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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Economical geography. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. Political map of the world The political map displays the form of government, state structure, major political and geographical changes and much more. The main content of the political map of the world consists of the following elements: the formation of independent states, a change in political status, the loss of political sovereignty by a state, territorial and other changes that occur in a certain state, a change in the names of capitals or a state. There are quantitative and qualitative changes in the political map. Quantitative changes - accession to the state of newly discovered lands, territorial gains or losses after wars, unification or disintegration of states. Qualitative changes include the acquisition of political sovereignty by the country, the introduction of new forms of government and state structure, the formation of interstate associations and political unions, and others. Stages of formation of the political map of the world The process of forming the political map of the world took a long time, about several millennia. ancient period (from the era of the emergence of the first forms of the state to the XNUMXth century AD) covers the era of the slave system. At this time, the first states on Earth develop and disintegrate: Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, etc. Medieval period (V-XV centuries) - the era of feudalism. At this time, the internal market was taking shape, the isolation of the regions was being overcome. new period history began in the XV-XVI centuries. At that time, capitalist relations were born and established in the world, colonial expansions were taking shape, and international economic ties were spreading. Political map of the world at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. became unstable, as the struggle for the territorial division of the world intensified between the largest countries. Home Newest period in the formation of the political map of the world is associated with the end of the First World War. World War II and the period of 1980-1990s. characterized by major changes on the political map of Eastern Europe (the collapse of the USSR, Yugoslavia, etc.). At the first stage (after the First World War), the first socialist state (RSFSR, and later the USSR) is formed on the world map, territorial changes occur on the political map, Austria-Hungary disintegrates, new sovereign countries are formed: Poland, Finland, Austria, Hungary, etc. . At the second stage (after the Second World War), territorial changes take place on the political map of Europe, the world colonial system disintegrates. The third stage began in the 1990s. and is currently ongoing. 2. Territory and boundaries The concept of "territory" differs from the concept of "space" in its specificity, binding to certain coordinates on the earth's surface. Under territory refers to a certain part of the land surface with its natural resources and properties formed as a result of human activity. The main value is determined by the boundaries of the state territory. Political boundaries divide the entire inhabited part of the land (including all the continents) and the vast sea spaces adjacent to it. In fact, the nature of the political, in addition to the state, have non-state borders: defined by international agreements, contractual, temporary, demarcation. Under state borders understand lines and imaginary vertical surfaces passing along these lines, which determine the limits of the territory of the state (land, subsoil, water, air space), i.e., the limits of the spread of sovereignty. Sea and land state borders passing between neighboring states are established in a contractual manner Currently, there are two types of state border establishment: delimitation and demarcation. Under delimitation understand the definition by agreement between the governments of neighboring states of the general direction of the state border and its drawing on a geographical map. Under demarcation understand the drawing of the line of the state border on the ground and its designation by appropriate border signs. In practice, orographic, geometric and geographic state boundaries are applicable. Under orographic boundary a line is meant that is drawn along natural (i.e., natural) boundaries, taking into account the terrain (mainly along a mountain watershed and a riverbed). geometric border - this is a straight line that connects two points of the state border determined on the ground and crosses the terrain without taking into account the relief. Geographic, or, as it is also called, astronomical, border - this is a line passing through the established geographical coordinates and sometimes coinciding with one or another parallel or meridian. Geometric and geographic boundaries are now common in Africa and the Americas. In Russia, all types of borders are applied. On border lakes, the line of the state border runs in the middle of the lake or along a straight line that connects the exits of the land state border to its shores. Within the state territory, the boundaries of administrative-territorial units (republics, states, provinces, lands, regions, etc.) and economic regions are also distinguished. Currently, there is a state territory, territories with an international and mixed regime. 3. Types of territories Currently, there are state territories, territories with international and mixed regimes. Under state understand the territory that is under the sovereignty of a particular state. The main composition of the territory of the state includes land within the borders, waters (territorial and internal) and airspace over land and waters. About 100 coastal states have territorial waters 3-12 nautical miles wide from the coast. Terrestrial spaces that lie outside the state territory and are in common use by all states in accordance with international law, refer to territories with an international regime - this is the open sea, the air shell above it and the deep seabed outside the continental shelf. International legal regime of the Arctic regions the open sea (Arctic Ocean) has its own characteristics. Russia, Canada and other countries divided it into polar sectors. The polar sector is a space with a base - the northern border of the state, a top - the North Pole, lateral borders - meridians. International legal regime established in Antarctica under a 1959 treaty. This continent is demilitarized and open to scientific research by all countries. Outer space is outside the earth's territory, and its legal regime is determined by the principles and norms of international space law. In a mixed regime area includes the continental shelf and the economic zone. Continental shelf is the seabed and subsoil of the underwater sections extending beyond the territorial waters of the state throughout its land territory to the outer limit of the underwater edge of the mainland or at a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the width of territorial waters is measured, when the outer limit of the underwater edge of the mainland does not extend that far. Under economic zones understand areas of the waters of the World Ocean beyond the boundaries of territorial waters with a width of about 200 nautical miles, in which the coastal state exercises sovereign rights to develop and explore mineral resources, carry out scientific research, and fish, and other countries enjoy freedom of navigation and have access to surplus allowable catch. International legal regimes that determine the legal status and procedure for the use of any limited territory or space are special territorial regimes. There are regimes of navigation on international rivers, canals and straits that are used for international navigation; regimes of fishing and other marine fisheries; modes of exploitation of mineral resources of the seabed; regime of water use and regimes of other types of economic activity on border rivers, etc. 4. The main objects of the political map of the world Currently, the main objects of the political map are the sovereign states of the world and non-self-governing territories. There are about 230 countries and territories, of which more than 190 are sovereign, that is, these states are politically independent, have independence in all their affairs (external, internal). Countries are grouped according to certain criteria. Currently, countries are classified by population, size of territories, and features of their geographical location. The 7 largest countries are distinguished by the size of the territory: Russia, China, USA, Canada, Brazil, India, Australia. Their area is more than 3 million km 2. These countries together occupy approximately half of the entire earth's land mass. In terms of population, there are 10 largest countries in which the number of inhabitants is over 100 million people: China, India, USA, Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, Japan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria. Together, these countries account for about 60% of the world's population. The political map of the world is dominated by large (discussed above), medium and small countries. Microstates are the smallest countries: Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein. Under state sovereignty understand the fullness of the legislative, executive and judicial power of the state in its territory, which excludes any foreign power. The sovereignty of the state must always be complete and exclusive - this is one of the main properties of the state. The principle of sovereign equality of states, the principle of mutual respect for state sovereignty, the position of non-interference of countries in each other's internal affairs is based on the concept of state sovereignty. The most complex historical processes are the formation and development of states, which is determined by many external and internal factors: social, political, economic, ethnic, etc. There are more than 30 Non-Self-Governing Territories in the world today. They can be divided into groups: 1) colonies that have been officially included in the UN list; 2) territories that are actually colonies, but not included in the UN list, since, according to the establishment of the states administering them, they can be "overseas territories", "overseas departments", "freely associated states", etc. The colony - a territory or a country that is under the rule of a foreign state, is deprived of economic and political independence and is governed on the basis of a special regime. 5. Forms of government The political system of any country is characterized by a form of government. There are the following forms of government. In ancient times, a republican form of government arose - this is the Athenian democratic republic, the Spartan aristocratic republic (V-IV centuries BC), the Roman aristocratic republic (V-II centuries BC), the city-republics of Florence, Venice , Genoa (in Italy), Novgorod and Pskov (in Russia), etc. But this form of government gained maximum distribution during the periods of New and Contemporary history. Republic - This is a form of government when the legislative power belongs to the parliament, and the executive - to the government. There is a presidential republic, a parliamentary republic. A special form of government is socialist republic. The republican form of government is progressive and democratic. In the conditions of a slave-owning society, a monarchical form of government arose, the former main form of government under feudalism. One of the forms of government is the ancient Eastern monarchy. In Rome there was not only a monarchy, but also a republic. There are currently 30 monarchies on the political map of the world: 14 in Asia, 12 in Europe, 3 in Africa, and one in Oceania. These are kingdoms, empire, principalities, duchies, sultanates, emirates and the papal state of Vatican City. В constitutional monarchies the real legislative power belongs to the parliament, and the executive - to the government. В absolute monarchies the government is responsible to the monarch as the head of state, and the parliament is either absent or is an advisory body (Saudi Arabia, Oman, Brunei, Kuwait, etc.). For the most part, the power of the monarch is for life and is inherited. Interstate association - the British Commonwealth, head - Great Britain. Commonwealth members (Canada, Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tuvalu, Mauritius, Antigua and Barbuda, Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Jamaica) have the right to unilaterally withdraw from cooperation whenever they wish. In Commonwealth states that have a republican form of government, the Queen of Great Britain is proclaimed "the head of the Commonwealth ... a symbol of a free association of independent states and its members." The supreme body of the Commonwealth is the conference of heads of government. In 1991, another Commonwealth appeared on the world map - the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which includes the former republics of the USSR. 6. Form of government The administrative-territorial structure of the state is the most important element of the political map, associated with the nature of the political system and the form of government. It demonstrates the national and ethnic composition of the population and the historical and geographical features of the formation of the country. The main forms of administrative-territorial structure are unitary and federal. Under unitary state imply a single integral state formation, which consists of administrative-territorial units subordinate to the central authorities. It has no signs of state sovereignty, usually there is a single executive and legislative power, a single system of state bodies, a single constitution. There are many unitary states in the world (Italy, Bulgaria, Algeria, Korea, etc.). Федерация - a form of government, which consists of several state entities that legally have a certain political independence and form one union state. Federation features: 1) the territory of the federation consists of the territories of its individual subjects; 2) subjects of the federation usually have the right to adopt their own constitutions; 3) the competence of the federation and its subjects is delimited by the federal constitution; 4) any subject of the federation has its own legal and judicial systems; 5) in the federations there is a single union citizenship and citizenship of union units; 6) the federation has a unified armed forces, a general federal budget. The federations and union parliaments have a chamber representing the interests of the members of the federation. Federations arise on territorial and national grounds, which determine the content, nature and structure of the state system. The federal structure has such states as the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the United States of America, the Federal Republic of Germany, etc. A temporary legal union of sovereign states, which is created to ensure common interests, is called a confederation. Confederate states are short-lived and quite rare. Confederate devices either break up or turn into federations. At present, this form of government is fixed in the name of one state - the Swiss Confederation. In the 1980s inter-ethnic, interethnic relations became especially sharply aggravated. In this regard, in some cases, intra-and interstate conflicts arose. The explosive nature of interethnic relations in recent years has been observed in the Russian Federation, Yugoslavia, India, Canada, South Africa and some other federal states. 