LECTURE No. 15. The economic development of Russia in the Middle Ages

1. Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation. The rise of feudal landownership

The period of political fragmentation began in the XII - XV centuries. This is a natural historical stage in the development of feudalism. One of the reasons for feudal fragmentation was the division of ancient Russian lands between the heirs of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Yaroslav the Wise and the ensuing internecine princely struggle. In 1097, the Lubech Congress of Princes established: "everyone keeps his fatherland."

Among other reasons for feudal fragmentation, one should mention the natural character of the Old Russian economy, since it lacked genuine economic ties between individual principalities.

One of the important reasons for fragmentation in Rus' should be called the growth of boyar estates. By the XII century. the estates became more free and independent. The feudal lords sought to gain more power in order to enslave the free communal smerds and to attack communal lands. In the XI - XII centuries. the growth and strengthening of cities also accelerated the process of disintegration of the Old Russian state. Gradually, the cities began to demand economic and political independence, as a result of which they turned into centers of various principalities with their strong princes, who were supported by local boyars.

Among the economic reasons for the weakening of the power of the Kyiv princes was the decline of transit trade. As a result of the crusades, direct ties between the countries of Western Europe and the East along the Mediterranean Sea were established, while the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", which ran through Kyiv, lost its significance. Kyiv ceased to play the role of a major center of European trade with the East, and the great princes of Kyiv - the force that ensured the safety of merchants.

The reason for the decline and fragmentation of Kievan Rus was also the raids of nomads. As a result, the Old Russian state in the middle of the XII century. divided into 14 principalities. In each of them, the boyars tried to become the sovereign master. Separated from the boyars Novgorod with veche (republican) form of government. The largest lands in the era of feudal fragmentation were the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities, the Novgorod feudal republic.

2. Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule. Socio-economic and political consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke

The entire population of the conquered Russian lands was enumerated and subjected to a heavy annual tribute. This expressed the economic dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde. In addition to paying yasak, the Russian population had to perform a number of duties: military, yamskaya, underwater, etc.

The princes came to the Golden Horde for letters (labels), which confirmed their right to reign. This expressed the political dependence of Russia. Between the princes there was a fierce confrontation for obtaining a label for the right to become a grand duke. This bloody struggle, supported by the Horde khans, was the cause of an even greater weakening of Russia.

Only the stubborn resistance of the Russian people allowed him to save his statehood and forced the Horde to abandon the creation of a stable administration in Russia. Therefore, in the first half of the XIV century. the Golden Horde khans transferred the process of collecting tribute to the hands of the Russian princes.

The Golden Horde yoke had far-reaching consequences.

1. It pulled Russia out of the stream of pan-European development for a long time. The Mongol-Tatar yoke with the incessant pumping out of vital funds from Russia became the main reason for Russia's economic lagging behind the countries of Western Europe. For two and a half centuries, a significant amount of national wealth went to the Horde khans.

2. Long-term subjugation to the Horde with its despotic regime noticeably weakened the beginnings of democratic (veche) freedoms that existed in Ancient Russia, strengthening princely autocracy with signs of Asian despotism.

3. Forced prolonged communication with the Mongol-Tatar conquerors affected Russian everyday culture, customs and even national character. On the one hand, the Russians adopted from them some useful administrative procedures and customs, enriched their language, on the other hand, the Horde introduced features of rudeness and Asian cruelty into Russian life. It is with the influence of the Horde that one can associate, in particular, the change in the position of women in Rus'.

One of the negative economic consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion (due to the devastation of the fertile southern regions of the country) was the forced transfer of the center of Russian agriculture to the northeastern regions, which were less favorable in terms of nature. The economic center, and later the center of the political life of the Russian lands, moved from the Dnieper region to the northeast, to the Volga-Oka interfluve. The development of new territories gradually expanded to the north to the White Sea and to the northeast.

3. Main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands into a centralized state

The process of uniting independent Russian principalities into a single state took almost two centuries. The final stage of unification is primarily the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and his son Vasily III (1505-1533).

In 1468, Yaroslavl Principality was finally included in the Moscow State, in 1474 - Rostov, in 1478 - Lord Veliky Novgorod, in 1485 - Tver Principality. Although Pskov and Ryazan were still formally independent, the annexation of Tver meant the creation of a single state around Moscow. Since then, Ivan III calls himself the Sovereign of All Russia, and the Grand Duchy of Moscow becomes the Russian state. With the accession to Moscow by Vasily III of Pskov (1510), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521), the process of unification of the Russian state was basically completed. The emergence of a single multinational state contributed to the development of the economy, the development of inland lands, and the elimination of feudal strife.

