История экономических учений. Экономическая мысль в эпоху средневековья (конспект лекций)

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История экономических учений. Экономическая мысль в эпоху средневековья (конспект лекций)

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Table of contents (expand)

The emergence of economic thought in the ancient world (Backgrounds of economic thought in the Ancient East. Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Ancient Egypt. Babylonia. Economic thought in Ancient India. Economic thought in Ancient China. Economic thought in Ancient Rome. The teachings of Cato. The teachings of Xenophon. The teachings of Plato. The teachings of Aristotle)
Economic thought in the Middle Ages (Medieval teachings of Western Europe. "Salic truth". Socio-economic views of Ibn Khaldun. Teachings of Thomas Aquinas. Social utopia of Thomas More. "Russian Truth")
Mercantilism (Mercantilism. Economic prerequisites of mercantilism. Features of mercantilism as an economic idea. French and English mercantilism. Features of Russian mercantilism. Late mercantilism)
Physiocracy (General characteristics of the physiocrats. The teachings of François Quesnay. The activities of Jacques Turgot)
Classical school of political economy (Classical school. Economic views of William Petty. Teachings of Adam Smith. Teachings of David Ricardo)
Classical school after Smith and Ricciardo (The teachings of Jean-Baptiste Say. The economic views of John Stuart Mill. The economic views of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. The teachings of Thomas Malthus)
historical school (Contribution of the historical school to the development of economic theory. Historical school of Germany. New historical school of Germany)
Utopian socialists (Western European utopian socialism. Economic views of Simon de Sismondi. Utopian dreams of Robert Owen)
Marxism (The emergence of Marxism as an economic doctrine. “Capital” by Karl Marx. Karl Marx on the commodity and its properties. Money and its functions. Karl Marx on constant and variable capital and surplus value. Karl Marx’s views on land rent)
Austrian school (Austrian school: the theory of marginal utility as a theory of pricing. The economic views of Eugen Böhm-Bawerk. The teachings of Carl Menger. The economic views of Friedrich von Wieser)
Marginalism (The theory of marginalism. Methodological principles of marginalism. The marginalist theory of value and its advantages. The marginalist revolution. The causes and consequences of the marginalist revolution. The theory of utility of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of labor supply of William Stanley Jevons. The theory of exchange of Francis Isidro Edgeworth)
General economic equilibrium theory (General equilibrium model including production; the problem of the existence of a solution and the process of "tatonnement". General equilibrium theory in the 20th century: contributions of A. Wald, J. von Neumann, J. Hicks, C. Arrow and J. Debreu)
Alfred Marshall (A. Marshall - leader of the Cambridge school of marginalists. Alfred Marshall's partial equilibrium method. Alfred Marshall's analysis of utility and demand. Alfred Marshall's analysis of costs and supply. Alfred Marshall's equilibrium price and the influence of the time factor)
The beginning of the economic development of Rus' (Eastern Slavs in the pre-state period. Prerequisites for the formation of the Old Russian state. General characteristics of the socio-economic development of Kievan Rus. Features of early feudalization. Social division of labor among the Eastern Slavs. The emergence of cities, the development of trade in Ancient Rus'. Internal development of Rus'. The adoption of Christianity and the baptism of Rus' . Money and its role in Kievan Rus)
Economic development of Rus' in the Middle Ages (Causes and consequences of feudal fragmentation. The growth of feudal land ownership. Rus' under Mongol-Tatar rule. Socio-economic and political consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The main conditions and stages of the unification of Russian lands into a centralized state. Economic policy of Russia in the second half of the 15th-17th centuries . Formation of the all-Russian market. Socio-economic development of Russia after the Time of Troubles)
Economic development under Peter I and Catherine II (The essence of the reforms of Peter I. The results of the reforms of Peter I. The peasant question. Agriculture and land use under Catherine II. Industry, trade and finance under Catherine II. The socio-economic policy of Catherine II. The nobility and the system of local government in the second half of the 18th century. Social -economic development of Russia in the first half of the 19th century)
Economic development of Russia in the 19th century. (The Crimean War and its impact on the economic situation in the country. General characteristics of the economic development of Russia in the first half of the 1860th century. Economic prerequisites for the elimination of serfdom. Abolition of serfdom. Stratification of the Russian village. Main types of agricultural farms and their characteristics. Bourgeois reforms of Alexander II and their consequences. Zemstvo reform Urban reform Judicial reform Military reform Educational reforms Financial reform Basic provisions of the legislation on peasants The situation of agriculture in the 1870-XNUMXs Agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin)
Economic thought in Russia (second half of the 1917th - beginning of the 1921th centuries) (The place of N. G. Chernyshevsky in the history of Russian and world economic thought. Economic views of V. I. Lenin. The first socialist transformations. War communism as a stage in the formation of the command-administrative system (XNUMX-XNUMX ). Increasing crisis phenomena in the economy and the beginning of the New Economic Policy. Changes in the monetary and financial spheres)
Economic development of the USSR (The economy of the USSR on the eve of the Great Patriotic War. The Soviet economy during the war. Post-war development of the national economy. The country on the eve of reforms. Reform of the Soviet economic system. Transformations in the social sphere. The economy of developed socialism. The search for new forms and methods of management. Reforms of the 1960-1970s years: essence, goals, methods and results)
Economic development of Russia during the period of perestroika (Background of perestroika. Preconditions for its emergence. Reform of the political system. Reform of the electoral system. Analysis of liberal and other movements. Economic reforms. Economic reform of 1987. The “500 days” program. The dialectic of “new thinking”. The beginning of disarmament. Unblocking regional conflicts. Collapse socialist system)
Economic development of Russia since the early 1990s. (Russia in the first half of the 1990s. Continuation of the course of reforms, shock therapy. Issues of maintaining the unity of Russia. New Constitution. Privatization)