7. Form of state regime The totality of ways, methods and techniques of exercising power by the state is called a form of state regime. The state regime is the most important component of the political regime that exists in society. There are the following state regimes: democratic and anti-democratic (totalitarian, authoritarian, racist). Under understand democracy a form of state-political structure of society, which is based on the recognition of the people as a source of power. Principles of democracy: majority rule, election of the head of state, equality of citizens, protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the rule of law, separation of powers, representative bodies. Forms of democracy: direct (decisions are made by all citizens through referendums or meetings) and representative (decisions are made by elected bodies). Totalitarianism - one of the forms of the state regime (totalitarian state), characterized by total control over entire areas of society, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression against opposition-minded and dissidents (in particular, various forms of totalitarianism can be observed in fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and etc.). Dictatorship, i.e. unlimited power - exercise of power in the state by non-democratic means; authoritarian political regime. Under the dictatorship of the proletariat one should understand the power established as a result of the revolution and exercised by the working class, headed by its party. Historical forms: the Paris Commune of 1871, Soviets, people's democracy. State power, which was established after the October Revolution of 1917, later turned into totalitarian-bureaucratic regime. Similar processes took place in other countries that proclaimed the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat. These include the socialist countries and the people's democracies. If the system of power is inherent in anti-democratic political regimes, then it is called authoritarianism, which is combined with personal dictatorship. Forms of authoritarianism: Asian despotisms, tyrannical and absolutist forms of government of modern times, the Middle Ages and antiquity, military-police and fascist regimes, various variants of totalitarianism. Apartheid (racism) is an extreme form of racial discrimination. Racism is the deprivation of civil and political rights of certain groups of residents, depending on race, up to territorial isolation. Acts of genocide can constitute apartheid. Genocide - this is a very serious crime against humanity: the extermination of certain population groups on racial, ethnic, national, religious or other grounds, the deliberate creation of living conditions that will contribute to the complete or partial physical destruction of these population groups. 8. Typology of the countries of the world About 230 countries are represented on the modern political map of the world. Among them there are countries with a large territory and population, there are single-ethnic and multinational countries; there are rich in natural resources and poor; there are countries that have access to the sea and long maritime borders and those that do not. Every country in the world has its own unique features. Country type forms a set of conditions and features of development, which in certain ways make it related to a number of countries similar to it, and on the other hand, distinguish it from all others. Typologies are different. They take into account a large number of indicators characterizing the level of economic and social development of countries, political and historical aspects. Currently, according to the typology, which takes into account the level and nature of socio-economic and political development, there are three groups of countries in the world: 1) economically developed states; 2) countries with economies in transition; 3) less developed countries (developing countries). Canada, the United States, Israel, Western European countries, Japan, the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand (a mature level of development of market relations, a significant role in the world economy and politics, a strong scientific and technical potential) are classified as economically highly developed countries. The main capitalist countries are the USA, the FRG, Japan, France, and Great Britain. These are countries of the world that are developed in terms of their economic, scientific and technical potential. The economic highly developed small countries of Western Europe are characterized by a high level of development, but each country has a narrow specialization in the world economy. Countries with economies in transition - Australia, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Israel. These states retain the agrarian and raw material specialization that developed in their foreign trade back in the colonial period. A country that has achieved political independence and an average level of economic development under the dominance of the capitalist system is Ireland. The countries lagging behind in development are Spain, Greece, Portugal. Economically less developed countries (developing countries) numerous and diverse (Brazil, Mexico, India, etc.) The countries of relatively mature capitalism are the states of Latin America and some Arab countries. The resettlement countries of the early development of capitalist dependence are Uruguay and Argentina. Countries of large-scale development of capitalism - Venezuela, Chile, Iran, Iraq, Algeria. The countries of outwardly oriented opportunistic development of capitalism are Malaysia, Taiwan, Thailand, and others. Small countries of dependent plantation economy - Nicaragua, Costa Rica, etc. Small countries of "concession development" of capitalism - Gabon, Botswana. Small "landlord countries" - Malta, Cyprus, Panama, etc. Young Liberated States - Indonesia, Pakistan, Nigeria, etc. 9. Natural resources of the world and their economic evaluation The biosphere as a result of human activity is changing rapidly. A great qualitative leap has taken place in almost all spheres of human life: in transport, in manufacturing, in the service sector, in military affairs, etc. Man is developing new territories: the polar zones, high-mountain regions. Man in the process of development of society used a variety of resources. The natural environment is the habitat of man and the source of all the benefits that are necessary for life and human production activities. The socio-economic needs of society determine the degree of use of resources. At present, a person needs a large amount of resources to satisfy his needs. All mankind faces serious and complex problems of nature protection. Industry and agriculture have a negative impact on the state of the environment, so society should pay great attention to the environmental component in the placement, construction and further development of any production. Natural conditions and resources are necessary conditions for the development of both industrial and agricultural production. Natural resources are classified according to their belonging to a particular natural sphere (by genesis): 1) resources of the lithosphere are minerals, land and soil resources; 2) the resources of the hydrosphere are glaciers, the waters of the land and the oceans, the energy of rivers, tides and tides; 3) atmospheric resources - these are climatic and recreational, wind energy; 4) the resources of the biosphere are biological resources (animal world, man). All resources are divided into exhaustible and inexhaustible (climatic resources, energy of the Sun, wind, flowing waters). Almost all other natural resources are exhaustible, which are divided into renewable and non-renewable. Renewable - these are the resources of the biosphere, which, with unreasonable use, can become non-renewable (ores and all other minerals). Resources are classified according to the directions of their use: fuel and energy, resources for construction, food industry, forestry and woodworking industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, etc. According to the composition and features of use, three groups of minerals are distinguished: combustible, metallic and non-metallic. Classifications of natural resources are conditional, because the same minerals (or resources) can be used in various sectors of the national economy. The degree of development of natural resources is characterized by extreme unevenness. The economic assessment of natural resources is the establishment of the possibility and expedient of involving them in production at the current level of development of science and technology. 10. Mineral resources Mineral resources are minerals that are extracted from the bowels of the earth. Minerals are understood as natural mineral substances of the earth's crust, which can be used in the economy in their natural form and after preliminary processing. The use of mineral resources is currently constantly growing; about 200 types of mineral raw materials are practically used. Mineral raw materials is the main base for the production of industrial products. In the world every year more than 100 billion tons of various mineral raw materials and fuel are extracted from the bowels. Mineral resources are the recorded reserves of mineral deposits (ore and non-ore) deposited on the surface and in the waters of lakes, seas (salt, placers) used by the national economy. Ores are distinguished among ore minerals: 1) ferrous metals (iron, manganese, chromium, titanium, vanadium); 2) non-ferrous metals (copper, tin, aluminum, zinc, tungsten, molybdenum, lead, cobalt, nickel); 3) noble metals (gold, platinum, silver); 4) radioactive metals (radium, uranium, thorium). Ore deposits are complex, they contain useful components of several minerals. Non-metallic minerals are non-combustible and non-metallic hard rocks and minerals, including: 1) building materials (clay, sand, gravel, chalk, limestone, marble); 2) chemical raw materials (sulphur, apatite, phosphorite, potassium salts); 3) metallurgical raw materials (asbestos, quartz, refractory clays); 4) precious and ornamental stones (diamond, ruby, jasper, malachite, crystal, etc.). The distribution of mineral resources on the planet is associated with differences in tectonic processes, the conditions for their formation in previous geological epochs. Ancient mountains are richer in minerals. In the mountains and ancient shields on the continents there are ore minerals. In the sedimentary rocks of foothill troughs and platforms, in intermountain depressions there are deposits of oil, natural gas, and coal. Large reserves of iron ore are concentrated in the USA, Russia, India, China, and Latin America. Large reserves of aluminum raw materials are located in France, USA, India, Russia, and lead-zinc - in Canada, Australia, USA. The main share of the world's coal resources is concentrated in North America, Europe and Asia, the largest coal basins are in Russia, the USA, and Germany. Oil and gas resources are mainly concentrated in North America, Asia and Africa. Changes in the geography of extraction and consumption of raw materials, the dynamics of prices in the world market have a significant impact on the socio-economic situation in individual countries. The reserves are quite dynamic, their sizes change in the process of development of science and technology, in the exploration and development of new mineral deposits, their rational use. Large reserves of manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and other minerals have been discovered at the bottom of the World Ocean. 11. Energy resources Primary energy resources are oil, natural gas, hard and brown coal, oil shale, peat (non-renewable resources of the lithosphere); wood (renewable resource), hydropower is an inexhaustible resource of the hydrosphere, etc. The energy reserves of atomic decay and nuclear fusion are physically inexhaustible. Until the beginning of the XNUMXth century. wood was the main energy resource on the planet, later its importance decreased. The first "energy transition" took place - the widespread use of coal, it was replaced by the consumption and extraction of other types of fuel (oil and natural gas), the use of nuclear energy. The "era of oil" gave impetus to the intensive development of the economy, in connection with this, the production and consumption of fossil fuels increased, as well as the amount of energy consumed on the planet. According to the World Energy Council (WEC), the proven recoverable reserves of fossil fuels in the world amount to 1220 billion tons of "conventional" fuel (cf), and the total recoverable resources are approximately 4,5 times greater. Proved reserves of fossil fuels are sufficient to meet the expected increase in global demand for them for many decades. The world's fossil fuel reserves are made up of coal reserves (up to 60%), oil and gas (about 27%), all of this is recalculated in the equivalent of "conditional" fuel. In their total world production (production), a different situation is formed in terms of the share of energy carriers: coal accounts for over 30%, and oil and gas - more than 67% of the total production of fuel resources. In the global proven reserves, there are still reliable ones. OPEC countries account for approximately 77% of the world's oil reserves and 41% of the world's natural gas reserves. In the countries - the largest oil producers, the availability of reserves is above the average level. The United States, Russia, China, South Africa, Australia, Germany, and India have the largest coal reserves. Known uranium resources in the world today are estimated at 2,4 million tons. The use of energy resources is the main indicator of the level of development of civilization. Consumption of various types of primary energy carriers (oil, gas, coal) by industrialized countries significantly exceeds the corresponding indicators of countries in the developing world. The energy situation emerging as a result of this trend is fraught with complex environmental problems for most third world countries. The concept of "energy crisis" can be defined as a state of tension that has developed as a result of a mismatch between the needs of modern society for energy and energy reserves, including due to the irrational structure of their consumption. 12. Land resources Land resources are among such natural resources, without which human life is unthinkable. There are as many land resources on the planet as there are sushi. Land resources are the earth's surface, which is suitable for human habitation, construction and other types of economic activity. Land resources are characterized by relief, soil cover and a complex of other natural conditions. The structure of the land fund is a characteristic of land resources. The land fund is the ratio of areas that are occupied by crops, forests, pastures, industrial enterprises, etc. Land resources and soil cover of the Earth have been created for thousands of years - this is the basis of wildlife and agricultural production. A third of the planet's land fund is agricultural land, that is, land that is used for food production. About 3/4 of all soil resources of the planet have reduced productivity due to insufficient provision of heat and moisture. Agricultural lands are arable lands, perennial plantations, natural meadows and pastures. The land fund consists of inconvenient lands (deserts, highlands). The structure of the land fund: cultivated land - 11%, pastures and meadows - from 23 to 25%, forests and shrubs - 31%, settlements - 2%, and the rest of the territory is occupied by unproductive and unproductive lands (mountains, swamps, glaciers, deserts) . Cultivated lands provide about 88% of the food necessary for a person. Mankind is fighting to expand the land, which becomes suitable for agriculture and habitation. Land development is carried out by Russia, the USA, Kazakhstan, China, Canada, Brazil. Preservation of the planet's land resources is one of the most important tasks of mankind. Land resources are shrinking as productive lands are taken over by mining and construction, destroyed by cities and other settlements, flooded during the construction of reservoirs, etc. The problem of agriculture is soil degradation due to improper land use. Soil erosion reduces their fertility and damages crops. Lands in agricultural lands become inconvenient due to potholes, gullies, ravines. In connection with the process of erosion, 6-7 million hectares of land are withdrawn from the world agricultural turnover, and another 1,5 million hectares due to salinization and waterlogging. Gradually, the top fertile soil layer is depleted. The process of desertification is the expansion of the area of deserts, their offensive on agricultural land. This process is typical for many regions of the world. 13. Water resources. World Ocean Most of the waters on the globe are the waters of the oceans (96% by volume). Groundwater accounts for about 2%, glaciers - approximately 2%, and only 0,02% - is the surface waters of the continents (rivers, lakes, swamps). Human life and economic activity are connected with fresh waters. Fresh water is used in everyday life, for the needs of industry and agriculture. 