In almost all countries of Western Europe, the unification process took place in the XNUMXth century. in a market economy. Active business ties between the regions were needed. The development of cities, handicraft production, trade led to the destruction of feudal isolation, the abolition of customs duties. The royal power in European countries was interested in the growth of the population of cities, because it helped the kings to fight feudal separatism and unite the lands into a single state.

In Rus', the process of unification took place under different conditions. The first attempts at unification appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion prevented this, delaying the processes of economic and political unification. The driving force behind these processes (unlike Western Europe) was the development of feudal relations, the further strengthening of patrimonial and local land ownership. This process took place more actively in the northeast of Rus'.

As for the cities of Russia, they were not of great importance at that time and were not yet the centers of emerging market relations, as in Western Europe. The process of primitive accumulation of capital has not yet begun. The secular authorities and the clergy spent money on the purchase of land, treasures, and not on the development of industry. Consequently, in the early stages of the unification of the Russian lands, political reasons prevailed, the desire to free themselves from the Mongol yoke, the desire to protect the country from Western aggression from Lithuania, Poland and Sweden.

First of all, the objective factor is the fact that the Moscow land was the territory where the formation of the Great Russian people began. The geographical position of Moscow provided it with some security, which contributed to the influx of residents. Therefore, the population was distinguished by the greatest well-being.

Moscow was located at the crossroads of land and river trade routes that connected Russian lands. It was a convenient exchange point. Economically and militarily important handicrafts were concentrated in Moscow. The main branches of the Moscow handicraft economy were metal processing, blacksmithing, foundry, and the production of weapons. Moscow artisans have reached a high level in the construction business.

The subjective factor is the active policy of the Moscow princes.

The role of Moscow especially increased during the reign of Ivan Kalita (1325-1340). His policy served to strengthen the feudal system and the progressive development of Russian society. It was cruel, but at the same time it contributed to state centralization. Prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1363-1389), nicknamed Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, pursued a policy in the same direction. During his reign, Moscow's leading role in the unification of Russian lands was consolidated. The Orthodox Church also contributed to this. The metropolitan see was transferred from Vladimir to Moscow under Ivan Kalita, which made Moscow the ecclesiastical capital of Rus'.

4. Economic policy of Russia in the second half of the XV-XVII centuries.

At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. in Russia, a system of state administration is gradually taking shape, headed by the Moscow prince. The appanage princes and boyars, both from Moscow and from the annexed lands, were subordinate to him. Such a hierarchical structure took the form of parochialism, that is, when a prince or boyar received any position, his origin and the nobility of the family, relations with the Grand Duke, and not personal merits, were necessarily taken into account.

Ivan III, instead of temporary boyar councils, founded the highest advisory body of the Moscow state - the Boyar Duma. Every day she had to deal with current external and internal affairs, resolve conflicts and disputes. Members of the Duma were appointed by the Grand Duke in accordance with the laws of locality, and there was a constant struggle between the boyars for seats in the Duma.

Ivan III was not an absolute autocrat. Any of his decisions had to be approved by the Boyar Duma, and later by the Zemsky Sobor.

At this time, institutions began to appear to manage a variety of economic, financial, defense affairs throughout the country - orders. Boyars ruled there, who had great judicial and administrative powers. They had the right to collect "feed" from the local population, which in reality meant simply requisitions. All this weakened the central government.

A special place in the domestic policy of the country during the reign of Ivan III was occupied by relations between the state and the church. Since the time of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the church had a privileged position: it was exempt from all taxes and ruin. Thus, in the XV century. the church owned more than a third of the country's reserves, was the main usurer and the main economic entity in Russia. She possessed large land plots along with the peasants, her army, and the rights enjoyed by the secular authorities. The church had the right to decide court cases on civil issues within its possessions. To strengthen state power, Ivan III tried to control the economic activities of the church and reduce its land holdings. But the power of the church was enormous, so only the grandson of Ivan III - Ivan IV - was able to destroy its economic monopoly.

In the XVI century. feudal landownership continued to develop and strengthen. Large feudal lords were interested in strong state power, since the Grand Duke supported feudal immunity. But, on the other hand, the heads of state, striving for autocracy, reduced the rights and privileges of the feudal estates. The central government found support among the service nobles.

The mother of Ivan IV the Terrible, Elena Glinskaya, limited the tax and judicial privileges of the clergy, began to control the growth of monastic estates, and reduced the rights of the feeding boyars, who had enormous power in their possessions. Under Elena Glinskaya, a management reform began, which ended under Ivan the Terrible. At the same time, administrative "labial" institutions are being created. They were engaged in court cases on the most serious robbery crimes against the government and feudal lords. In Moscow, these institutions were led by the Robbery Order.

