the professional role of a scientist. The principle of organized skepticism means that the scientist must refrain from formulating conclusions until the facts are fully consistent. 6. Religion as a social institution The religious institution belongs to a non-secular culture, but plays a very important role in the lives of many people as a system of norms of cultural behavior, that is, serving God. The social significance of religion in the world is evidenced by the following statistics on the number of believers at the beginning of the 6st century: out of 4 billion of the world's population, more than 2 billion are believers. And about XNUMX billion profess Christianity. Orthodoxy within Christianity ranks third after Catholicism and Protestantism. Islam is practiced by a little more than 1 billion, Judaism - more than 650 million, Buddhism - more than 300 million, Confucianism - about 200 million, Zionism - 18 million, the rest profess other religions. Among the main functions of religion as a social institution are the following: 1) an explanation of the past, present and future of man; 2) regulation of moral behavior from birth to death of a person; 3) approval or criticism of social orders in society; 4) uniting people and support in difficult times. The sociology of religion pays great attention to clarifying the social functions that religion performs in society. As a result, sociologists have formulated different points of view on religion as a social institution. So, E. Durkheim believed that религия - the product of a person or social group, necessary for moral unity, an expression of a collective ideal. God is a reflection of this ideal. Functions of religious ceremonies Durkheim sees in: 1) rallying people - a meeting to express common interests; 2) revitalization - revival of the past, connection of the present with the past; 3) euphoria - general acceptance of life, distraction from the unpleasant; 4) order and training - self-discipline and preparation for life. M. Weber paid special attention to the study of Protestantism and highlighted its positive impact on the development of capitalism, which determined its values such as: 1) hard work, self-discipline and self-restraint; 2) multiplying money without waste; 3) personal success as the key to salvation. The religious factor affects the economy, politics, the state, interethnic relations, the family, the area of culture through the activities of believing individuals, groups, organizations in these areas. There is a "superimposition" of religious relations on other social relations. The core of the religious institution is the church. The Church is an organization that uses a variety of means, including religious morality, rites and rituals, with the help of which it obliges, makes people act accordingly. Society needs the Church, as it is a spiritual support for millions of people, including those seeking justice, distinguishing between good and evil, gives them guidelines in the form of moral norms, behavior and values. In Russian society, the majority of the population professes Orthodoxy (70%), a significant number of Muslim believers (25%), the rest are representatives of other religious denominations (5%). Almost all types of beliefs are represented in Russia, and there are many sects. It should be noted that in the 1990s, the religiosity of the adult population had a positive trend due to socio-economic transformations in the country. However, at the beginning of the third millennium, a decrease in the rating of trust in relation to religious organizations was revealed, including the Russian Orthodox Church, which enjoys the greatest trust. This decline is in line with the decline in confidence in other public institutions as a reaction to unfulfilled hopes for reforms. He prays every day, visits the temple (mosque) at least once a month, about a fifth, that is, about a third of those who consider themselves believers. At present, the problem with the unification of all Christian denominations, which was vigorously discussed during the celebration of the 2000th anniversary of Christianity, has not been resolved. The Orthodox Church believes that this is possible only on the basis of the faith of the ancient, indivisible Church, of which Orthodoxy feels itself to be the successor. Other branches of Christianity, on the contrary, believe that Orthodoxy needs to be reformed. Various points of view testify to the impossibility of uniting Christianity on a world scale, at least at the present time. The Orthodox Church is loyal to the state and maintains friendly relations with other confessions in order to overcome interethnic tensions. Religious institutions and society should be in a state of harmony, interacting with each other in the formation of universal values, preventing social problems from developing into inter-ethnic conflicts on religious grounds. 7. Family and marriage as social institutions of society Family - this is a social-biological system of society that ensures the reproduction of members of the community. This definition contains the main goal of the family as a social institution. In addition, the family is called upon to perform the following functions: 1) socio-biological - satisfaction of sexual needs and needs for procreation; 2) upbringing, socialization of children; 3) economic, which is manifested in the organization of the household life of all family members, including the provision of housing and the necessary infrastructure; 4) political, which is associated with power in the family and the management of its life; 5) sociocultural - regulation of the entire spiritual life of the family. The above functions testify to the need for a family for all its members and the inevitability of uniting people living outside the family. The selection of types of families and their classification can be carried out for various reasons: 1) according to the form of marriage: a) monogamous (marriage of one man with one woman); b) polyandry (a woman has several spouses); c) polygyny (marriage of one man with two or more wives); 2) by composition: a) nuclear (simple) - consist of a husband, wife and children (full) or with the absence of one of the parents (incomplete); b) complex - include representatives of several generations; 3) by number of children: a) childless; b) one-child; c) small children; d) large families (from three or more children); 4) by stages of civilizational evolution: a) the patriarchal family of a traditional society with the authoritarian power of the father, in whose hands is the solution of all issues; b) egalitarian-democratic, based on equality in relations between husband and wife, on mutual respect and social partnership. According to the forecasts of American sociologists E. Giddens и N. Smelzer in a post-industrial society, the institution of the family is undergoing significant changes. According to Smelser, there will be no return to the traditional family. The modern family will change, partially losing or changing some functions, although the family's monopoly on the regulation of intimate relationships, childbearing and caring for young children will continue into the future. At the same time, even relatively stable functions will partially decay. Thus, the function of childbearing will be carried out by unmarried women. Centers for the upbringing of children will be more involved in socialization. Friendship and emotional support can be obtained not only in the family. E. Giddens notes a steady trend of weakening the regulatory function of the family in relation to sexual life, but believes that marriage and the family will remain strong institutions. The family as a socio-biological system is analyzed from the standpoint of functionalism and conflict theory. The family, on the one hand, is closely connected with society through its functions, and on the other hand, all family members are interconnected by consanguinity and social relations. It should also be noted that the family is a carrier of contradictions, both with society and between its members. Family life is connected with the solution of contradictions between husband, wife, children, relatives, surrounding people regarding the performance of functions, even if it is based on love and respect. In the family, as in society, there is not only unity, integrity and harmony, but also a struggle of interests. The nature of conflicts can be understood from the standpoint of the exchange theory, which implies that all family members should strive for an equal exchange in their relationship. Tensions and conflicts arise from the fact that someone does not receive the expected "reward". The source of the conflict may be the low wages of one of the family members, drunkenness, sexual dissatisfaction, etc. The strong severity of violations in metabolic processes leads to the disintegration of the family. In 1916, Sorokin identified the trend of the crisis of the modern family, which is characterized by: an increase in the number of divorces, a decrease in the number of marriages, an increase in civil marriages, an increase in prostitution, a drop in the birth rate, the release of wives from the custody of their husbands and a change in their relationship, the destruction of the religious basis of marriage, weakening the protection of the institution of marriage by the state. The problems of the modern Russian family as a whole coincide with the global ones. All these reasons allow us to talk about a certain family crisis. Causes of the crisis include: 1) reduced dependence of wives on husbands in the economic sense; 2) increased mobility, especially migration; 3) changes in family functions under the influence