60% of the total land area on Earth is in regions that do not have the required amount of fresh water. A quarter of humanity feels the lack of water, about 500 million people suffer from lack and poor quality of drinking water - this can cause the spread of intestinal diseases. The scarcity of fresh water in the world is increasing, and this is primarily due to: 1) the rapid growth of the world population; 2) an increase in the consumption of fresh water reserves for the needs of industry or agriculture; 3) increasing pollution of the hydrosphere (discharge of industrial waste into rivers, lakes, seas); 4) a decrease in the ability of water bodies to self-purify (due to an increase in waste disposal), etc. The global resource problems of mankind are the limited and uneven natural distribution of fresh water over the earth's surface, the growing pollution of surface and ground waters. Rational use of water resources will lead to overcoming water scarcity. Most of the Earth's surface is occupied by the ocean, it was in it that 3/4 of the classes and subclasses of living organisms arose. The World Ocean plays a huge role in creating the necessary conditions for life on Earth, serving as a supplier of oxygen to the atmosphere and protein food for mankind. The oceans will quench the "thirst" of humanity. Increasing knowledge of the resource potential of the ocean shows that it will be able to replenish the depleting reserves of minerals on land. An important part of the resources of the world's oceans are biological resources (fish, zoo- and phytoplankton). The oceans are a repository of vast mineral resources. The energy potential of the ocean is great. The resources of the World Ocean are huge, but its problems are also great. In the XX century. human activity has had a catastrophic impact on the oceans. The ocean is still being polluted with crude oil, oil products, heavy metals and other highly and moderately toxic substances, ordinary garbage. It annually receives several billion tons of solid and liquid wastes, including those with river runoff into the seas. By the chemical and physical action of its waters and the biological action of living organisms, the ocean disperses and purifies the main part of the waste entering it. However, the ocean is struggling to cope with the increasing amount of waste, and its pollution is increasing as a result. The development of ocean resources and its protection are among the global problems of mankind. 14. World population Demography - This is the science of the patterns of population reproduction, its size and natural increase, sex and age composition. The geography of the population studies the territorial groups of the population, the systems of settlements, the features of their development and formation in different socio-economic and other conditions. The question of population has been around for a very long time. The population of the world in ancient times was not numerous. For example, 15 thousand years ago, about 3 million people lived on Earth, and in 1987 - 5 billion people. The population of the world is distributed extremely unevenly across the continents. The nature of settlement and population density are determined by the following factors: natural conditions (climate, relief, availability of fresh water, etc.), socio-economic factors (concentration of population and economy in large cities, settlement of newly developed areas, hard-to-reach and mountainous areas, etc.) .). The bulk of people live within the temperate, subtropical and subequatorial climatic zones as more convenient for economic activity and living, and the average population density on planet Earth is about 35 people per 1 km 2. Over the past decade, the world population has grown by 1 billion people. In different parts of the Earth, the rate of population change is different. population reproduction - this is a process of generational change and the natural movement (growth) of the population. To characterize this process, many demographic indicators are used: birth rates, mortality rates, and natural population growth. Two types of population reproduction: 1) a very high birth rate, a decrease in mortality and high population growth rates - this type of population reproduction characterizes the concept of "population explosion", which means a sharp increase in natural population growth (in Africa, Asia and Latin America); 2) medium or low birth rates, low mortality rates and a slowdown in population growth (this type of population reproduction is typical for economically developed countries of the world). Age and sex structure of the population - this is the ratio of the male and female population by age groups, which determines the size of the labor force. The economically active population is the share of labor resources directly employed in material production and the non-material sphere. In general, the world is experiencing a steady decline in population growth. State demographic policy - organization of measures taken by the state in order to influence the natural movement of the population and regulate the process of population reproduction. 15. Composition of the population The population of the planet is a kaleidoscope of numerous races and peoples. Humanity is divided into four main races: 1) Caucasoid (42,9% of the world's population); 2) Mongoloid (19,1%); 3) negroid (about 7%); 4) australoid (0,3%). However, representatives of these races in the total world population are about 70%, and the remaining 30% are representatives of mixed and intermediate racial groups, such as Ethiopians, Malagasy, Melanesians, mestizos, sambos, mulattoes. The ethnic composition of the world's population is also diverse. Scientists identify in the modern world 3-4 thousand peoples, nations and tribes, the population of which ranges from several hundred to hundreds of millions of people. Ethnos - a historically established community of people united by language, territory, economy, culture, traditions, national identity. Ethnic criteria are at the heart of the division of mankind into states. No more than half of the states of the world are single-national, that is, the main nationality is more than 90% (these are Japan, China, Denmark, Sweden, etc.). The rest of the countries are multinational (Russia, USA, India, Nigeria, etc.). The classification of peoples is based on the principle of linguistic proximity. The Indo-European family is the largest and includes the following groups: Slavic (Russians, Ukrainians, Poles, Belarusians, Bulgarians, Croats, etc.), Romanesque (French, Italians, Spaniards, Brazilians, Mexicans, etc.), German (Germans, Swedes, Norwegians, British, US Americans, etc.), Iranian (Persians, Tajiks, Afghans), Indo-Aryan (Bengalis, Nepalese, etc.), Celtic, Albanian, Greek, Armenian. Sino-Tibetan language family - the second largest population, includes the Chinese and Tibeto-Burmese groups. The common languages of the world are Portuguese, Chinese, English, Spanish, Arabic, Russian, Bengali, Japanese, etc. The national question is one of the most tense in many countries of the world. Age and gender composition of the world's population. Age is the main criterion for a person's ability to work. People are divided by age into the following categories: 1) based on reproductive qualities: up to 15 years old - the generation of children, 15-49 years old - the generation of parents, 50 years and older - the generation of grandparents; 2) based on the ability of people of different ages and sex to work: the population in pre-working, working and post-working age. Of great importance is the sex composition of the population. Data on the ratio of women and men in general and at different ages are significant for the analysis of the reproduction process. The main reason that determines the sex ratio in the world is the excess of the male population over the female population at birth by approximately 5-6%, by the age of 18-20 the sex ratio levels off, but by old age there is a preponderance of women. In general, there is currently an excess of females over males by 20-30 million people. 16. Religions of the world Knowledge of the religious affiliation of the population helps to better understand the features of the economic and social geography of different countries of the world. The role of religion in society remains significant. It is customary to single out tribal, local (national) and world religions. In primitive society, the simplest forms of religious beliefs arose - totemism, fetishism, animism and the cult of ancestors. Later, complex forms of religions appeared that arose among any one people or among a group of peoples united in a state (this is how local religions appeared, such as Judaism, Hinduism, Shintoism, Confucianism, Taoism, etc.). world religions - Buddhism, Islam and Christianity - spread among the peoples of different countries. Buddhism - an ancient world religion that arose in India in the VI-V centuries. BC e. It exists in such major varieties as Hinayana, Mahayana and Lamaism. The founder of the teaching is Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni, known to the world under the name of Buddha. Христианство - world religion, the number of adherents of Christianity - about 2 billion people. Christianity arose in the XNUMXst century. n. e. in the east of the Roman Empire (the territory of the modern state of Israel). Christianity includes three main areas: Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Protestantism. Within their framework, there are many different denominations and religious associations that arose at different times during the two thousand-year history of Christianity. Catholicism (Catholicism) - the most significant branch of Christianity. It exists as a strictly centralized church, headed by the Pope. Protestantism - arose in the era of the Reformation (XVI century) as an anti-Catholic movement. The largest tendencies of Protestantism are Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Methodism, Baptism. Orthodoxy Byzantine origin established itself in the southeast and east of Europe. Kievan Rus adopted Christianity under Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 988. Islam arose in the XNUMXth century, its founder is the prophet Mohammed. Islam served as a strong impetus for the development in a short historical period of such a phenomenon, which is designated by the concept of the "Muslim world". Confucianism arose in the middle of the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. in China as a socio-ethical doctrine, expounded by the philosopher Confucius, which in a certain period of time became the state ideology. China's second national religion - Taoism - based on a combination of elements of Buddhism and Confucianism. Hinduism in India it is a single set of religious forms: from the simplest ritual, polytheistic to philosophical-mystical, monotheistic. This is the designation of the Indian way of life with a division containing the sum of everyday principles, norms of behavior, ethical and social values, beliefs, cults, rituals. Shintoism the religion of Japan. It is a combination of elements of Confucianism (such as following the cult of ancestors, the patriarchal foundations of the family, respect for elders, etc.) and Taoism. Judaism formed in the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. It is common among Jews living in different countries of the world. 17. Population migrations Migrations are the movements of people between separate territories and settlements associated with a temporary, permanent or seasonal change of their place of residence. The main reason for migration is economic, but national, religious, political and other reasons play a significant role. There is an intensive spatial mass mobility of the population in the world. Migration generates major changes in the distribution of people within and between countries and large regions of the world. Accounting for migration processes is important for the socio-economic development of any country, because they have a great impact on the size and structure of the population and on the entire social and economic sphere of society. There are currently two types of migrations: 1) external - this is the resettlement of people from country to country; 2) internal - this is the relocation of people from region to region within the country. Leaving one's country for permanent residence in another is called emigration, and entry is called immigration. Migration flows have changed in different historical epochs depending on causes and events on a planetary and local scale. Main types of migrations External migrations differ in their nature, reasons, territorial coverage, duration, etc. Depending on the nature, voluntary and forced migrations are distinguished. The reason for voluntary external migrations is economic. Two types of migrations were proposed by V.V. Pokshishevsky. The first is resettlement primarily to those countries where there were undeveloped territories. The second type is migration associated with the contractual contracting of labor. Economic reasons underlie such a relatively new migration phenomenon as the "brain drain". External migrations can be caused by both economic and political reasons. According to the territorial coverage, it is customary to distinguish between intercontinental and intracontinental migrations. In terms of duration, migrations are divided into permanent, temporary and seasonal. Most modern labor migrations are classified as temporary. Basically, the reasons for internal migrations of the population are the same as for external migrations: economic, political, religious, environmental. According to their duration, they are divided into permanent, temporary and seasonal. The most characteristic internal migrations are resettlement from the countryside to the city (urbanization), moving to areas of new development, seasonal and temporary labor flows, travel during summer holidays, and so on, but always only within one country. Population migration is the main reason for the most important changes that have occurred in the settlement of people over the past century. 18. The process of urbanization: the world's rural and urban population The main forms of human settlement are rural settlements and cities. Urbanization is the rapid growth and development of cities, an increase in the share of the urban population, an increase in the role and importance of cities in all spheres of society, the prevalence of urban lifestyle over rural. A city is a large settlement that performs industrial, organizational, economic, managerial, cultural, transport and other functions. The city is characterized by the concentration of population and economy in a relatively small area. Getting the status of "city" is different in different countries. The population indicator in determining the status of the city is combined with some others. In Russia, a city is a settlement with a population of about 12 thousand people, where 85% of the population is workers and employees and members of their families. Cities with a population of over 100 inhabitants are considered to be big cities, and millionaire cities stand out among them. Highly urbanized are those states where the share of the urban population is more than 50%, medium urbanized - those where the share of urban residents is from 20 to 50%, and weakly urbanized - those where this indicator is less than 20%, respectively. In economically developed countries, the share of urban residents is about 75-80% of the population, and this figure is stable. In developing countries, the proportion of city dwellers is lower. The process of urbanization in developing countries is proceeding rapidly, and the growth rate of the urban population in recent years has even outstripped the general population growth rate. The process of moving from rural areas to large cities is typical for economically backward countries. The global process of urbanization is characterized by: 1) the rapid growth of the urban population. The population and economy are concentrated mainly in large cities, and the number of such cities is constantly growing. The number of the largest urban settlements - millionaire cities is increasing. Now in Russia there are 13 millionaire cities: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Volgograd, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Perm, Ufa, Chelyabinsk, Samara, Rostov-on-Don, Yekaterinburg; 2) the rapid expansion of the territories of large cities. The highest link in the process of urbanization was the formation of megalopolises. This is the concentration of agglomerations and cities located at a close distance from each other and tending to merge. Known metropolises: 1) on the Pacific coast of Japan; 2) Rhine megalopolis; 3) lakeside megalopolis "Chipits"; 4) an English megalopolis with the most important cores - the London and Liverpool agglomerations. In developing countries, the process of urbanization has become unmanageable. 