LECTURE No. 2. Economic thought in the Middle Ages

1. Medieval teachings of Western Europe. "Salic Truth"

Much more is known about the Middle Ages and the development of economic doctrine at that time than about economic thought in ancient times. As an example, we can take the Salic Truth.

Scientists believe that Europe entered the medieval stage of subsistence economic relations in the XNUMXth - XNUMXth centuries, that is, much later than the eastern states, in which such relations arose in the XNUMXrd - XNUMXth centuries. In the Middle Ages, economics did not yet exist as an independent science, but was an addition to the subject of the proper conduct of the household (feudal) economy. Since under the feudal system all land belonged to the feudal lords, the peasants created a surplus product and could not become participants in economic relations. Thus, the development of economic relations and the country in general was hampered.

There were many documents (such as "Salicheskaya Pravda"), which absorbed grains of knowledge about the economy and did not allow them to stand out as a separate science. "Salic truth" ("Salic law") - a collection of economic and legal law of the Salic Franks. This collection reflects the development of economic thought of that time. This document shows how things were mainly in pre-feudal society after the beginning of the collapse of the tribal system. "Salic truth" was divided into chapters, each of which described some aspect of the life of the peasants in France. As in the rest of the world at that time, in France preference was given to agriculture, although there were other types of industries, such as beekeeping, horticulture, viticulture, animal husbandry, fishing, and hunting. Also preference was given to subsistence farming. In "Salicheskaya Pravda" special attention is paid to ordinary peasants. This document has chapters that are devoted to theft and punishment for it.

2. Socio-economic views of Ibn Khaldun

Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) is the greatest thinker of the countries where Islam is preached (Arab countries in northern Africa). In his opinion, a person leads a social life only to satisfy his natural needs. It is the desire to satisfy all his needs that makes a person work harder in order to be able to fulfill all his dreams. This is what develops society as a whole through greater demand for goods. Thanks to this development, the market for goods and services is constantly increasing. Even then, Ibn Khaldun understood that the market is the engine of progress and long-term development of society. Private property was interpreted by Ibn Khaldun as a gift from above.

Ibn Khaldun divided goods into two types: "commodities" and "wealth". Wealth is those items that a person possesses due to his abilities and work, but which are not absolutely necessary for life. Consumer goods are those goods that serve to satisfy the natural needs of man. Dealing with this problem, Ibn-Khaldun draws the following conclusions.

1. When the city begins to grow, then the needs of man begin to grow both in commodities and in luxuries.

2. If you start lowering the prices of essentials and raising the prices of luxuries, the city as a whole will prosper.

3. The smaller the city, the more expensive the necessary goods.

4. The city will prosper even if taxes and duties are reduced. This also applies to society as a whole.

Ibn Khaldun believed that the value of a product depends on the amount of labor that was spent on it, and, of course, on the importance of the product for people.

Ibn Khaldun gave us the concept of value. He also tried to explain how this value is formed. According to Ibn Khaldun, several quantities should be reflected in the volume of value (the cost of raw materials, the cost of labor, the cost of labor means, i.e., items that were needed to manufacture a new product and remained suitable for reuse).

Ibn Khaldun represented money both as a means of accumulation and as a means of circulation for the purchase of goods. He also believed that money must be made of gold and silver.

Ibn Khaldun divided labor into two categories: necessary and surplus. Necessary satisfies all needs, and surplus, unlike necessary, allows you to buy luxury items and accumulate wealth.

Ibn Khaldun believed that one could earn money both through labor and through trade. However, he believed that in order to make a profit, sellers are ready to artificially create a shortage, i.e., a shortage of goods, hiding it for the time being and maintaining a hype, i.e., excessive interest in some product, spreading the rumor that this product is needed absolutely everyone. Maybe that's how the ad started.

3. Teachings of Thomas Aquinas

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) - philosopher, Italian monk, economic thinker. He had a huge influence on the development of the economic views of his time, although he based his teachings largely on religious grounds. Thomas Aquinas believed that not all people are equal at birth, so not all people are equal in the possession of property. According to Aquinas, we all have things only in this life, so the poor should not be very sad, but the rich should not rejoice. Thomas Aquinas also condemned theft and suggested that rulers should punish it very harshly. He called the ideal state in which all the sovereigns of Europe are strictly subordinate to the Pope, and the people, in turn, do not contradict the sovereign in anything as long as he stands on the side of the church. Therefore, Thomas Aquinas admitted the idea that the people were capable of revolting if the rulers ceased to completely obey the Roman Church.