of social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, as well as a new technical and environmental situation; 4) cohabitation of a man and a woman without registration of marriage; 5) a decrease in the number of children in a family, as a result of which even a simple reproduction of the population does not occur; 6) the process of nuclearization of families leads to a weakening of ties between generations; 7) the number of women in the labor market is increasing; 8) the growth of the public consciousness of women. The most acute problem is dysfunctional families that arise for socio-economic, psychological or biological reasons. The following types of dysfunctional families are distinguished: 1) conflict - the most common (about 60%); 2) immoral - oblivion of moral standards (mostly drunkenness, drug use, fights, foul language); 3) pedagogically untenable - a low level of general culture and the absence of a psychological and pedagogical culture; 4) antisocial family - an environment of disregard for generally accepted social norms and requirements. Dysfunctional families deform the personality of children, causing anomalies both in the psyche and in behavior, for example, early alcoholization, drug addiction, prostitution, vagrancy and other forms of deviant behavior. To support the family, the state forms a family policy, which includes a set of practical measures that give families and children certain social guarantees in order to ensure the functioning of the family in the interests of society. Thus, in a number of countries, family planning is being carried out, special marriage and family consultations are being created to reconcile conflicting couples, the conditions of the marriage contract are changing (if before the spouses had to take care of each other, now they must love each other, and failure to comply with this condition is one of most compelling reasons for divorce). To solve the existing problems of the institution of the family, it is necessary to increase spending on social support for families, increase the efficiency of their use, improve legislation to protect the rights of the family, women, children and youth. LECTURE No. 8. Social actions and relationships 1. The theory of social action in sociology Concept "social action" first introduced M. Weber. It was this researcher who defined the new sociological term and formulated its main features. Weber understood by this term the actions of a person, which, according to the assumption of the actor, the meaning correlates with the actions of other people or is guided by them. Thus, according to Weber, the most important features of social action are the following: 1) the subjective meaning of social action, i.e., personal understanding of possible behaviors; 2) an important role in the action of the individual is played by a conscious orientation to the response of others, the expectation of this reaction. Weber identified four types of social action. This typology was made by analogy with his doctrine of ideal types: 1) purposeful action - the behavior of the individual is formed exclusively at the level of reason; 2) value-rational - the behavior of the individual is determined by faith, the adoption of a certain system of values; 3) affective - the behavior of the individual is determined by feelings and emotions; 4) traditional activities - behavior is based on a habit, a pattern of behavior. Significant contribution to the theory of social action was made by T. Parsons. In the concept of Parsons, social action is considered in two manifestations: as a single phenomenon and as a system. He identified the following characteristics: 1) normativity - dependence on generally accepted values and norms; 2) voluntarism - dependence on the will of the subject; 3) the presence of sign mechanisms of regulation. Social action, according to Parsons, performs certain functions in a person's life that ensure his existence as a biosocial being. Among these functions, four can be distinguished depending on the subsystems of the life of the individual in which they are carried out: 1) at the biological level, the adaptive function of social action is performed; 2) in the subsystem of the assimilation of values and norms, social action performs a personal function; 3) the totality of social roles and statuses is provided by a social function; 4) at the level of assimilation of goals and ideals, a cultural function is carried out. Thus, social action can be characterized as any behavior of an individual or a group that is significant for other individuals and groups in a social community or society as a whole. Moreover, the action expresses the nature and content of relations between people and social groups, which, being constant carriers of qualitatively different types of activities, differ in social positions (statuses) and roles. An important part of the sociological theory of social action is the creation of a theoretical model of behavior. One of the main elements of this model is the structure of social action. This structure includes: 1) an acting person (subject) - a carrier of active action, possessing a will; 2) object - the goal to which the action is directed; 3) the need for active behavior, which can be considered as a special state of the subject, generated by the need for means of subsistence, objects necessary for his life and development, and thus acting as a source of the subject's activity; 4) method of action - a set of means that is used by an individual to achieve a goal; 5) result - a new state of the elements that have developed in the course of action, the synthesis of the goal, the properties of the object and the efforts of the subject. Any social action has its own mechanism of accomplishment. It is never instant. To start the mechanism of social action, a person must have a certain need for this behavior, which is called motivation. The main factors of activity are interest и orientation. Interest - this is the attitude of the subject to the necessary means and conditions for satisfying his inherent needs. Orientation - this is a way of distinguishing social phenomena according to the degree of their significance for the subject. In the sociological literature, there are various approaches to the analysis of the motivation of social action. So, within one of them, all motives are divided into three large groups: 1) socio-economic. This group includes, first of all, material motives that are associated with the achievement of certain material and social benefits (recognition, honor, respect); 2) implementation of prescribed and learned norms. This group includes motives that are of social significance; 3) life cycle optimization. This group includes motives associated and conditioned by a certain life situation. After the motivation of the subject arises, the stage of goal formation begins. At this stage, rational choice is the central mechanism. Rational Choice - is the analysis of several goals in terms of their availability and suitability and their gradation in accordance with the data of this analysis. The emergence of the goal can be carried out in two different ways: on the one hand, the goal can be formed as a kind of life plan that has a potential character; on the other hand, the goal can be formulated as an imperative, i.e., have the character of obligation and obligation. The goal connects the subject with the objects of the external world and acts as a program for their mutual change. Through a system of needs and interests, situational conditions, the outside world takes possession of the subject, and this is reflected in the content of the goals. But through a system of values and motives, in a selective attitude to the world, in the means of goal-fulfillment, the subject seeks to establish himself in the world and change it, that is, to master the world himself. Social actions act as links in the chain of interactions. 2. Models for the analysis of interpersonal interaction Social interaction is a system of mutually conditioning social actions connected by a causal cyclical dependence, in which the actions of one subject are the cause and effect of response actions. Interaction is the mutual influence of various spheres, phenomena and processes of social life, carried out through social activities. It takes place both between separate objects (external interaction) and within a separate object, between its elements (internal interaction). Social interaction has an objective and subjective side. The objective side of the interaction is connections that are independent of individual people, but mediate and control the content and nature of their interaction. The subjective side is understood as the conscious attitude of individuals towards each other, based on mutual expectations of appropriate behavior. In sociology, there are four main models for the analysis of social interactions: 1) the theory of social exchange. Its author and developer was J. Homans. According to this model, people, interacting with each other, weigh the possible costs and dividends. Based on this model, the process of interpersonal interaction can be viewed as a constant exchange of benefits between people. Within the framework of this model, 4 principles of interpersonal communication can be distinguished: a) the greater the reward for certain types of behavior, the more often it will be repeated; b) if the reward for a certain type of behavior depends on certain conditions, then the person will try to recreate them; c) if the reward is large, then the person is ready to spend more effort to receive it; d) when a person's needs are close to saturation, then he is less willing to make efforts to