19. The concept of "world economy" The world economy is a set of individual industries and sub-sectors that have historically developed as a result of the social division of labor. Farm structure reflects the main proportions between the production and non-production spheres. In the sphere of material production, the following main sectors are distinguished: industry, agriculture, transport and communications, and international trade. The ratio of sectors in the structure of the world economy determines whether a country belongs to an agrarian, industrial or post-industrial type of economy. Industry accounts for more than a third of the world's total gross domestic product. All sectors of the economy have been profoundly affected by scientific and technological progress. Agriculture, including agricultural production, fishing, hunting and forestry, is the primary sector; mining and manufacturing industry and construction - secondary sector; the service sector is the tertiary sector. The scientific and technological revolution has led to the rapid development of tertiary (services) and quaternary (information sector of the economy) activities. The tertiary sector includes trade, the credit and financial system, public administration, public transport and communications, public services, engineering and consulting services, education, healthcare, cultural and recreational institutions, etc. Currently, the service sector ranks first in the structure of the gross national product and in the structure of employment in developed and many developing countries. The quaternary sector refers to the information sector of the economy, which includes the process of creating, processing, storing and disseminating information, ensuring the functioning of the information structure. world economy - a historically formed base of national economies of the countries of the world, interconnected by economic and political relations. The formation of the world economy system began many centuries ago. At the present stage of development of the world economy, a decisive role in shaping the geography of many industries is played by transnational corporations (TNCs), based in economically developed countries, but extending their production and marketing activities to many countries of the world. The largest industrial TNCs in the world in 1997: Ford Motors (USA, automotive industry), General Motors (USA, automotive industry), Exxon, Toyota Motors (Japan, automotive industry), Hitachi (Japan, electronics ) and etc. The basis of the world economy is the international division of labor (IMT) - the process of interdependent specialization of the economies of some states in the production of conditioned goods for their trade on the world market, leading to the formation of versatile ties and relations between countries. The division of labor is represented by international trade in goods of material production, includes the exchange or trade in services. 20. International organizations International organizations are one of the most important forms of multilateral cooperation between states. They are created on the basis of an agreement between the participants, their activities are regulated by their charter. Organizations differ in areas of activity, composition of participants, scope of authority, etc. The goals and objectives are the creation of a constructive multilateral base for international cooperation, the establishment of global and regional zones of peaceful coexistence. A special place among interstate international organizations is occupied by United Nations. The following international economic and economic-political organizations are known. UN. Its members are 180 states of the world. Goals: support for international security and peace, formation of relations between nations based on the principles of equality and self-determination, etc. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). Objectives: to support the reconstruction and development of the territories of the member countries by encouraging investment for production purposes; encouraging foreign and private investment by providing guarantees or participation in loans and other investments from private creditors; encouraging economic and social progress in developing countries through long-term financing of development projects and programs to increase production; stimulating the growth of international trade and the development of productive resources of the IBRD member states. International Finance Corporation (IFC); International Development Association (MAP); Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA). International Monetary Fund (IMF). It includes about 180 member states. Objectives: to encourage international cooperation in the field of monetary policy, promote the growth of world trade, maintain the stability of currencies and streamline monetary relations between member states. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) has 19 member states. Objectives: to ensure the freedom and security of all members by military and political means in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter; joint action and full cooperation to enhance the security of Member States; ensuring a legitimate and strong peace in Europe based on common values, democracy, human rights and the rule of law. Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). It is a security system organization with 55 member states. Its area of responsibility is: the European continent, the Caucasus, Central Asia, North America. 21. Industry of the world: oil, gas and coal The most important and fastest growing branch of heavy industry is the oil industry. A significant part of the oil industry is used for energy purposes, and part of the oil products goes into petrochemical processing. Oil - it is a flammable oily liquid of black or dark brown color, common in the sedimentary shell of the earth. There are light, medium, heavy oil. The main reason for the rapid development of the oil industry is the high profitability of this industry. The oil industry is highly monopolized. The share of oil production in offshore fields is large. The largest oil regions are the region of the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean. Oil is produced in 80 countries. Major oil producing countries are Iran, Russia, Mexico, USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia. The gas industry began to develop in the second half of the 3th century; it ranks third after oil and coal. Gas - this is the cleanest energy resource in the ecological sense. The countries of Eastern Europe (about 33%), the countries of the Near and North East (about 30%), the countries of North America (5%), Western Europe (4%) have the main reserves of natural gas all over the world. Iran, USA, UAE, Canada, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia These are the countries richest in gas. World gas production is growing rapidly every year. A large share of the exported gas goes through gas pipelines and is transported in liquefied form. The largest interstate gas pipelines operate in North America and Western Europe. The main exporter of natural gas in the world is Russia. Interstate maritime transportation of liquefied natural gas using special gas carriers is growing. The coal industry is the oldest of all sectors of the fuel and energy complex in industrialized countries, but remains one of the leading sectors of the world energy industry, it is better provided with resources. Coal is used both as a fuel and as a raw material for the chemical industry. World coal reserves are approximately 1 trillion tons, of which about 66% are in economically developed countries: the USA, CIS countries, Germany, Australia, etc. The following regions are leading in coal mining: Asia, Western Europe, CIS countries. The leading countries are the USA, China, Poland, Russia, Germany, Ukraine, South Africa, Kazakhstan, etc. The largest coal basins of the world: Tunguska, Lena, Kan-sko-Achinsk, Kuznetsk, Pechora - in Russia, Ruhr - in Germany, Appalachian and Western - in the USA, Donetsk - in Russia and Ukraine. Economical is the development of deposits of hard and brown coal in an open way (quarry). 22. Energy of the world Power engineering Energy is a basic industry. If this industry develops rapidly, it will become an indispensable condition for the development of other industries and the entire economy of the state as a whole. Energetics is a set of industries that supply other countries with energy resources. It consists of all fuel and power industries, including exploration, production, development, processing and transportation of sources of electrical and thermal energy and energy itself. In the world economy, developing countries act as suppliers, and developed countries act as consumers. Large differences exist in the location of the main energy industries: coal, gas, oil and electricity. Their development is influenced by natural, socio-economic and other factors. The growth in energy consumption is uneven. International energy trade is on the rise. The main primary commercial energy sources currently are gas, oil, coal, hydro and nuclear power. The share of all other primary energy sources taken together (peat, firewood, wind energy, solar energy, etc.) is small. The energy crisis of the early 1970s had a serious impact on the development of world energy. The price of oil at that time was below the average world level of prices for other types of energy carriers, as a result of which oil displaced other types of fuel from the fuel and energy balance. This has mainly happened in economically developed countries. Power industry. 15 billion tons of "conditional" fuel are consumed annually for its generation throughout the world, and the volume of electricity produced is growing. The total capacity of power plants around the world in 2000 exceeded 2,8 billion kWh, and electricity generation reached the level of 14 trillion kWh per year. Over 3/5 of all electricity is generated in industrialized countries such as Russia, Germany, Canada, USA, Japan, China. Major exporters of electrical energy in the world are France, Paraguay, Germany, Canada, Ukraine, Switzerland, etc. The main role in the power supply of the world economy is played by thermal power plants (TPPs), which operate on mineral fuels (coal, fuel oil, gas, etc.). The share of coal in the thermal power industry is large in such countries as South Africa, China, Russia, Germany, the USA, etc. Large thermal power plants are built mainly in areas where fuel (coal) is extracted or in places where there is convenient transportation. The hydropower potential of our world is estimated at 33-49 trillion kWh, and the economic potential is 15 trillion kWh. The degree of development of hydropower resources is different in different regions of the world. In the last decade, the use of nuclear energy has gained practical application in the world. Nuclear power is developing very rapidly compared to the entire power industry, especially in economically developed countries and areas. 23. Metallurgy of the world: non-ferrous and black The metal industry is a branch of heavy industry that produces a variety of metals. It consists of two branches: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. Ferrous metallurgy is one of the main industries. It includes enterprises for the enrichment and extraction of non-metallic and ore raw materials, the production of pig iron, rolled metal, steel, ferroalloys and further processing products. Ferrous metallurgy is an industry that is the basis for the development of mechanical engineering and construction, a necessary condition for the technical equipment of other sectors of the economy. In the twentieth century ferrous metallurgy was developed in a small number of countries. The placement of the iron and steel industry changes over time. The scientific and technical revolution has influenced the development of ferrous metallurgy, and in recent years there have been significant changes in the technology of ferrous metals production: the latest smelting methods are used, the quality of iron and steel is increasing, production losses are being reduced, etc. Feedstock for the production of ferrous metals are iron ore, manganese, coking coal, ores of alloying metals. The technological process for the production of ferrous metals includes the following stages: mining of ore raw materials, ore dressing, smelting, production of rolled products and ferroalloys. The majority of ferrous metallurgy enterprises are combines. The placement of ferrous metallurgy enterprises is influenced by natural resource, environmental, transport and other factors. The vast majority of the production of ferrous metals in the world economy is concentrated in developed countries such as China, Japan, the USA, Russia, etc. Non-ferrous metallurgy is also the oldest branch in the world industry, but in terms of production it is inferior to ferrous metallurgy by about 20 times. Non-ferrous metallurgy, according to the stages of its technological process, combines the extraction and enrichment of raw materials, as well as the smelting of non-ferrous metals and alloys. Non-ferrous metallurgy is divided into metallurgy of heavy and light non-ferrous metals. The metallurgy of non-ferrous metals is developing rapidly, in connection with this, the economic orientation in the location of the industry has intensified. Ores of light non-ferrous metals are richer in metal content than heavy ones. Under the influence of many natural and economic factors, the location of non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises is taking shape. Currently non-ferrous metallurgy produces over 70 different metals. Non-ferrous metallurgy of economically developed countries is characterized by a large and rapidly growing share of secondary raw materials in the production of metals, a low degree of supply with raw materials, and a complete industry structure. The structure of the production cycle is dominated by the middle and upper stages of production. 24. Mechanical engineering. Transport Engineering - a particularly important branch of the manufacturing industry of the world, reflecting the level of scientific and technological progress and the country's defense capability, determining the development of other sectors of the economy. Modern mechanical engineering consists of a large number of industries and industries. Mechanical engineering is a complex and differentiated branch of industry. From the point of view of manufactured products, the features of the location of production and the technological process, there are such industries as: general engineering (specializes in the production of industrial equipment), transport engineering, electrical engineering, instrumentation, agricultural engineering, production of weapons and military equipment and other industries. According to technical and economic features, metal-intensive (material-intensive), labor-intensive and science-intensive mechanical engineering are distinguished. The location of engineering enterprises is influenced by the following factors: availability of labor resources, transport, consumer, raw material factors, science intensity factor. The main factor influencing the development of mechanical engineering is the formation of science and technology in the era of scientific and technological revolution. A feature of the engineering industry of developed countries is the complete structure of engineering production, the increase in the importance of electrical engineering, high quality and competitiveness of products. In the mechanical engineering of economically developed countries there are the following branches: equipment manufacturing, machine tool building, transport engineering, electrical engineering, instrument making. The leaders of the machine tool industry are Germany, Japan, USA, Italy, Switzerland. In the electrical industry, the electronic industry is rapidly developing - the production of military-industrial and consumer electronics. The structure of world transport engineering is also changing, shipbuilding and the automotive industry are developing intensively. Changes have also taken place in the global automotive industry. The leaders in the production of passenger cars are the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Great Britain. The United States is the world leader in aircraft manufacturing. Transport - an important sector of the economy of any country in the complex mechanism of the world economy, providing industrial relations and transporting goods and passengers. There are the following modes of transport: sea and river, road, rail, air, pipeline. The level and nature of the development of transport in individual states depends on the following factors: the level of economic development, the size and population of the territory, the degree of participation in the world economy and the international division of labor, etc. In world transport, sea transport is the leader in terms of cargo turnover, and the importance of the pipeline mode of transport is growing very rapidly. The ratio of modes of transport in the transport systems of regions and individual countries of the world is different. 