Ivan IV in his activities tried to weaken the conservative boyar opposition, taking advantage of the service nobility and other segments of the population. In 1549, representatives of not only the landed aristocracy, clergy, boyars, but also merchants and wealthy citizens entered the Zemsky Sobor. This meant that a class-representative monarchy was established in Russia.

Ivan IV carried out a military reform, which established the service of the nobles from the age of 15 for land and monetary rewards. They constituted, as it were, the royal guard and served as officer cadres for the noble militia. The votchinniks were supposed to carry out the same public service. After the failures in the Livonian War, the boyar militia was replaced by the archery army, which was recruited from free people voluntarily.

In the mid 1550s. the feeding system was finally abolished. This strengthened the central government to the very bottom. Now local power was in the hands of elected zemstvo elders from wealthy peasants and city merchants. Zemstvo elders were subordinate to the labial elders.

In 1551, the Stoglav Church Council was convened. Now the authorities could more strictly control the activities of the church, which could now acquire and sell land only with the permission of the state.

In 1565, Ivan the Terrible moved to special conditions for governing the country: he introduced the oprichnina, which deprived the boyars and the Boyar Duma of many rights. In 1572, the tsar abolished the oprichnina, but as a result he established strong autocratic power, although the consequences of the oprichnina were very difficult and negatively affected the economy for a long time.

Boris Godunov ruled the country in the same direction as Ivan the Terrible: he strengthened the central government, annexed new lands to Russia, saw his support in the nobles and strengthened their influence. The elected king encouraged private entrepreneurs and merchants. Book printing developed widely under him. Boris Godunov also had a great interest in Western civilization and invited German merchants, doctors, and warriors to Russia. For the first time in the history of the country, several young nobles were sent to study abroad. The reign of Boris Godunov proved difficult for Russia. In 1601-1603 There were unusual frosts in Russia, as a result of which a terrible famine began. In Moscow alone, 120 people died. The Tsar ordered the opening of state grain reserves, but this did not help. Chaos began in the country.

The first years of the reign of the new Romanov dynasty showed a significant strengthening of the trend of transition from a class-representative monarchy to autocracy. Under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, a significant step was taken towards the complete removal of the church from interfering in the affairs of the state. In the middle of the XVII century. the number of orders increased, and their functions were intertwined, creating difficulties in management. The Streltsy army continued to lose combat effectiveness; the noble militia was not interested in the service, since most of them had already received the right to transfer their possessions by inheritance. Therefore, in the first half of the XVII century. regiments of the "new system" appeared - reiters (cavalry) and dragoons (mixed system). But they were not a permanent regular army, but gathered only in case of war, after which they disbanded. This system continued until the end of the XNUMXth century.

5. Formation of the all-Russian market

Economic life of Russia in the XNUMXth century. was marked by the most important event - the formation of the All-Russian market. For this, certain prerequisites appeared in the country. The territorial division of labor deepened more and more noticeably. Various types of industrial products were produced in a number of regions. A certain regional specialization was also taking shape in agriculture. Farmers began to sell their products. For example, in the south and southeast of the country - bread and beef cattle, in the northwest - flax, near large cities - dairy cattle, vegetables. All this strengthened the economic ties between the regions of the country.

From the second half of the XVI century. large regional markets begin to take shape, and in the XNUMXth century. they gradually merge into one all-Russian. If in the XNUMXth century internal trade was carried out mainly in small market-trading, then in the XVII century. regular fairs began to be laid. The Moscow Fair, Arkhangelskaya, Makaryevskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya and others became important centers of wholesale and interregional trade. Moscow was the main trading center of all Russia. It was in Moscow that the merchant class was formed as a special class of citizens.

6. Socio-economic development of Russia after the Time of Troubles

After the Troubles in agriculture there was a three-field system of farming. The path of development of agriculture was extensive: new southern territories of Russia, the lands of the Volga region and Siberia were mastered. There was an increase in commodity production of agricultural products.

There is a transformation of handicraft into small-scale production. Commodity specialization of individual regions of the country begins. The first manufactories appear.

Features of the Russian manufactory:

1) unlike European, Russian manufactory was based not on freelance labor, but on serf labor (there was a registration and purchase of serfs);

2) most often manufactories were founded by the state and carried out its orders;

3) the interest of manufacturers in improving technology was weak due to the cheapness of labor.

Merchant capital is being formed, the merchant class is developing, and the Russian domestic market is being formed.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

<< Back: The beginning of the economic development of Rus' (Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. General characteristics of the socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Features of early feudalization. Social division of labor among the Eastern Slavs. The emergence of cities, the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Internal development of Rus'. The adoption of Christianity and the baptism of Rus' . Money and its role in Kievan Rus)

>> Forward: Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II (The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I. The peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II. The socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century. Social -economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century)

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