satisfy them; 2) symbolic interactionism was developed J. Mead и G. Bloomer. Mead argues that people's behavior depends on the meaning they attach to the object of the action. An important element of human behavior from the point of view of interactionists is the formation of meanings. Meaning formation is a set of actions in which an individual notices an object, relates it to his values, gives it a meaning, and decides to act on that meaning. Mead considered human actions as social action based on communication. Mead identified two types of actions: a) an insignificant gesture; b) a significant gesture, which consists in understanding not only actions, but intentions. The essence of this methodology is that the interaction of people is seen as a continuous dialogue. Supporters of this direction in modern sociology attach great importance to linguistic symbolism. They are characterized by the idea of activity as a set of social roles, which is personified in the form of linguistic and other symbols. The main thing in ethnomethodology is the study of everyday norms, rules of behavior, meanings of the language of communication, which regulates relationships between people. One of the directions of symbolic interactionism is ethnomethodology. This model was developed by Garfinkel. The essence of the model lies in the fact that the subject of research should be the rules taken on faith and regulating the interaction between people; 3) management of impressions (Erwin Hoffman). Social situations are reminiscent of a dramatic theater. Thus, people in the process of social interaction perform only certain roles; 4) Freud's psychoanalytic theory. Interpersonal interaction is deeply influenced by early childhood experiences. 3. Social relations In sociological science, there is an opinion that social interactions are the foundation for the formation of new social relations. Social relations can be defined as relatively stable and independent links between individuals and social groups. Social relations are based on the inequality of distribution of enduring social values in society. It is this unevenness that determines the initial character of social ties. This is precisely the nature of such social relations as power and subordination, economic relations, friendship, love, etc. The level and nature of the distribution of values in a group is designated in sociology by the term "value sample of the group." The measurement of this indicator is carried out using the distribution index. This index indicates what is the dispersion of a particular value among the group. At the same time, there is an inverse proportional relationship between the distribution index and the distribution of value, i.e., the higher the index, the less this value is distributed among the members of the group. At the individual level, value distribution is defined by sociologists by the term "value position". The activity of individuals in the process of forming social relations is determined by two indicators: 1) the level of expectation, i.e., expectation, which shows how far one or another value model is removed from the individual; 2) the level of requirements, that is, the place that the individual seeks to take in the implementation of the distribution of values. As a result of the analysis of these indicators, it is possible to determine the value potential of the individual. Value Potential - this is the possibility of achieving one or another position in the process of distribution of values. At the same time, a certain gradation of values was developed in sociological theories. According to this gradation, a person primarily strives to achieve the values of well-being. Welfare values are those values that are considered a necessary condition for maintaining physical and mental activity: well-being, wealth, skill, enlightenment. Well-being is health and safety; wealth - the provision of material goods; skill - acquired professional qualities; enlightenment is knowledge and awareness, as well as the cultural connection of the individual. Other values are expressed in actions. Among them, the most preferable for the individual are power, movement, moral values, affectivity. Affectivity in this case refers to such values as love and friendship. The necessary conditions for the emergence of social relations are the following factors: 1) cyclically recurring social interactions; 2) the existence of a conscious need to acquire value; 3) availability of resources to achieve the desired value. The content and meaning of social relations are determined by the nature of the connection in the interactions of the individual's need for value and possession of values. LECTURE No. 9. Social conflicts 1. Social conflict in sociological theory The social heterogeneity of society, the difference in income levels, power, prestige, etc. often leads to social conflicts. They are an integral part of social life and are always associated with the subjective consciousness of people, the inconsistency of their interests of certain social groups. Aggravations of contradiction give rise to open or closed conflicts only when they are deeply experienced by people and are realized as incompatibility of goals and interests. Conflict - this is a clash of opposing goals, opinions, interests, positions of opponents or subjects of interaction. social conflict - this is a confrontation between individuals or groups pursuing socially significant goals. It occurs when one side seeks to realize its goals or interests to the detriment of the other. English sociologist E. Giddens gave the following definition of conflict: "by social conflict, I understand the real struggle between acting people or groups, regardless of what the sources of this struggle are, its methods and means mobilized by each side." Conflict is a ubiquitous phenomenon. Every society, every social group, social community is subject to conflicts to one degree or another. In science, there is a special branch of sociological knowledge that directly studies this social phenomenon - conflictology. The main subjects of conflicts are social groups, since their needs, claims, goals can only be realized through the use of power. That is why such political forces as the state apparatus, political parties, parliamentary groups, factions, "influence groups", etc. take part in conflicts. It is they who are the spokesmen for the will of large social groups and the main bearers of social interests. In conflictology, much attention is paid to the concept of the strength of the participants in a social conflict. Force - this is the ability of the opponent to realize his goal against the will of the interaction partner. It includes a number of different components: 1) physical force, including technical means used as an instrument of violence; 2) an information-civilizational form of the use of social force, requiring the collection of facts, statistical data, analysis of documents, study of expert examination materials in order to ensure complete knowledge about the essence of the conflict, about one’s opponent in order to develop a strategy and tactics of behavior, use materials that discredit the opponent, etc. d.; 3) social status, expressed in socially recognized indicators (income, level of power, prestige, etc.); 4) other resources - money, territory, time limit, psychological resource, etc. The stage of conflict behavior is characterized by the maximum use of force by the participants in the conflict, the use of all means at their disposal. A significant influence on the development of the conflict is exerted by the surrounding social environment, which determines the conditions in which the social conflict proceeds. It can act either as a source of external support for the participants in the conflict, or as a deterrent, or as a neutral factor. Social conflict usually goes through major stages. In conflictology, it is customary to distinguish the following stages of the course of the conflict: 1) a hidden stage, at which the contradictions between the participants in the conflict are not yet recognized and are manifested only in explicit or implicit dissatisfaction with the situation; 2) the formation of a conflict - a clear understanding of the claims, which, as a rule, are expressed to the opposite side in the form of demands; 3) incident - an event that takes the conflict to the stage of active actions; 4) active actions of the parties that contribute to the achievement of the highest point of the conflict, after which it subsides; 5) the end of the conflict, and it is not always carried out by satisfying the claims of the parties. It is also necessary to remember that at any of these stages, the conflict can end either independently, or by agreement of the parties, or with the participation of a third party. 