25. Chemical industry Chemical Industry - a young branch of the world industry. It includes the basic chemistry and chemistry of organic synthesis, the mining and chemical industry, the production of initial products of organic synthesis, polymeric materials and their processing into finished products. The chemical industry includes pharmaceuticals, the industry of chemical reagents and highly pure substances, household chemicals, varnishes, paints, etc. The chemical industry uses a wide variety of raw materials, equipment and technologies, and the raw material base is all types of combustible minerals, mineral raw materials, many types of waste from the production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, as well as the chemical industry. Many factors influence the location of industries and enterprises of the chemical industry, and their influence is not the same for different branches of the chemical industry. In the chemical industry of the world in the era of scientific and technological revolution, there were significant changes in the applied equipment and technology, which contributed to shifts in its sectoral and territorial structure. It is possible to single out large regions of concentration of enterprises in the chemical industry. Leading region - Western Europe: Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy. The second major region with a developed chemical industry is North America, the countries of this region have their own large raw materials for the chemical industry. A new region with a developed chemical industry has been formed - Asian. In recent years, the Chinese chemical industry has developed rapidly. The newly industrialized countries of Asia are also becoming major producers of chemical products. The chemical industry in Asia, Africa and Latin America is growing at an accelerated pace. Basic chemistry is the production of acids, alkalis and mineral fertilizers. Sulfuric acid is the most important chemical product, which is used in the production of mineral fertilizers, in metallurgy, and in the textile industry. The largest exporter of sulfur is Canada. The largest countries producing sulfuric acid are the USA, China, Russia, Japan, Ukraine, France, Brazil. Production of mineral fertilizers is an important branch of the chemical industry in the world. At present, Asia and Eastern Europe (including Russia) together produce over 45% of the world's fertilizers. For the production of phosphate fertilizers, two types of natural raw materials are used: phosphorites and apatites. Most of the extraction of raw materials for the production of phosphate fertilizers is concentrated in the USA, Morocco, China, Russia, and Kazakhstan. The production of potash fertilizers is located next to the deposits of potash salts. Natural gas has become the raw material for the production of nitrogen fertilizers. 26. Timber industry Forest industry - this is harvesting, mechanical processing and chemical processing of wood. Mechanical processing is sawmilling, production of plywood, building parts, furniture, matches, etc. Chemical processing of wood is carried out by wood chemistry. The importance of the timber industry is determined by the colossal timber reserves and the vast territorial distribution of forests, the demand for goods produced by the industry. The world's forest wealth is great, but not unlimited, and the world's forest resources are unevenly distributed. There are two forest belts on our planet: the northern one, where coniferous and mixed forests grow, and the southern one, with tropical and equatorial broad-leaved forests. In the countries of North America and Western Europe, the volume of wood growth exceeds the volume of harvesting, and the forest resource potential of many countries is even growing. Many developing countries are characterized by a decrease in the provision of forest resources, deforestation of territories, as forests are cut down to expand cultivated areas and are used as fuel. Wood is a high-quality building material; furniture, toys, paper, pencils, matches, etc. are made from it, and the most valuable forest species from developing countries are exported to developed ones. Russia also exports a huge amount of forest resources. World timber harvesting is growing, the leaders are Russia, the USA, Canada, China, Indonesia and others, and developing countries (Brazil, Malaysia, Philippines, India) are among the major suppliers of commercial timber. Many developing countries have their own processing enterprises, but their capacities are small. The role of the raw material factor is enormous in the pulp and paper industry. This production is characterized by high material and water consumption. In terms of pulp production in the world, the USA, Canada, Japan, Sweden, Finland, China, Russia, Brazil, France, Germany are in the top ten. The United States, Japan, Canada, China, Germany, Finland, Sweden, and Russia are leaders in paper production. The recognized leader in the production of newsprint is Canada. Economically developed countries remain the world's main exporters and importers of forest and paper products, and the United States is the world's largest exporter of commercial raw wood and sawn timber. Canada is the largest exporter of sawn timber and paper. The forest industry of the CIS countries has not moved from extensive to intensive forms of development, a huge amount of forests are cut down every year, but the pace of reforestation leaves much to be desired. With rich forest resources, Russia could act not only as an exporter of wood, but also as a major exporter of many types of forest products. 27. Food industry The food industry of the world in economically developed and developing countries is diverse. The production of this industry is constantly growing, providing the population with food. The production of certain types of products is determined by the demand for it. Some sectors of the food industry are experiencing an overproduction crisis, but at the same time, new industries are emerging. In economically developed countries, in connection with a change in the structure of nutrition in order to improve the state of health, new food industries are being formed that produce special goods. Food production has a direct connection with one of the global problems of mankind - the food problem. The food industry is connected with the agriculture of the world, because it receives raw materials from it: grains and legumes, seafood, milk, meat, vegetables, fruits. The food industry is part of the agro-industrial complex. The presence of consumers of food industry products and the diversity of raw materials determine the widespread distribution of enterprises in this industry. The food industry consists of two categories of industries, different in scale and location. First category - These are industries that work on imported raw materials. They are focused on ports of import of products, railway junctions, large industrial centers, capitals. Manufactured products have high transportability. This is the production of confectionery, drinks, flour mills, the tobacco industry, etc. The second group of enterprises includes: 1) industries that focus on raw materials (sugar, meat processing plants, butter, cheese making, etc.); 2) industries that are consumer-oriented (baking industry, production of semi-finished products, etc.). Enterprises for the production of sugar are guided in their placement by raw materials, which are sugar beet and sugar cane. China, India, USA, Brazil, Australia, Mexico, France, Cuba are considered the largest producers of unrefined sugar. Many developing countries are becoming the largest sugar importers (Thailand, Brazil, Cuba), while developed countries (Australia, France, South Africa, Great Britain) are major sugar exporters. Developing countries stand out for the production and export of green coffee: Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, Guatemala, India. The main exporters of roasted coffee are economically developed countries: Belgium, Luxembourg, USA, Sweden, Finland, Austria, Canada. A major branch of the global food industry is winemaking, which is experiencing a constant crisis of overproduction. Exporting countries face serious competition in the world market. 28. Agriculture Agriculture - an important branch of the world economy, but its importance in the economy of different countries and regions is not the same. Agriculture as a sphere of human economic activity arose about 10 thousand years ago. It was a revolutionary process. Man moved from hunting and gathering to the purposeful cultivation of plants and breeding of livestock, which led to the creation of cultivated plants and the domestication (domestication) of animals. N. N. Vavilov, who created the theory of geographical centers of origin of cultivated plants, identified the following foci: East Asian (Chinese) - the birthplace of millet, soybeans, hemp; South Asian (Indo-Malay) - the birthplace of tea, rice, orange, cucumber, sugar cane; Central Asian - the birthplace of melon, peas, barley; Western Asian - the birthplace of soft wheat, rye, oats; Mediterranean - the birthplace of durum wheat, cabbage, carrots, beets, onions, turnips; Abyssinian (Ethiopian) - the birthplace of coffee, sorghum, wheat; Central American - the birthplace of sunflower, pepper, tobacco, pumpkin, cocoa; South American - the birthplace of potatoes, tomatoes, cotton, corn. The students of N. N. Vavilov identified centers of animal domestication: African, Western Asian, South Asian and Central Asian. The role of agriculture in the economy shows the structure of the national or regional economy. There are agricultural, industrial and post-industrial countries. Around the world, about 45% of the economically active population of the planet is employed in agriculture. Agricultural production is subdivided into plant growing and animal husbandry. Crop production - Cultivation of cultivated plants. Grow fruit and field crops - food and non-food. Among the field crops, cereals, legumes, vegetables, melons, fodder and technical ones are distinguished. Cereal production - the basis of crop production. They occupy more than half of all cultivated areas of the world. The largest cultivated areas are occupied by three main crops: wheat, rice and corn. Within the temperate and subtropical zones, the key grain crop is wheat; in terms of sown area, it ranks first among all agricultural crops. Corn crops for the most part geographically coincide with wheat crops, but are spread a little to the south. The most important grain crop of the equatorial, tropical and subtropical belts is fig. The economically developed countries are dominated by areas of diversified agriculture with intensive grain production, a high level of agricultural technology and labor productivity, and high crop yields. The second branch of agriculture - cattle breeding - develops in close connection with the food industry and crop production. There are cattle breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry breeding, camel breeding, horse breeding, reindeer breeding, etc. In the world trade in livestock products, the first places are occupied by economically developed countries. 29. General characteristics Europe Europe is part of the world. Together with Asia, Europe makes up a single continent called Eurasia. There are more than 40 states on the territory of Europe. They differ in area, population, state structure and level of socio-economic development. Basically, these are republics, 12 countries have a monarchical form of government. Europe plays a special and very important role in the world economy and political life of the planet. Sub-regions of Europe - the countries of Western, Central and Eastern Europe (or Central-Eastern). Economically developed countries are located in Western Europe. Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy - these countries are included in the "Big Seven". Five "dwarf countries" with a population of approximately 10 million people are Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, and the Vatican. The countries of Western Europe are united by political and economic ties. European Union (EU) Until 1995, it united 12 European countries and accepted three more European states: Austria, Sweden, Finland. There are currently 28 countries in the EU. The countries of Central and Eastern Europe include the former socialist states (Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czech Republic, Albania), the republics formed after the collapse of Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Macedonia, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia), the Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia), independent state-republics (Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Russia), which are currently part of the CIS. Western Europe is the second (economic) region of the foreign world after the USA. This region accounts for 1/3 of the industrial output produced by Western countries; its role in world trade is also great. Western Europe is an important financial center. VXHv. The modern political map of Europe has seriously changed. Its formation was influenced by the results of the First World War (1914-1918) and the Second World War (1939-1945). The First World War was caused by the aggravation of contradictions in the course of the struggle for spheres of influence, sources of raw materials and world domination. The Second World War was unleashed for the redivision of the world by aggressive states: Nazi Germany, Japan and fascist Italy. 72 states were involved in this war. Territorial changes took place during the wars. At present, the political map of Europe is also undergoing significant changes, for example, the collapse of the USSR, the formation of the CIS, the unification of two German states, the division of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia, the disintegration of Yugoslavia into several states due to the war, etc. In the life of Europe, an important place is occupied by the activities of the NATO military organization, which seeks to subjugate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe to its influence. 30. General characteristics of America America - This is a part of the world, consisting of two continents (North and South America), connected by the Isthmus of Panama. Most of the mainland of North America is occupied by two economically developed states: the USA and Canada. However, the island of Greenland belongs to this mainland. Latin America is the name of the countries that are located in the southern part of the mainland North America, in the West Indies (the islands of the Atlantic Ocean: Bahamas, Greater and Lesser Antilles) and on the mainland of South America. The area of Latin America is about 21 million km 2. It consists of 33 sovereign states, possessions of Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and the USA. The formation of the modern political map of the world of America has a long history. USA and Canada - two highly developed capitalist states with enormous political, economic and financial influence over their Latin American neighbors. The states of Latin America are exceptionally rich in natural resources, have a unique and eventful history, and a distinctive culture. The states of Latin America are ahead of many developing countries in Asia and Africa, but lag behind the industrialized countries of the world. These countries were and are in economic and financial dependence on the European states and on the USA. USA is currently a federal republic. A significant part of the country's territory is favorable for life and economic activity due to its natural resources. The United States is rich in natural and other resources. The role of the United States of America in the world economy is enormous, accounting for approximately one-third of the industrial output of the capitalist countries. The United States is the undisputed leader in the global chemical industry in terms of the volume and variety of products produced. They rank third in terms of population. The United States has a powerful economic, military, scientific and technical potential, and is the world's largest producer of industrial and agricultural products. Canada - is a highly developed state, which is included in the "Big Eight". Canada is the largest producer of nickel, zinc, newsprint in the foreign world. Canada occupies a prominent place in the world in terms of mineral resources: oil, uranium, natural gas, coal and other vital minerals. The agriculture of this state is highly commercial, diversified, technically well equipped, with a wide use of hired labor. 31. Political map of Africa The mainland occupies 1/5 of the earth's land area, there are 55 sovereign states on the continent, most of which were until the 600th century. were colonies. The population is over XNUMX million people. In the scientific literature, Africa is divided into five subregions, such as North Africa (the countries of the Maghreb, the Mediterranean coast), Western (the northern part of the Atlantic coast and the coast of the Gulf of Guinea), Central (Chad, Zaire, Central African Republic, Congo, etc.), East (located east of the Great African Rifts) and South. Virtually all African countries are republics. Africa is very rich in minerals, but they are still poorly studied. In general, African countries are far behind in their development. In the 1950s there were only four legally independent states on the continent: Ethiopia, Liberia, Egypt, South Africa. 