Just like the philosophers before him, Thomas Aquinas analyzed trade. He made the assumption that trade can be of two types: legal and illegal. Permissive trading is when a merchant seeks to make a small profit that will support his family, and also seeks to help people acquire those goods that they need and that are produced in another city or country. Illegal trading is when traders make profit in and of themselves and hold on to a product in order to win after a price increase. Aquinas strongly condemned such trade. Money, according to Thomas Aquinas, was invented to measure the value of goods. Money is the very commodity that can be equivalent to any commodity, which greatly simplifies the exchange. Thomas Aquinas put forward the idea that the profit from the goods should be the higher, the higher the person in rank. Everyone has their own expenses, and profit exists in order to cover them.

Thomas Aquinas believed that it was impossible to lend money at interest or rent a house. But under the pressure of his time, he agreed that the correct clause could be made in the loan agreement, then the receipt of interest would sound not like making a profit, but like compensation for possible damage to the person lending money.

4. Thomas More's social utopia

Thomas More (1478-1535) - English thinker, political and economic figure. Known as the author of epigrams, political poems, the autobiographical work "Apology", "Dialogue on Oppression against Adversity", the work "Utopia" (1515-1516). His essay "Utopia" marked the beginning of a huge amount of utopian literature, the authors of which tried to draw an ideal society. Perhaps the name "Utopia" is derived from two Greek words "no" and "place", so it speaks for itself. Thomas More denied private property in general. He believed that everything should be social and that everyone should work only six hours a day. In an ideal state there should be no money. On this occasion, T. More writes: “Wherever there is private property, where everything is measured by money, it will hardly ever be possible for the state to be governed fairly or happily. Unless you consider it fair when all the best goes to bad people , or you will consider it successful when everything is distributed among very few, and even they do not live prosperously, while the rest are completely unhappy.” In their free time, those who lived on the island of Utopia developed their talents through the arts and sciences. Relatives are employed in one type of production. Utopians try not to fight, but only to defend themselves, but they are able to help other people cope with the tyrant king.

The religion of these islanders can be any. All are treated in the same hospitals and eat together in public canteens. There is no army and police on the island, and there are only overseers who monitor the observance of the laws of the island.

Thomas More can be called both a practitioner and a theorist. His meteoric political career and similar failure speak volumes about his idealistic outlook. As long as the government was more or less in line with his views on life, he was at the height and honor. As soon as he did not want to obey the tyrant king, he was immediately "thrown" down (up to his arrest and stay in the Tower) through false accusations and conspiracies. He ended up there because he realized how hard it is for peasants and workers to live against the backdrop of an idle life at the court of His Majesty. He tried to change something in this world, and now - retribution for his kindness and understanding of the acuteness of the pressing problems of his time. Perhaps not all of his works have been studied as thoroughly as "Utopia", which, one might say, is the heart of his works. Nothing helps to understand the future like a scrupulous study of the past. Perhaps a more complete analysis of his other works will make it possible to put forward some completely new views on the understanding of economic theory or a completely ideal state.

5. "Russian Truth"

We do not know much about the development of economic doctrine among our ancestors. One of the most famous examples is Russkaya Pravda.

Russkaya Pravda is a collection of Russian laws during the feudal system. This collection is based on such documents as "Pravda" by Yaroslav the Wise, "Pravda" by the Yaroslavichs, the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, some norms from the "Russian Law", etc. This document reflects the development of economic life in Russia at that time, reveals to us the norms of relations peasants regarding the receipt of an inheritance or the use of property. It also speaks of the return of debts and compensation for their use. Russkaya Pravda describes how and for what the peasants can be punished. Punishments for theft can be especially terrible, up to the murder of a person who decided to steal.

Russkaya Pravda is a source of the laws of that time, telling about economic development and legal law in Ancient Rus'. It also describes how our distant ancestors conducted trade with other states. This document states that money is not only gold and silver, but also furs. We can learn a lot about prices, or what goods were in great demand, by how often overseas merchants brought them. "Russian Truth" tells us that the debtor could be sold along with all his property, thereby paying off the debt. Russkaya Pravda gives us an idea of how the collection of interest was treated in those distant times.

If Russkaya Pravda had not been preserved, we would never have learned so much about the life of our compatriots, their norms of behavior, their customs and traditions, which were previously passed down by word of mouth, their economic development and legal heritage.

Authors: Eliseeva E.L., Ronshina N.I.

<< Back: The emergence of economic thought in the ancient world (Backgrounds of economic thought in the Ancient East. Ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Ancient Egypt. Babylonia. Economic thought in Ancient India. Economic thought in Ancient China. Economic thought in Ancient Rome. The teachings of Cato. The teachings of Xenophon. The teachings of Plato. The teachings of Aristotle)

>> Forward: Mercantilism (Mercantilism. Economic prerequisites of mercantilism. Features of mercantilism as an economic idea. French and English mercantilism. Features of Russian mercantilism. Late mercantilism)

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