2. Types of conflicts In modern sociological literature, there are many classifications of types of conflicts on various grounds. From the point of view of the subjects entering into the conflict, four types of conflicts can be distinguished: 1) intrapersonal (may take the following forms: role-based - occurs when conflicting requirements are made to one person about what the result of his work should be; intrapersonal - can also arise as a result of the fact that production requirements are not consistent with personal needs or values ); 2) interpersonal (can manifest itself as a clash of personalities with different character traits, attitudes, values and is the most common); 3) between the individual and the group (occurs if the individual takes a position that differs from the position of the group); 4) intergroup. Conflicts can be classified by spheres of life into political, socio-economic, national-ethnic and others. Political - these are conflicts over the distribution of power, dominance, influence, authority. They arise from the clash of different interests, rivalry and struggle in the process of acquiring, redistributing and exercising political and state power. Political conflicts are associated with consciously formulated goals aimed at winning leading positions in institutions in the structures of political power. The main political conflicts are: 1) between branches of government; 2) inside the parliament; 3) between political parties and movements; 4) between various links of the administrative apparatus. Socio-economic - these are conflicts over the means of subsistence, the level of wages, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for goods and services, access to the distribution of material and spiritual wealth. National ethnic - these are conflicts that arise in the course of the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups. According to the classification D. Katz conflicts are: 1) between indirectly competing subgroups; 2) between directly competing subgroups; 3) within the hierarchy and about remuneration. Conflict Explorer K. Boulding identifies the following types of conflicts: 1) real (existing objectively in a certain social subsystem; 2) random (depending on minor points in relation to the fundamental contradictions that cause conflict); 3) substitutive (which are a visible manifestation of hidden conflicts); 4) based on poor knowledge (the result of inept management); 5) hidden, latent (participants for various reasons cannot fight openly); 6) false (creating only appearance). The current view is that some conflicts are not only possible, but may even be desirable. Accordingly, there are two types of conflicts: 1) the conflict is considered functional if it leads to an increase in the efficiency of the organization; 2) the conflict can also be dysfunctional and lead to a decrease in personal satisfaction, group cooperation and organizational effectiveness. 3. Compromise and consensus as a form of completion of social conflict An external sign of conflict resolution may be the end of the incident. Elimination of the incident is necessary, but this is not a sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. Complete resolution of the conflict situation is possible only when the conflict situation changes. This change can take many forms, but the most radical change is the one that removes the causes of the conflict. It is also possible to resolve a social conflict by changing the demands of one side: the opponent makes concessions and changes the goals of his behavior in the conflict. In modern conflictology, two types of successful conflict resolution can be distinguished: compromise and consensus. Compromise is a way to resolve the conflict, when the conflicting parties realize their interests and goals through either mutual concessions, or concessions from the weaker side, or from the side that managed to prove the validity of its claims to the one who voluntarily renounced part of his claims. Consensus - the presence between two or more individuals of similar orientations in any respect, one or another degree of agreement and consistency in actions. It is easy to see that it is precisely at the stage of conflict resolution that such a situation is possible under certain conditions. M. Weber considers consensus as an integral characteristic of any human community, as long as it exists and does not break up. He contrasts consensus with solidarity, arguing that behavior based on consensus does not require it as a condition. At the same time, it must be remembered that consensus does not completely exclude the conflict of interests between the parties. Also, the consensus does not completely rule out the possibility of a new conflict flaring up. According to M. Weber, consensus is an objectively existing probability that, despite the absence of a preliminary agreement, the participants in one form or another of interaction will treat each other's expectations as significant for themselves. Thus, consensus is not always associated with conflict behavior. It is easy to see that Weber's interpretation considers this social phenomenon in the broadest sense of the word. From this we can conclude that consensus is not always generated by conflict, just as conflict does not always end in consensus. With this understanding of consensus, behavior based on consent is different from behavior based on contract. At the same time, consensus is the primary form - it arises in the minds of people. The treaty is secondary, since it is the normative consolidation of consensus. Achieving consensus in society presupposes achieving political consensus. It is usually understood as a state of agreement in relation to a particular political course in general or its individual aspects. At the same time, such consent is not identical with joint actions and does not necessarily imply cooperation in the implementation of the relevant goals and objectives. The very degree of agreement in consensus may be different, although it is understood that it must be supported, if not by an overwhelming, then at least by a significant majority. Varying from problem to problem, the degree of consensus is usually higher in views on provisions of a more general, abstract nature. That is why the conflicting parties, for more successful negotiations, need to start them with such topics, as this will give them more chances to find a common consensus. In order to maintain consensus in society, three circumstances must be taken into account. First, the natural willingness of the majority to follow the laws, regulations, and norms in force. Secondly, a positive perception of institutions designed to implement these laws and regulations. Thirdly, the feeling of belonging to a certain community, which contributes to a certain leveling of the role of differences. LECTURE No. 10. Culture as a social phenomenon 1. Culture as an object of sociological knowledge. A variety of theoretical approaches to the study and understanding of culture Sociology of culture - this is a branch of sociological knowledge that studies the social patterns of culture and the forms of their manifestation in human activity related to the creation, assimilation, preservation and dissemination of ideas, ideas, cultural norms and values, patterns of behavior that regulate relations in society, as well as between society and nature . In the broad sense of the word, the sociology of culture is not just a branch of sociological knowledge, it covers all the problems of social life from a certain point of view. Considerable material has been accumulated in the sociological theory of culture and many approaches have been developed to define this term. Among the most common of them are the following approaches: 1) descriptive, defining the objects of the concept under consideration; 2) historical, characterizing such a phenomenon of this concept as continuity; 3) normative, focused on fixing people's way of life in terms; 4) psychological, emphasizing the process of adaptation; 5) structural, characterizing culture as a certain structure; 6) genetic, considering culture from the position of origin; 7) functionalism, marking the meaning of each element of the defined term; 8) symbolism, focused on the external fixation of culture. The object of sociological research in this area of sociological science is: 1) distribution of forms and methods of creation and transfer of cultural objects existing in society; 2) stable and changeable processes in cultural life; 3) the social factors and mechanisms that cause them. Cultural content can be identified in any purposeful activity of social subjects: work, politics, everyday life, etc. In the sociological study of culture, the allocation of a value component is of particular importance, which makes it possible to combine culture into a system that ensures their connection at various levels: society as a whole; social groups; personality. The concept of "culture" in modern sociological knowledge means an artificial environment created by people for existence and self-realization: these are customs, beliefs, values, norms, symbols that find their expression in the subject environment, behavior patterns that are established by people, are passed down from generation to generation and are important sources of regulation of social interaction and behavior. Each particular society creates its own culture, which is transmitted from generation to generation as a result of historical development, which leads to the emergence of different types of cultures. An important direction in the sociology of culture is the analysis of such a phenomenon as cultural universals. Cultural universals - these are the norms and values that are inherent in all cultures, regardless of geographical location, historical period or social conditions. American sociologist J. Murdoch identified more than 70 cultural universals that exist because they satisfy the most important needs. Such universals include: language, religion, symbols, ethics, art, education, customs, rituals, rules of conduct, etc. It is obvious that each culture includes thousands of cultural elements that merge into a single whole. Cultural elements are a set of the main components of culture. For the first time the concept of a cultural element was formulated by an American researcher E. Hobbel in 1949. He defined the cultural element as a primary, considered more indivisible unit of a behavioral pattern or an indivisible material object. Elements of material culture can be, for example, such items as a screwdriver, a