1960 was "the year of Africa". During this period, 32 colonies achieved independence; this process actually went on until the 1990s. Most states currently have a republican form of government, there are three monarchies: Morocco, Swaziland, Lesotho. According to the UN typology, almost all African states are classified as developing countries. The success of the struggle of African states to strengthen economic and political independence depends on the political forces of power. In 1963, a Organization of African Unity, its goals are to promote the strengthening of the unity and cooperation of the states of the continent, to protect their sovereignty, and to fight against all forms of neo-colonialism. League of Arab States originated in 1945, it includes the Arab countries of North Africa and the countries of the Middle East. The League is in favor of strengthening the economic and political cooperation of the Arab peoples. In the African states during the years of independent development, the privileged position of the ethnic group whose representatives were in power became a general rule. For almost 20 years there have been civil wars in Angola, Chad, Mozambique; For many years, war, devastation and famine have reigned in Somalia. The inter-ethnic and inter-confessional conflict in Sudan does not stop. It has been going on for over 10 years. In 1993, there was a military coup in Burundi, and civil wars are not uncommon in Liberia. Democracy does not take root in Nigeria. Almost 23 of the 30 years after independence, the country lived under a military regime. In 1993, democratic elections were held, and immediately another military coup took place, all democratic institutions of power were dissolved, political organizations, meetings and rallies were banned. Another sovereign state has recently appeared on the map of Africa - Eritrea. South Africa is the only state in Africa that is highly developed and which, in many respects, holds the first place in Africa. The subsoil of South Africa is rich in diamonds, platinum, ores, but there is no oil and gas in this country. 32. General geographical characteristics of Asia The largest part of the world is Asia, which is home to over half of the total population of our planet. Many independent states of foreign Asia are republics, but at present there are also countries that have a monarchical form of government. There are about 14 of them - these are kingdoms, empires, emirates, etc. Asia until the middle of the twentieth century. was the most important component of the colonial system of imperialism. After the Second World War, the collapse of the colonial system began, but at present there are still colonial possessions (Aomyn - the main territory of the Indian Ocean). After the war, an attempt was made to involve independent Asian states in military blocs. By now, of course, they have already broken up. These were military-political groups: SEATO (USA, Great Britain, Australia, France, etc.), ANZUK (Australia, New Zealand, Great Britain, Malaysia, Singapore), CENTO (Great Britain, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan), ANZAM ( New Zealand, UK, Australia, Malaysia). Asia is divided into sub-regions. Southwest Asia consists of 16 countries such as Afghanistan, the Republic of Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and others, which formed this sub-region. In these regions, monarchies have been preserved and republican forms of government prevail. South Asia includes 7 countries of the Eurasian continent. This region is located south of the Himalayas on the Hindustan Peninsula, in the Indo-Gangetic Plain and on the nearest islands in the Indian Ocean. The countries located in this subregion share a historical commonality of development. Southeast Asia. It includes the territory of the Indochina Peninsula and numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago. Important trade routes run through the countries of Southeast Asia. Central and East Asia. It includes the following territories and states: Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), Japan, Republic of Korea, China, Taiwan, Mongolia. Japan is a highly developed state, it is a constitutional monarchy. The emperor is a symbol of the state and the unity of the people. On the political map of the world, significant changes in Central and East Asia took place in various periods of history, from antiquity to our times. China and North Korea - socialist countries. China is one of the most ancient states of our world, which arose in the XNUMXth century. BC e. Mongolia is a post-socialist country with a long history of its existence. It was founded by Genghis Khan at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. The Republic of Korea and Taiwan belong to the group of developing countries. Korea is an ancient state of East Asia, has a peculiar culture and, accordingly, history. 33. Political map of Australia and Oceania Australia, New Zealand and other small and large islands in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean, due to a certain commonality of historical and geographical development, are considered as a special region - Australia and Oceania. Politically and economically, this region is diverse. In this region, highly developed Australia and New Zealand, small backward island countries and some territories that are still colonies adjoin. Australia, or the Commonwealth of Australia, is a state that is located on the mainland of Australia, the island of Tasmania and many small islands. Australia is a federal state within the British Commonwealth, which is led by Great Britain. The first Europeans to set foot on Australian soil were the Dutch V. Janszon (1606) and A. Tasman (1642). The beginning of European colonization was laid by the British (James Cook, 1770). The white colonizers expelled the indigenous people from the lands and killed them, later the natives were forcibly relocated to the reservations. Initially, Australia was a place of exile for criminals from Great Britain, but in the XNUMXth century. there was a discovery of deposits of gold and other minerals. All this led to an increase in the flow of free settlers to the region. Australia is a country of migrant capitalism. In 1901, six colonies united to form the Commonwealth of Australia, which received the status of a dominion of Great Britain. In 1931, he was granted complete independence from the metropolis. Australia currently takes an active position on a number of major international issues, is one of the initiators of the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty, and takes part in UN peacekeeping activities. Australia and New Zealand are members of the South Pacific Forum (SPF), the South Pacific Commission (SPC), the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (SPEC) and other international agreements. New Zealand is a state within the British Commonwealth, which is located on two large islands (North and South) and a number of smaller ones. It has been a colony of Great Britain (since 1840). In 1907, New Zealand received the status of a dominion, and in 1931 it acquired the right to independence in its affairs (foreign and internal). In the modern world, New Zealand is a highly developed industrial and agricultural country. Oceania is the largest cluster of islands on the planet (about 10 thousand) in the central and southwestern parts of the Pacific Ocean. The total area of Oceania is over 1 million km 2New Zealand is part of Oceania. At the end of the X!X century. there was a colonial division of the islands of Oceania. In the 1960s there was a collapse of the colonial system, which covered Oceania. 34. Territory, borders and geographical position of Russia Russia is the largest state in the world in terms of area (17,1 million km 2), is located in the northern part of the Eurasian continent. The European part of Russia (about 1/3 of the country's territory) occupies most of the Russian Plain, the Urals, Ciscaucasia and the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. The Asian part of Russia is Siberia and the Far East (about 2/3 of the territory). The length of Russia from west to east is great and amounts to 9 thousand km. Almost the entire territory of Russia is located in the Eastern Hemisphere, the Wrangel Islands and the Chukotka Peninsula belong to the Western Hemisphere. The country is divided into 11 time zones. The length of the country from north to south is about 4 thousand km. The northern mainland tip of Russia is the Taimyr Peninsula, and the northern point of the Russian Federation is located on Rudolph Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago. The extreme southern point of Russia is located on the crest of the Main Caucasian Range, in the Caucasus. The highest point of the Russian Federation is located on Mount Elbrus. The total length of Russia's borders is the largest in the world and is 58,6 thousand km, sea borders are almost twice as large as land borders. The maritime borders in the north and east of the country are 12 nautical miles from the coast, and 200 nautical miles from the coast of the mainland and the islands is the border of the maritime economic zone of the Russian Federation. The northern borders of the country pass through the waters of the seas of the Arctic Ocean: the Barents, Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi. Within the Arctic Ocean from the coast of Russia to the North Pole is the Russian sector of the Arctic. The eastern borders of Russia pass through the waters of the seas of the Pacific Ocean: Bering, Okhotsk, Japan. Our country's closest maritime neighbors here are Japan and the United States. Between the peninsulas of Alaska, Chukotka, Kamchatka and the Aleutian Islands is the Bering Sea. The Sea of Okhotsk is located between the mainland, as well as the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Sakhalin Islands, the Kuril Islands and Hokkaido. Primorsky Krai and the southern shores of Sakhalin Island are washed by the waters of the Sea of Japan. The vast length of the seas from north to south causes significant differences in climatic conditions. In the west, Russia's maritime borders run along the waters of the Baltic Sea, which connect our country with many European states. In the southwest, maritime borders run along the waters of the Azov and Black Seas, where Ukraine and Georgia are bordering our country. The border with some countries of the so-called near abroad runs in the south along the waters of the inland Caspian Sea. 35. Natural conditions and resources of Russia The landscape of Russia is based on large tectonic structures - platforms, shields, folded belts, they are expressed in various forms - mountains, lowlands, hills, etc. Most of the territory of Russia is occupied by plains. Within Russia there are two large ancient Precambrian platforms - Russian and Siberian. Platform sections, the foundation of which is submerged to a depth under the sedimentary cover, are called slabs. The places where the crystalline basement comes out to the surface of the platforms are called shields. On the territory of Russia there are three vast flat areas: the East European Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau and the West Siberian Plain. To the east of the Lena River are mountain ranges of Mesozoic folding - the ridges: Chersky, Verkhoyansk and Kolyma highlands. In the extreme north-east and east of the country there is the Pacific belt of folding (Kamchatka, Sakhalin Island and the ridge of the Kuril Islands). The Kuril Islands are the peaks of the highest mountains rising from the bottom of the sea, most of them are under water. Russia has almost all types of minerals and occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of their reserves (gas, oil, coal, limestone, glass and building sands, chalk, gypsum and other mineral resources, iron ores, copper ores and much more). Recently, in different regions of Russia, they are beginning to develop deposits of manganese, titanium-zirconium and chromium ores. Siberia and the Far East are regions of the Russian Federation exceptionally rich in ore and non-ore minerals. Industrial diamond mining is organized in Yakutia. Features of the Russian climate are determined by geographical factors: geographical location, size and extent of the territory from west to east and from north to south, a wide variety of terrain, etc. The northern part of the country's territory goes far beyond the Arctic Circle, in connection with this, the climate is harsh in most of the territory. The length of the country from north to south leads to a change in the total solar radiation. The southern regions of our country have high air temperatures. The climate has a great influence on the formation of the most important branches of economic activity and the living conditions of people. There are many natural zones in Russia, in connection with this there is a great variety of flora and fauna. The boundaries of the zones are elongated along the parallels, the deviations are relatively small. Natural zones stretch from north to south: arctic desert, tundra, forest-tundra, forest, forest-steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert zone. Significant reserves of fresh water in Russia. There are 2,5 million rivers and about 3 million lakes on the territory of the country, the largest lake in the world is the Caspian, the deepest freshwater Baikal. The forest zone occupies the largest area in Russia. Land resources are huge - this is 1/8 of the entire land of our planet (17 million km 2). 36. Exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation Federal Law No. 02.12.1998-FZ of 191 "On the Exclusive Economic Zone of the Russian Federation" defines the status of the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, the sovereign rights and jurisdiction of the Russian Federation in its exclusive economic zone and their implementation in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation. The exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation is a sea area located outside the territorial sea of the Russian Federation and adjacent to it, with a special legal regime established by the Federal Law, international treaties of the Russian Federation and international law. The definition of an exclusive economic zone also applies to all the islands of the Russian Federation, with the exception of rocks that are not suitable for supporting human life or for independent economic activity. The inner boundary of the exclusive economic zone is the outer boundary of the territorial sea. The outer boundary of the exclusive economic zone is located at a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured, unless otherwise provided by international treaties of the Russian Federation. The delimitation of the exclusive economic zone between the Russian Federation and the states whose coasts are opposite the coast of the Russian Federation or are adjacent to the coast of the Russian Federation is carried out in accordance with the international treaties of the Russian Federation or generally recognized principles and norms of international law. The lines of the outer boundaries of the exclusive economic zone or replacing them, lists of geographical coordinates of points approved by the Government of the Russian Federation, indicating the main initial geodetic data and delimitation lines determined by international treaties of the Russian Federation or on the basis of generally recognized principles and norms of international law, are indicated on maps of a fixed scale and published in Notices to Mariners. Natural resources of the exclusive economic zone - living and non-living resources located in the waters covering the seabed, on the seabed and in its bowels. Living resources of the exclusive economic zone - all kinds of fish, marine mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, as well as other aquatic biological resources. Non-living resources of the exclusive economic zone - the mineral resources of the waters covering the seabed, including the chemical elements and their compounds contained in sea water, the energy of tides, currents and wind, and other possible types of non-living resources. 37. Population of Russia The population of the Russian Federation in 2000 was 145,6 million people. Russia in terms of population is in seventh place in the world after China, India, USA, Indonesia and Brazil, Pakistan. Russia is unevenly populated. The average population density in Russia is 8,6 people per 1 km 2. Reproduction - the process of generational change. There are types of reproduction, they characterize demographic indicators: fertility, mortality, natural population growth, total fertility rate, net reproduction rate, etc. In general, the demographic situation in Russia is currently tense due to low birth rates, a significant lag in average life expectancy from the indicators of the developed countries of the world, and deformation of the age and sex structure of the population. Peoples can be divided into three groups. The first is ethnic groups, most of which live in Russia, and outside it they make up only small groups (Russians, Chuvashs, Bashkirs, Tatars, Komi, Yakuts, Buryats, Kalmyks, etc.), they form national-state units within the Russian Federation . The second group is the peoples of the countries of the near abroad (that is, the republics of the former USSR - Ukrainians, Belarusians, Kazakhs, Armenians, Poles, Greeks, etc.). The third group is small divisions of ethnic groups that live outside of Russia - Romanians, Hungarians, Abkhazians, Albanians, Croats, etc. Russia - a multinational republic, but above all a Slavic state. About 130 nations and nationalities currently live in Russia. The population of the Russian Federation mainly belongs to four families: Indo-European (87%), Altai (8%), Ural (2%), Caucasian (2%). Russia is a multi-confessional country. The state language is Russian. The Russian Federation is a highly urbanized state, the share of the urban population is 73%. Cities with a population of more than 1 million people are Moscow, St. Petersburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Novosibirsk, Volgograd, Omsk, Rostov-on-Don, Samara, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, etc. The nature of the settlement of the rural population of Russia differs in natural zones depending on the conditions for economic activity, customs and traditions of the nationalities living in those regions. There are villages, villages, farms, auls, temporary settlements of hunters and reindeer herders, etc. The average density of the rural population of Russia is about 2,2 people per 1 km 2. 38. Economy of the Russian Federation The Russian Federation is the largest sovereign republic with a huge natural, economic and scientific potential. Russia has a very complex structure. The economy of the country is a combination of material and non-material spheres of production. In terms of economic indicators, Russia is many times superior to many countries in the world. The productive forces and economic potential of our country are qualitatively different from those of developing countries. Russia has large natural, labor, territorial resources, a convenient and advantageous geographical position. The single complex of the country's national economy consists of interrelated branches of the production and non-production spheres. An industry is a set of enterprises that produce homogeneous products or provide homogeneous services. The basis of the Russian economy - this is material production, which includes the following industries. Industries that create wealth - agriculture, industry, construction, food, light industry. Industries that are engaged in the delivery of material values to consumers - transport and communications. Branches associated with the continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation - procurement, logistics, trade, catering. The non-manufacturing sector includes the following industries. Service industries - transport, utilities, household services, etc. Branches of social services - culture, art, science, health care, education. Branches of defense and management. The sectoral structure of the economy can be estimated by the number of people employed in a particular area, by the volume of production, or by the value of fixed production assets. The leading role in the sectoral structure is played by industry, which accounts for about 1/2 of the country's national income, and about 40% of the working population is currently employed in construction and industry. Education, healthcare, construction, defense, security and more are the main sectors for the life of the state. The Russian economy is currently experiencing a deep crisis of management structures, in connection with this, there was a lag in the structure of the economy, in which hydro-exploiting industries prevailed. At present, the strategic task of Russia is to create a balanced, highly efficient economy while maintaining state regulation in certain economic areas. The market economy is combined with centralized state administration of the most important areas (defense, education, etc.). The prosperity of Russia depends on the development of integration processes in the modern post-Soviet space. 39. Industry of Russia: oil, gas and coal The Russian energy industry includes the fuel industry and the electric power industry. The location of most industries depends on the development of the electric power industry. Russian oil industry In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks sixth in the world, after Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Iraq and Iran. Oil has played and will continue to play a significant role in Russia. The oil industry originated in Russia in the middle of the XNUMXth century. Currently, the main oil production area in the Russian Federation is Western Siberia, where about 300 oil fields have been discovered. Pipelines are the most efficient means of transporting oil overland. The main main oil pipeline systems: 1) Volga-Ural system; 2) West Siberian system; 3) North Caucasian system. Oil refineries are mainly located along oil pipeline routes and in areas of mass consumption of oil products. The main markets for Russian oil are Great Britain, Ireland, Eastern Europe, Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Belgium, the USA and Canada. Russian gas industry In terms of natural gas reserves, Russia occupies one of the first places in the world, and in terms of explored deposits and production - the first. Natural gas production in Russia has been carried out since 1990, is at a level of about 544 billion m 3 a year. Gas fields are located near oil fields; associated gas is produced along with natural gas. The main share of natural gas is produced in the north of Western Siberia, the North Caucasus, the Ural region, the Lower Volga region, the Komi Republic, Yakutia, and Sakhalin. Natural gas does not require much pre-treatment to be used, but it must be immediately sent to the consumer. Gas is the main type of fuel used in industry (80%) - electric power, chemistry, metallurgy, construction and other industries. Russian coal industry The importance of coal as a fuel and raw material for the chemical industry is great. Coal and brown coal are mined. The most productive and cheapest method of coal mining is open pit, there is an underground method of coal mining (mine). Coal is used for the production of electricity in transport, for heating homes, as technological - in ferrous metallurgy, in the chemical industry. The ten largest coal basins in the world also include Russian ones: Tunguska, Kuznetsk, Pechora, Taimyr. The Kuznetsk basin (Kuzbass) occupies the leading role among the country's coal bases, which is characterized by the presence of thick seams of high-quality coals. 40. Metallurgy of Russia: black and non-ferrous Ferrous metallurgy is the basic branch of heavy industry, including the extraction of iron ore, the smelting of iron and steel, the production of rolled products of various profiles and alloys of iron with other metals (ferroalloys). Russia is practically provided with raw materials for ferrous metallurgy (except for manganese ores). Iron ore is mined at the deposits of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, the Urals, Karelia, the Kola Peninsula, Siberia and the Far East. Up to 80% of mining is carried out by open pit mining, and up to 20% of the extracted iron ore is exported by Russia abroad. The smelting of ferrous metals is a material-intensive production, full-cycle metallurgical plants are located mainly in areas where iron ore or coking coal is mined or between them. The Ural metallurgical base is the oldest in the country. The most important tasks for the development of the Russian ferrous metallurgy are the renewal of production facilities, the development of new technological processes and equipment for steelmaking, etc. Non-ferrous metallurgy of Russia produces structural materials of various physical and chemical properties. This industry includes copper, nickel-cobalt, aluminum, lead-zinc, titanium-magnesium, tungsten-molybdenum industry, production of noble and rare metals. The location of non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises is influenced by many natural and economic factors, among which the raw material factor plays a special role. Heavy non-ferrous metal ores differ from light ores in their low metal content and complexity. The production of aluminum falls into two stages: the production of aluminum oxide (alumina) and the smelting of pure metal. The aluminum industry of Russia began its history in 1932, when the first smelting was carried out at the Volkhov plant. More than 75% of output is accounted for by four large aluminum smelters: Bratsk, Krasnoyarsk, Sayan and Novokuznetsk. copper industry. The main deposits of copper ores in Russia are in the Urals, it is planned to develop a unique deposit of copper ores in Siberia. The lead-zinc industry is characterized by a more complex location of production, these are the North Caucasus, Kuzbass, Transbaikalia and the Far East Primorye. The nickel industry was developed in the Northern Economic Region - on the basis of explored nickel deposits of the Kola Peninsula and copper-nickel concentrates from Norilsk; in the Urals, in Eastern Siberia, etc. 41. Mechanical engineering in the Russian Federation Mechanical engineering is one of the leading sectors of the Russian economy, consisting of a large number of sub-sectors and production. In Russia, in recent years, the situation in the machine-building complex has been a crisis. In Russia, engineering enterprises are widespread everywhere. In some areas, mechanical engineering is of primary importance, in others, the functions of mechanical engineering are limited to satisfying the internal needs for the products of the industry. Depending on the products manufactured, the specifics of the location of production and the technological process, there are the following sub-sectors: heavy and power engineering, agricultural engineering, machine tool building, transport (shipbuilding, automotive, etc.), instrument making, electronics and electrical engineering, and tractor building. Many factors (transport, consumer, etc.) influence the location of engineering enterprises. Mechanical engineering is characterized by a high labor intensity of the production process. The conditions for the placement of modern mechanical engineering are the provision of skilled labor, the presence of a production culture, etc. Labor-intensive are: instrumentation, electronics, electrical engineering, nuclear engineering, aerospace industry. The metal-intensive industries include the following branches of engineering: the production of mining and oil equipment, power engineering, diesel locomotive building, etc. Heavy engineering enterprises were built in the following cities: Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk, Perm. Power engineering enterprises produce steam boilers, diesel engines, hydro turbines, electric motors, etc. The machine tool industry is characterized by the widespread location of production, most of the products manufactured in the Central, Ural and North-Western economic regions. The production of metal products is close to consumers, and blanks are close to sources of raw materials. Transport engineering is shipbuilding, automotive, railway engineering. The domestic automotive industry produces trucks, cars, buses, trolleybuses. The first large enterprises were built in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, etc. Large locomotive and car building plants are located in Kolomna, Bryansk, St. Petersburg, etc. Sea and river shipbuilding and ship repair are developed in river ports: Astrakhan, St. Petersburg, Tyumen, Krasnoyarsk, Murmansk, Rybinsk, etc. Aircraft construction takes place in Moscow, Kazan, Saratov, Smolensk, Taganrog, etc. 42. Russian chemical industry The chemical industry plays a special role, it includes the mining and chemical industry, basic chemistry, basic organic synthesis, the production of polymeric materials (chemical fibers, etc.) and products from them, the industry of chemical reagents and highly pure substances, varnishes and paints, household chemistry etc. Basic chemistry includes the production of acids, alkalis and mineral fertilizers. Sulfuric acid industry. Sulfuric acid is a chemical product that finds its application in the production of mineral fertilizers, in metallurgy, food and oil refining industries. The enterprises of this branch are located in the Central region: Novomoskovsk, Voskresensk; in the Volga-Vyatka region: Dzerzhinsk; in the Urals, etc. soda industry. Salt is a raw material for the production of soda (for example: drinking, soda, caustic) and chlorine, is used in chemical and other industries (pulp and paper, textile, metallurgical, etc.). The deposit of natural salt in Russia is mainly in the Altai Territory. The most important enterprises of the soda industry are located in the Perm region, in Bashkiria, in the Altai Territory. The production of mineral fertilizers (phosphate, potash and nitrogen) is an important branch of the Russian chemical industry. Phosphorites and apatites are used for phosphate fertilizers. The production of potash fertilizers (potassium chloride, potassium magnesia, potassium sulfate) is located near the deposits of potash salts. The main raw material for the production of nitrogen fertilizers (ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate) is natural gas. In Russia, the largest enterprises in this industry are located in Dzerzhinsk, Bereznyaki, Nevinnomyssk, and Kemerovo. Complex fertilizers are divided into complex and mixed. The role of the chemistry of organic synthesis is increasing. It produces a huge amount of organic compounds from raw materials containing hydrocarbons (oil, natural gas, coal) by synthesizing them. The main organic synthesis includes the production of alcohols, organic acids, solvents. Manufacture of products of organic synthesis: plastics, resins, chemical fibers, etc. Processing of polymeric materials (production of rubber, synthetic rubber). Plants for the production of plastics are located in the Urals, in the Volga region, in Western Siberia, in the North Caucasus, in the Central Economic Region, in the North-West. Chemical plants for the production of artificial and synthetic fibers are located in Tver, Ryazan, Barnaul, Balakovo, Kursk, Krasnoyarsk and other cities. 43. Agriculture in Russia Russia has a huge land fund - it is 1707,5 million hectares, but the area used for agriculture - arable land, pastures and perennial plantings, is 208,4 million hectares. Russia ranks third in the world in terms of agricultural land. Agriculture is a branch of the national economy that is engaged in growing plants (plant growing) and breeding animals (livestock), is the leading branch of the agro-industrial complex of Russia (AIC). The agro-industrial complex includes industries that serve agriculture (agricultural engineering, equipment repair, production of mineral fertilizers, reclamation construction, etc.), industries that provide processing, storage, transportation and sale of products. Crop production in Russia is developed mainly in the forest-steppe and steppe regions. Plant growing is the cultivation of grain and leguminous crops, forage crops, vegetables, melons, potatoes, the cultivation of industrial crops, orchards, vineyards, etc. The main grain crops of the Russian Federation are rye, wheat, barley, oats, buckwheat, millet, corn, and legumes are peas, beans, lentils, soybeans. Wheat occupies the first place in terms of crop area, and barley is the most common crop. Russia ranks first in the world in the production of barley, oats and rye, and one of the first in the gross harvest of wheat. The main grain crop - wheat, is sown on fertile lands in the forest-steppe and steppe zones. The grain crop corn is grown in the southern regions of Russia. Buckwheat, millet and rice are also important food crops for our country. Industrial crops occupy a small share in the acreage of Russia. Sunflower occupies the largest share in the production and purchase of oilseeds in our country. Russia holds the first place in the world in potato production. The production of vegetables, fruits and berries is concentrated mainly in the southern regions of the European part of the Russian Federation - the North Caucasus, the Volga region, the Central Black Earth region. Livestock raising - an agricultural sector that includes cattle breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry farming, horse breeding - Buryatia, Tuva, Altai and others, deer breeding - the Far North region. Of great importance for certain areas are beekeeping - Bashkiria, the Far East and fur farming - Siberia, the Far East. Zonal specialization is typical for animal husbandry and crop production. Sheep breeding is focused on the steppe zone and foothill areas, its valuable product is wool. Breeding of cattle has different directions (dairy, milk-meat, meat). 