pencil, a handkerchief. Elements of non-material culture can be shaking hands or driving on the left side of the road. Cultural elements are combined into a cultural complex, all parts of which are interconnected. The cultural complex is an intermediate link between cultural elements and institutional culture. Each type of human activity contains cultural specific complexes, which can be analytically decomposed into a number of separate cultural elements. An important problem in the sociology of culture is such widespread phenomena as ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism - this is a tendency to evaluate other cultures through the prism of one's own, from the position of its superiority. The manifestation of this tendency can take various forms (missionary activity, crusades). In conditions of social instability, weakening of state power, ethnocentrism can develop into xenophobia, militant nationalism. Historical practice shows that ethnocentrism manifests itself in more tolerant forms, which gives sociologists reason to find positive aspects in it, linking them with patriotism, national self-consciousness, and group solidarity. Cultural relativism - identity of any culture. As the American researcher R. Benedict notes, not a single value, not a single feature of a culture can be fully understood if it is analyzed in isolation from the whole. Cultural relativism softens the effect of ethnocentrism and promotes the search for ways of cooperation and mutual enrichment of different cultures. The most rational way of development and perception of culture in society is a combination of features of both ethnocentrism and group relativism, when an individual, feeling pride in the culture of his group, is at the same time able to understand other cultures, the behavior of members of other social groups, evaluate their identity and meaning. 2. Basic elements and functions of culture Considering culture as a complex system, sociologists single out its basic elements. They are divided into two types: tangible and intangible. Material culture - this is what materializes the knowledge, skills and beliefs of people. Spiritual culture includes language, knowledge, beliefs, norms, values, and much more, that is, everything that arises in the minds of people and determines their behavior. In the sociology of culture, the main attention is paid to the study of culture as a symbolic, normative, value system that guides and regulates the activities of people. Culture as a value-normative mechanism for regulating social interactions ensures the integrity of society and social order. Language, social values, social norms, traditions and rituals are distinguished as the main and most stable elements of culture. Language - a system of signs and symbols endowed with a certain meaning. It is the initial condition for the formation of any communities and performs various functions, the main of which is the creation, storage and transmission of information. The language also plays the role of a culture retransmitter, i.e. its distributor. social values - these are socially approved and accepted beliefs about the basic aspirations of a person. In the mechanism of influence of culture on social relations, it is especially important that culture establishes value systems and criteria that determine them. A person's behavior is determined by his needs, on the basis of which interest is formed, that is, some needs are given more importance. Individuals and groups must constantly choose ways to meet their needs. In such situations of choice, values and criteria that determine the scale of values come into play. It should be noted that the value-regulatory mechanism is a complex organized system in which the general regulation of human behavior, in addition to values, is also carried out by norms - peculiar rules of behavior. Social norms - these are rules, patterns and standards of behavior in accordance with the values of a particular culture. Norms in their origin and content are closely related to values. Normally, one or another cultural value is presented as a desirable specific pattern of behavior. Therefore, the norms express the specificity, originality of the culture within which they are formed and function. A culture that points to standards of correct behavior, that is, what a person should (or should not) do, is called a normative culture. Thus, the cultural norm is a system of behavioral expectations, a model of how people are supposed to act. From this perspective, a normative culture is an elaborate system of such norms and standardized ways of feeling and acting that members of a society follow more or less exactly. The norms also establish the permissible limit of activity, which is a condition for belonging to a group. Consequently, norms are a means of social regulation of the behavior of individuals and social groups. Customs - these are the usual, most convenient and fairly common ways of group activities that are recommended to be performed. Informal sanctions are applied to violations of social customs - remarks, censures, etc. If customs pass from one generation to another, then they acquire the character of traditions. Traditions are elements of social and cultural heritage that are passed down from generation to generation and preserved for a long time. As a rule, traditions breed conservatism and cause stagnation in society. For example, the transfer of power by inheritance in monarchies. Rituals is a set of symbolic collective actions, conditioned by customs and traditions and embodying norms and values. Rites accompany important moments of human life: baptism, engagement, wedding, etc. The strength and significance of rites lies in their emotional and psychological impact on people's behavior. Ceremonies and rituals are closely related to rituals. The ceremony is understood as a certain sequence of symbolic actions on the occasion of some solemn event, for example, initiation into students. Rituals are associated with symbolic actions in relation to the sacred or supernatural. It is usually a stylized set of words and gestures, the purpose of which is to evoke certain collective emotions and feelings. Thus, cultural elements form the core of social culture as a value-normative system of people's behavior. Along with the main elements, there are others that perform certain functions in society. In particular, habits are stereotypes of behavior in certain situations; manners - external forms of behavior subject to evaluation by others; etiquette - special forms of behavior adopted in certain social circles; fashion - as a manifestation of individuality and the desire to maintain their social prestige. Based on the analysis of the main elements that make up culture, certain conclusions can be drawn about the functions performed by this social phenomenon. In the sociological literature, the main functions performed by the social system are distinguished: 1) cognitive. This function is manifested in the fact that culture acts as a way, a method of value development of reality. The assimilation of reality is embodied in the practical activities of people (in production, everyday life, political, scientific, educational activities). From this logically follows another function of culture - practical-transformative; 2) practical-transformative. It is called upon to organize, determine the content and direction of people's practical activities; 3) regulatory, normative. Culture, through social norms, values, traditions, knowledge, creates stable social conditions for people's lives, streamlines the experience and regulates the behavior of people in society and a particular social group. Therefore, most researchers do not attribute random, sporadic to culture; 4) communicative. Its basis is language, communication. They help individuals, groups, societies to understand each other. The problems of understanding have been deeply developed in the socio-economic works of representatives of hermeneutics (from the Greek - interpretation, explanation). In sociology, these views were developed and concretized in "understanding sociology"; 5) the function of human socialization. Socialization is the most important means of its formation as a member of society, a subject of activity, social relations. Culture brings up responsibility, internal, moral limitation; in the process of socialization, individuality, the uniqueness of the individual is formed; 6) hedonistic. Culture acts as a means of entertainment, satisfaction of aesthetic and moral needs. 3. Forms of culture Thus, culture consists of many elements and performs various functions in society. Moreover, every society, every group has its own unique culture. It is in connection with this that the question of various forms of culture is actualized in sociological science. Depending on who creates the culture, it is divided into mass, elite and folk. Mass, or public, culture appeared in the middle of the XNUMXth century, when the mass media penetrated into most countries of the world and became available to representatives of all social strata. In modern sociology, mass culture is regarded as commercial, since works of science, art, religion, etc., act in it as commodities capable of making a profit when sold if they take into account the tastes and demands of the mass audience. An important direction in the study of mass culture by modern sociology is its impact on the formation of personality. Thus, the Austrian psychologist Z. Freud pointed out that when mass culture is consumed, the mechanisms of suggestion and infection operate. A person, as it were, ceases to be himself, but becomes part of the mass, merging with it. The prerequisites for the emergence of mass culture were the following phenomena: democratization, industrialization, the development of mass media, the emergence of a new type of industrial-commercial production and the spread of standardized spiritual goods. Pop music is an example of popular culture. It, as a rule, has a fairly wide audience, but compared to the elite culture, it has less artistic value. Elite culture created by a privileged part of society or by its order by professional creators. It includes specific forms of culture, created in the expectation that they will be understood only by a small group of people who have a special artistic susceptibility and are called the elite of society because of this. high culture difficult to understand for an unprepared person. The circle of its consumers is highly educated members of society. However, it often happens that elite culture turns out to be only a temporary and transient form of aesthetic self-affirmation of certain social groups that stand out according to social or age characteristics. Opera or ballet can serve as an example of an elite culture. Mass and elite forms of culture are not opposite to each other. Some researchers believe that the boundaries between them are very mobile and rather arbitrary. Therefore, in modern sociology there is an opinion about the need for mutual integration of these types of culture, which optimizes the process of cultural production in society. A very specific area of culture of the XX century. is the culture of the people. Folk culture unfolds in the social space between the classical folklore tradition, from which it grows, and mass culture. Initially, folk culture is created by anonymous authors who do not have special training. Elements of folk culture can be both individual and group and mass. The range of folk culture is very wide: heroic epics, toasts, fairy tales, dances, anecdotes, songs. The relationship between mass and popular culture is very contradictory. On the one hand, mass culture imposes a certain way of thinking and expression on the people, and on the other hand, it is itself fed from the people. Culture functions in society at various levels in certain specific forms. To reflect this particular form of being in sociology, the concept of subculture is used. Subculture is a set of symbols, beliefs, values, norms, patterns of behavior that distinguish a particular community or a certain social group. Every society creates its own subculture. A distinction should be made between social subcultures that arise as positive responses to social and cultural needs, and subcultures that are a negative response to the existing social structure and culture that dominates society, such as some youth cultures. Modern cultures look like a specific way of differentiating national and regional cultures, in which, along with the dominant culture, there are a number of cultural peculiar formations that differ in form and content from the leading cultural tradition. For example, you can talk about the Buddhist, Christian, Muslim religions in general. Separate branches, directions of world religions create their own subcultures, for example, Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant. The social basis for the formation of a subculture can be age groups, social strata, large informal associations of people, etc. However, there are subcultures that not only differ from the dominant culture, but oppose it, are in conflict with the dominant values. They are called the counterculture. A mandatory feature of the counterculture is its opposition. Youth culture can be attributed to the counterculture, in which the rejection of modern culture by the younger generation is most sharply expressed. It includes narcotic culture, oriental mysticism and occultism, etc. 4. Social communication Social communication is an important mechanism of culture. This is the reason for the wide interest of sociologists in this phenomenon. In sociology, a number of approaches to the definition of social communication have been formed: 1) the transfer of information, ideas, emotions through signs, symbols; 2) a process that connects individual parts of social systems with each other; 3) the mechanism through which power is realized (power as an attempt to determine the behavior of another person). A significant contribution to the theoretical development of social communication was made by G. Laswell. He developed a model of communication in which he identified five elements: 1) who is the communicator (the one who transmits and forms the message); 2) what is the message; 3) how - a method of transmitting a message, a channel; 4) to whom - the audience to which the message is addressed; 5) why - with what effect, efficiency. Another element of the Lasswell model was the system of effects caused by the influence of social communications on a person, which can also be characterized as functions: 1) behavioral effect; 2) evaluative (axiological) effects; 3) emotional effect - influence on a person's passions; 4) cognitive (cognitive) effect. Another direction of sociological development of social communication as a phenomenon was the allocation of its types. Various classification bases have been developed, each of which reflects one or another characteristic of this social phenomenon. By the nature of the audience: 1) interpersonal (individualized); 2) specialized (group); 3) mass. According to the source of the message: 1) official (formal); 2) informal. By transmission channel: 1) verbal; 2) non-verbal. One of the most important elements of social communication is a social stereotype. social stereotype - this is a simplified image of social objects or events, which has significant stability. The persistence of stereotypes may be related to the reproduction of traditional ways of perceiving and thinking. In turn, such ways of perceiving and thinking can reproduce the dominance of some social groups over others. The existence of stereotypes may be part of the emerging "image of the enemy." In this case, they can be imposed artificially. Any social stereotypes have both positive and negative characteristics. A positive value can be attributed to assistance in orienting in circumstances that do not require analytical thinking. The negative aspect of the social stereotype is associated with the possible emergence of hostility, enmity between national groups, as well as the fact that they replace the analysis of information with the reproduction of standards of behavior and evaluation. Mass communication has a strong influence on public opinion. Public opinion is the value judgments of groups of people regarding the problems and events of reality. The existence of public opinion implies the existence of a problematic situation, regarding which discussion is possible, and a collective subject capable of realizing its own interests and discussing their implementation. Public opinion acts in the expressive (i.e., associated with the expression of emotions), control and directive functions. It must be taken into account that the process of social communication is not always carried out properly. This can be prevented by so-called "information barriers". Information barriers are obstacles that arise during the transmission and perception of messages. The following main types of information barriers can be distinguished: 1) technical; 2) psychophysiological, associated with a person's ability to concentrate attention, the ability to cursive; 3) sign and semantic, implying the ability to recognize signs, know the words and terms of special languages; the ability to restore the meaning of a sign in a certain context; 4) situational, arising in case of irrelevance of the message for a person in a given situation. The most striking and widespread example of informal social communication is hearing. Hearing - this is information, the reliability of which has not been established and which is transmitted from person to person through oral speech. The emergence of rumors is always due to a number of objective and subjective circumstances that can be described as factors in the spread of rumors. These include: 1) a problem situation that creates an information need; 2) unsatisfactory or lack of information; information uncertainty; 3) the level of anxiety of individuals. Depending on the prevailing conditions, rumors have a greater or lesser influence on people's consciousness, but it cannot be denied at all, because it always exists. The influence exerted can manifest itself in various forms and at various levels: 1) individual level: a) adaptation to the environment; b) disintegration of the individual; 2) group level: a) rallying; b) disconnection; 3) mass level: a) changes in public opinion and collective behavior. The ambiguity of the results of the impact of rumors makes them almost uncontrollable. Rumor prevention can be reduced to the dissemination of timely, extensive and persuasive information. LECTURE No. 11. Applied sociological research 1. Stages and types of sociological research Sociology, unlike other social sciences, actively uses empirical methods: questionnaires, interviews, observation, experiment, analysis of statistical data and documents. Sociological research - this is a process consisting of logically consistent methodological, methodical and organizational and technical procedures, connected by a single goal - obtaining reliable data on the phenomenon under study for subsequent practical application. There are three main types of sociological research: intelligence (probe, pilot), descriptive and analytical. intelligence research - This is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows you to solve limited problems. In fact, when using this type, there is a test of tools (methodological documents): questionnaires, questionnaires, cards, studying documents, etc. The program of such a study is simplified, as is the toolkit. The survey populations are small - from 20 to 100 people. Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes a deep study of the problem. In the course of it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions and their formulation are specified. Descriptive research is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is studied, which gives a relatively holistic view of the studied social phenomenon. Object of analysis - a large social group, for example, the workforce of a large enterprise. In a descriptive study, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be applied. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of the information, makes it possible to draw deeper conclusions and substantiate recommendations. The most serious type of sociological research is analytical research. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process under study, but also allows you to find out the reasons underlying it. It studies the totality of many factors that justify a particular phenomenon. Analytical studies, as a rule, complete exploratory and descriptive studies, during which information was collected that gives a preliminary idea of certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied. In a sociological study, three main stages can be distinguished: 1) development of the program and methods of research; 2) conducting an empirical study; 3) processing and analysis of data, drawing conclusions, drawing up a report. All of these steps are extremely important and require special attention. The first stage will be discussed in detail in the next lecture. The second stage depends on the chosen type of sociological research and methods. Therefore, let us dwell in more detail on the stage of compiling a report on a sociological study. The results of the analysis of the information obtained during the empirical study are reflected, as a rule, in a report that contains data of interest to the customer. The structure of the report on the results of the study most often corresponds to the logic of the operationalization of the main concepts, but the sociologist, preparing this document, follows the path of deduction, gradually reducing sociological data into indicators. The number of sections in the report usually corresponds to the number of hypotheses formulated in the research program. Initially, a report is given on the main hypothesis. As a rule, the first section of the report contains a brief rationale for the relevance of the social problem under study, a description of the parameters of the study (sample, methods of collecting information, number of participants, timing, etc.). The second section describes the object of study according to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, social status, etc.). The following sections include a search for answers to the hypotheses put forward in the program. Sections of the report can be divided into paragraphs if necessary. It is advisable to end each paragraph with conclusions. The conclusion of the report is best presented in the form of practical recommendations based on general conclusions. The report can be presented on 30-40 or 200-300 pages. It depends on the amount of material, goals and objectives of the study. The appendix to the report contains methodological and methodological research documents: program, plan, tools, instructions, etc. In addition, tables, graphs, individual opinions, answers to open questions that were not included in the report are most often taken out in the appendix. This can be used in future research programs. 2. Sociological research program The program of sociological research is one of the most important sociological documents, which contains the methodological, methodological and procedural foundations of the study of a social object. A sociological research program can be viewed as a theory and methodology for a specific study of a particular empirical object or phenomenon, which is the theoretical and methodological basis for the procedures for all stages of research, collection, processing and analysis of information. It performs three functions: methodological, methodological and organizational. The methodological function of the program allows you to clearly define the issues under study, formulate the goals and objectives of the study, determine and conduct a preliminary analysis of the object and subject of the study, establish the relationship of this study to previously performed or parallel studies on this issue. The methodological function of the program makes it possible to develop a general logical research plan, on the basis of which the research cycle is carried out: theory - facts - theory. The organizational function ensures the development of a clear system of division of responsibilities between members of the research team, and allows for the effective dynamics of the research process. The program of sociological research as a scientific document must meet a number of necessary requirements. It reflects a certain sequence, phasing of sociological research. Each stage - a relatively independent part of the cognitive process - is characterized by specific tasks, the solution of which is connected with the general goal of the study. All components of the program are logically connected, subject to the general meaning of the search. The principle of strict phasing puts forward special requirements for the structure and content of the program. The sociological research program consists of two main parts: methodological and procedural. Ideally, the program contains the following sections: problem statement, goals and objectives of the study, object and subject of study, interpretation of basic concepts, research methods, research plan. The relationship between the problem and the problem situation depends on the type of research, on the scale and depth of the sociological study of the object. Determining the object of empirical research involves obtaining spatio-temporal and qualitative-quantitative indicators. In a real-life object, some property is distinguished, which is defined as its side, which is determined by the nature of the problem, thereby designating the subject of research. The subject means the boundaries in which a particular object is studied in this case. Next, you need to set the goals and objectives of the study. Goal focuses on the end result. Goals can be theoretical and applied. Theoretical - give a description or explanation of the social program. Realization of the theoretical goal leads to an increase in scientific knowledge. Applied goals are aimed at developing practical recommendations for further scientific development. Tasks - individual parts, research steps that contribute to the achievement of the goal. Setting goals means, to some extent, a plan of action to achieve the goal. Tasks formulate questions that must be answered in order to achieve the goal. Tasks can be basic and private. The main ones are a means of solving the main research questions. Private - for testing side hypotheses, solving some methodological issues. In order to use a single conceptual apparatus in the program of sociological research, the main concepts are defined, their empirical interpretation and operationalization, during which the elements of the main concept are detected according to strictly specified criteria that reflect the qualitative aspects of the subjects of research. The whole process of logical analysis is reduced to the translation of theoretical, abstract concepts into operational ones, with the help of which tools are compiled for collecting empirical data. Preliminary system analysis of an object is modeling the problem under study, dividing it into elements, detailing the problem situation. This allows you to more clearly present the subject of research. An important place in the development of the research program is the formulation of hypotheses, which concretizes its main methodological tool. Hypothesis - this is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of the phenomenon, the relationship between the studied social phenomena, the structure of the problem under study, possible approaches to solving social problems. The hypothesis gives the direction of the research, influences the choice of research methods and the formulation of questions. The study must confirm, reject or correct the hypothesis. There are several types of hypotheses: 1) main and output; 2) basic and non-basic; 3) primary and secondary; 4) descriptive (an assumption about the properties of objects, about the nature of the relationship between individual elements) and explanatory (an assumption about the degree of closeness of connections and cause-and-effect dependencies in the studied social processes and phenomena). Basic requirements for the formulation of hypotheses. Hypothesis: 1) should not contain concepts that have not received an empirical interpretation, otherwise it is unverifiable; 2) should not contradict previously established scientific facts; 3) should be simple; 4) should be verifiable at a given level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and practical research opportunities. The main difficulty in formulating hypotheses lies in the need to comply with their goals and objectives of the study, which contain clear and precise concepts. The procedural part of the program of sociological research includes the methodology and technique of research, i.e., a description of the method of collecting, processing and analyzing information from sociological research. Empirical studies are carried out on a sample population. The type and method of determining the sample directly depends on the type of study, its goals and hypotheses. The main requirement for samples in an analytical study, i.e., representativeness: the ability of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population. The sampling method is based on two principles: the relationship and interdependence of the qualitative characteristics of the object and the study, and the legitimacy of the conclusions as a whole when considering its part, which in its structure is a micromodel of the whole, i.e., the general population. Depending on the specifics of the object, the choice of methods for collecting sociological information is carried out. The description of information collection methods involves the justification of the chosen methods, the fixation of the main elements of the toolkit and the technical methods of working with them. The description of information processing methods implies an indication of how this will be done using application computer programs. After drawing up the research program, the organization of the field research begins. The program of sociological research is a document that organizes and directs research activities in a certain sequence, outlining the ways of its implementation. The preparation of a sociological research program requires high qualifications and time. The success of empirical sociological research largely depends on the quality of the program. 3. Methods of sociological research Method - the main way of collecting, processing or analyzing data. Technique - a set of special techniques for the effective use of a particular method. Method - a concept that denotes a set of techniques associated with this method, including private operations, their sequence and relationship. Procedure - the sequence of all operations, the general system of actions and the method of organizing the study. The following can be singled out as the main methods used in social empirical research. Observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality, during which the researcher gains knowledge about the external aspects, states and relations of the objects that are being studied. Forms and methods of fixing observation data can be different: an observation form or diary, a photo, film or television camera, and other technical means. A feature of observation as a method of collecting information is the ability to analyze versatile impressions about the object under study. There is the possibility of fixing the nature of behavior, facial expressions, gestures, expression of emotions. There are two main types of observation: included and non-included. If the behavior of people is studied by a sociologist as a member of a group, then he conducts participant observation. If a sociologist studies behavior from the outside, then he conducts uninvolved observation. The main object of observation is both the behavior of individuals and social groups, and the conditions of their activities. Experiment - a method, the purpose of which is to test certain hypotheses, the results of which have direct access to practice. The logic of its implementation is to follow the direction, magnitude and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher by choosing a certain experimental group (groups) and placing it in an unusual experimental situation (under the influence of a certain factor). There are field and laboratory experiments, linear and parallel. When selecting participants in the experiment, methods of pairwise selection or structural identification, as well as random selection, are used. The planning and logic of the experiment includes the following procedures: 1) the choice of the object used as the experimental and control groups; 2) selection of control, factor and neutral features; 3) determining the conditions of the experiment and creating an experimental situation; 4) formulating hypotheses and defining tasks; 5) the choice of indicators and a method for monitoring the progress of the experiment. Document Analysis - one of the widely used and effective methods of collecting primary information. The purpose of the study is to search for indicators that indicate the presence in the document of a topic that is significant for analysis and reveal the content of textual information. The study of documents allows you to identify the trend and dynamics of changes and development of certain phenomena and processes. The source of sociological information is usually text messages contained in protocols, reports, resolutions, decisions, publications, letters, etc. A special role is played by social statistical information, which in most cases is used for the characteristics and specific historical development of the phenomenon or process under study. An important feature of information is the aggregated nature, which means correlation with a certain group as a whole. The selection of sources of information depends on the research program, and methods of specific or random selection may be used. Distinguish: 1) external analysis of documents, in which the circumstances of the occurrence of documents are studied; their historical and social context; 2) internal analysis, during which the content of the document is studied, everything that the text of the source testifies to, and those objective processes and phenomena that the document reports. The study of documents is carried out by qualitative (traditional) or formalized qualitative and quantitative analysis (content analysis). Interview - the method of collecting sociological information - provides for: 1) oral or written address of the researcher to a certain set of people (respondents) with questions, the content of which represents the problem under study at the level of empirical indicators; 2) registration and statistical processing of the received answers, their theoretical interpretation. In each case, the survey involves addressing the participant directly and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation at all. This method of sociological research is the most popular and widespread. The main types of survey, depending on the written or oral form of communication with respondents, are questionnaires and interviews. They are based on a set of questions that are offered to respondents and the answers to which form an array of primary data. Questions are asked to respondents through a questionnaire or a questionnaire. The Interview - a purposeful conversation, the purpose of which is to get answers to the questions provided for by the research program. The advantages of an interview over a questionnaire: the ability to take into account the level of culture of the respondent, his attitude to the topic of the survey and individual problems, expressed intonation, to flexibly change the wording of questions, taking into account the personality of the respondent and the content of previous answers, to put the necessary additional questions. Despite some flexibility, the interview is conducted in accordance with a specific program and research plan, in which all the main questions and options for additional questions are recorded. The following types of interviews can be distinguished: 1) by content (documentary, opinion interviews); 2) according to the technique of conducting (free and standardized); 3) according to the procedure (intensive, focused). Questionnaires are classified according to the content and design of the questions asked. Distinguish between open-ended questions, when respondents speak in free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answers are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures. There are three main stages in the preparation and conduct of a sociological survey. At the first stage, the theoretical prerequisites for the survey are determined: 1) goals and objectives; 2) problem; 3) object and subject; 4) operational definition of initial theoretical concepts, finding empirical indicators. During the second stage, the sample is justified, the following is determined: 1) the general population (those strata and groups of the population to which the results of the survey are supposed to be extended); 2) rules for the search and selection of respondents at the last stage of the sample. At the third stage, the questionnaire (questionnaire) is substantiated: 1) a meaningful representation of the research problem in the formulation of questions intended for respondents; 2) substantiation of the questionnaire regarding the possibilities of the surveyed population as a source of the required information; 3) standardization of requirements and instructions for questionnaires and interviewers on organizing and conducting a survey, establishing contact with a respondent, registering answers; 4) provision of preliminary conditions for processing the results on a computer; 5) ensuring organizational requirements for the survey. Depending on the source (carrier) of primary information, mass and specialized surveys are distinguished. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are called respondents. In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent persons whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow authoritative conclusions to be drawn. The participants in such surveys are experts who are able to give a balanced assessment of the issues of interest to the researcher. Hence, another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is the method of expert assessments. Author: Davydov S.A.
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