44. Transport of Russia The development of the economy without transport is practically unrealistic. Transport provides production links, the exchange of products between different regions of the country and its foreign trade. There are the following modes of transport: 1) land - this is railway and road; 2) water - it is sea and river; 3) air (aviation); 4) pipeline. All types of transport are developed in Russia. Railway transport is the main type of transport in Russia, the total length of public railway lines is over 90 thousand km, a third of them are electrified. The first railways in Russia were built in the middle of the 1851th century. In XNUMX, the first major railway line Moscow - St. Petersburg was put into operation. Sea transport. The importance of maritime transport for Russia is determined by its position on the shores of the seas of the three oceans: the Atlantic, the Arctic and the Pacific. The length of Russia's maritime borders is about 40 km. The westernmost port of Russia is located in Kaliningrad, one of the four on the Baltic Sea, the only non-freezing one. In Baltiysk (Kaliningrad region) - the main base of the Baltic Fleet. Russia has a dense river network, many rivers are su-profitable. The main one in Russia is the Volga-Kama river basin. The Volga is the core of the unified water system of the European part of Russia, and Moscow is a river port of five seas. The most important transport rivers in the north of the European part of Russia are: Sukhona, Northern Dvina with tributaries, Onega, Svir, Neva. Pipeline transport occupies a very important place in the unified transport system of the country. Oil pipelines appeared in Russia at the beginning of the century (Baku - Batumi). The first 800-kilometer main gas pipeline (Saratov - Moscow) was built in 1947. At present, over 210 km of main pipelines have been laid in Russia. Road transport is a flexible mode of transport. Of great importance is the transport of goods by road in areas where there are no other modes of transport, and when transporting goods and passengers over short distances. The importance of road transport in servicing industry and agriculture, trade network and construction is also great. In Russia, good roads are a particular problem. The quality of the roads is important, but in many areas the roads are not paved. Hard surface - asphalt, concrete, crushed stone, gravel - has approximately 75% of the roads in Russia. Public roads - 574 thousand km, including federal - 45,4 thousand km, and the rest of the roads - on-farm and departmental. Air transport is expensive, but the fastest mode of transport in terms of time. The first air line in Russia was opened in 1923 (Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod). The airline network is quite well developed at this point in time. 45. Subsoil of the Russian Federation In accordance with the Subsoil Law (as amended by federal laws dated April 15.04.2006, 49 No. XNUMX-FZ), subsoil is part of the earth's crust located below the soil layer, and in its absence - below the earth's surface and the bottom of reservoirs and watercourses, extending to depths available for geological study and development. The subsoil within the territory of the Russian Federation, including underground space and minerals, energy and other resources contained in the subsoil, are state property. The issues of ownership, use and disposal of mineral resources are under the joint jurisdiction of the Russian Federation and the subjects of the Russian Federation. Subsoil use rights may be alienated or transferred from one person to another to the extent that their circulation is permitted by federal laws. Minerals and other resources extracted from the subsoil can be in federal state ownership, property of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, municipal, private and other forms of ownership under the terms of the license. The State Subsoil Fund consists of used areas, which are geometric blocks of subsoil, and unused parts of subsoil within the territory of the Russian Federation and its continental shelf. The possession, use and disposal of the state subsoil fund within the territory of the Russian Federation in the interests of the peoples living in the respective territories and all the peoples of the Russian Federation are carried out jointly by the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Subsoil is provided for use for: 1) regional geological study, including regional geological and geophysical work, geological survey, engineering and geological surveys, research, paleontological and other work aimed at general geological study of the subsoil, geological work on earthquake prediction and the study of volcanic activity, the creation and maintenance monitoring the state of the subsoil, monitoring the regime of groundwater, as well as other work carried out without a significant violation of the integrity of the subsoil; 2) geological study, including the search for and evaluation of mineral deposits, as well as geological study and assessment of the suitability of subsoil plots for the construction and operation of underground structures not related to the extraction of minerals; 3) exploration and extraction of minerals, including the use of waste from mining and related processing industries; 4) construction and operation of underground structures not related to the extraction of minerals; 5) the formation of specially protected geological objects of scientific, cultural, aesthetic, health-improving and other significance; 6) collection of mineralogical, paleontological and other geological collection materials. 46. Characteristics of the economic regions of Russia Russia is the largest region in all of Eurasia, and a regional analysis of its economic regions has a special meaning. An important part of geography is zoning, that is, the division of the country into regions that differ from each other in economic, natural, historical and other features and living conditions of people. The basis of the territorial management of the Russian economy is economic zoning. The economic region is a certain part of the country's economy, which has its own specialization, internal economic relations. The division of the country into regions is carried out in accordance with economic, administrative, national and other principles of particular importance for each region. Russia has huge resources and a capacious domestic market. The development of the territory was asymmetrical, there is a significant gap between the resource base in the east and the main production base in the European part, a variety of natural and cultural landscapes are presented, there are great contrasts between the center and the periphery at all levels. In the context of the transition to new economic relations, the nature of intersectoral and interregional relations, including those between the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, has changed to a large extent. Economic zoning - this is the allocation of territories that differ in their specialization of the economy in the territorial division of labor. And the industry of specialization is considered to be the industry, the production of which is provided with resources for a long time, its cost is lower than in other areas, and the volume of production meets the needs of several economic regions of the country at once. The factors influencing the economic specialization of the territory are: natural conditions, the presence of natural resources, geographical location, including in relation to the transport network, labor resources, as well as the presence in the territory of some historically established sectors of the economy associated with customs and traditions. local population. Economic regions in the Russian Federation were formed under the influence of various combinations of natural, economic and social conditions. There are 11 economic regions on the territory of Russia: Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Northern, North-Western, Volga, North Caucasian, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. The Kaliningrad region is considered as a separate subdistrict. Economic zoning is changing and improving in the process of our country's development. Economic regions and regions are combined into macro-regions, which may differ in different conditions, regional development trends, economic features and economy, etc. 47. Federal structure of the Russian Federation According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are part of the Russian Federation. Republic of Adygea (Adygea), Republic of Altai, Republic of Bashkortostan, Republic of Buryatia, Republic of Dagestan, Republic of Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of Kalmykia, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Republic of Karelia, Republic of Komi, Republic of Mari El, Republic of Mordovia, Republic of Sakha ( Yakutia), the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, the Republic of Tatarstan (Tatarstan), the Republic of Tyva, the Udmurt Republic, the Republic of Khakassia, the Chechen Republic, the Chuvash Republic (Chuvashia). Altai Territory, Krasnodar Territory, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Perm Territory, Primorsky Territory, Stavropol Territory, Khabarovsk Territory. Amur Region, Arkhangelsk Region, Astrakhan Region, Belgorod Region, Bryansk Region, Vladimir Region, Volgograd Region, Vologda Region, Voronezh Region, Ivanovo Region, Irkutsk Region, Kaliningrad Region, Kaluga Region, Kamchatka Region, Kemerovo Region, Kirov Region, Kostroma Region , Kurgan region, Kursk region, Leningrad region, Lipetsk region, Magadan region, Moscow region, Murmansk region, Nizhny Novgorod region, Novgorod region, Novosibirsk region, Omsk region, Orenburg region, Orel region, Penza region, Pskov region, Rostov region, Ryazan region, Samara region, Saratov region, Sakhalin region, Sverdlovsk region, Smolensk region, Tambov region, Tver region, Tomsk region, Tula region, Tyumen region, Ulyanovsk region, Chelyabinsk region, Chita region, Yaroslavl region. Moscow, St. Petersburg - cities of federal significance. Jewish Autonomous Region. Aginsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug, Koryaksky Autonomous Okrug, Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug, Ust-Ordynsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug (Yugra), Chukotsky Autonomous Okrug, Evenki Autonomous Okrug, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug district. The admission to the Russian Federation and the formation in its composition of a new entity are carried out in the manner prescribed by federal constitutional law. The status of a republic is determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the constitution of the republic. The status of a territory, region, city of federal significance, autonomous region, autonomous district is determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the charter of the territory, region, city of federal significance, autonomous region, autonomous district, adopted by the legislative (representative) body of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation. 48. Central region of Russia The Central District includes: Moscow, Moscow, Bryansk, Vladimir, Ivanovo, Kaluga, Kostroma, Oryol, Ryazan, Smolensk, Tver, Tula, Yaroslavl regions. The position of the district is central, therefore it is advantageous in terms of transport and other aspects of historical development. The central region is the ancient core of the Russian state. The Central Economic Region is the historical, political and economic center of the country. On its territory is the capital of Russia - the city of Moscow. The area has a flat-hilly relief, the climate is temperate continental, the soils are forest, sod-podzolic. Within Central Russia, rivers originate - the Volga, the Western Dvina, the Dnieper, etc. The industry works mainly on imported raw materials. There are reserves of brown coal, phosphorites, peat, sand, and timber. The Central District is a densely populated part of the Russian Federation. Territory about 486 thousand km 2; the population according to 1999 data is about 29,5 million people - approximately 20% of the population of the Russian Federation (first place among economic regions); population density - over 60 people per km 2 (the most densely populated Moscow region). This area is characterized by a high concentration of qualified personnel. Moscow is the capital of Russia, the largest administrative, political, industrial, transport, scientific and cultural center of the country. There are over 250 cities on the territory of the Central District. A highly developed industrial region of the country, the industry specializes in the production of complex and non-material-intensive products. The main branches of specialization are diversified engineering, chemical, light, and printing industries. Machine-building complex - machine tool building, instrument making, energy and transport engineering. Transport engineering - production of automobiles, diesel locomotives, wagons and river vessels. The Central District for the production of instruments, automation equipment, control systems holds a leading position in Russia. The chemical industry is an important branch of the region's specialization. These are the production of phosphate fertilizers, nitrogen fertilizers, the production of soda, sulfuric acid, synthetic rubber, chemical fibers, photochemical products, varnishes, dyes, medicines, perfumes. The textile industry, the oldest branch of industry, has been experiencing an acute crisis in recent years. Linen, woolen and silk fabrics are produced in the region. The Central District holds the first place in the development of science, special education, training and retraining of personnel. There is a fuel and energy complex, local fuel is brown coal and peat. The Central Economic Region ranks first in the Russian Federation in terms of electricity production. The agro-industrial complex is one of the largest in the Russian Federation for the production of milk, vegetables, meat, potatoes, flax and sugar beet, food industry products. 49. Central Black Earth region of Russia It includes: Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk, Tambov regions. The area has a small territory - 167 thousand km 2, but a convenient transport and geographical position, as it borders on the Volga, Central and North Caucasian economic regions of the Russian Federation and Ukraine. The region has large deposits of minerals - iron ore, cement raw materials and favorable soil and climatic conditions, etc. Climate - temperate continental. Natural zones are mainly forest-steppe and steppe. Relief - flat, massifs of chernozem soils are concentrated, part of the region lacks water resources. The iron ore reserves of the Kursk magnetic anomaly are large. Iron ore regions stand out: in the Belgorod region - Starooskolsky and in the Kursk region - Mikhailovsky. There are also deposits of refractory clays, phosphorites, building materials, but there are no fuel resources in this area. Population - 7,8 million people; is a densely populated area. The main features of the economy are determined by a convenient economic and geographical position, the availability of labor resources, the wealth of ore deposits, and favorable soil and climatic conditions for the development of agriculture. The metallurgical, machine-building, chemical and food industries are developed, and agriculture is also highly developed. The mining industry is the basis for the development of a feature of metallurgy, its major centers are the Novolipetsk metallurgical plant of a full cycle and the blast-furnace metal production plant in Stary Oskol. Mechanical engineering of the region specializes in the production of: mining equipment, excavators, agricultural machines, chemical equipment, machine tools, instruments, electrical products. Industrial enterprises are located in Voronezh, Lipetsk, Kursk, Tambov, Belgorod, Michurinsk, Yelets. The chemical industry is the production of synthetic rubber, tires, dyes, chemical fiber, mainly industrial enterprises of the industry work on imported raw materials. The building materials industry is developed in Belgorod, Stary Oskol, and Gubkin. The region has a highly developed food industry (flour mills, oil mills, sugar, tobacco factories, etc.). The area is highly developed agriculture with a predominance of crop production. Grain crops are grown mainly - wheat, corn, barley, rye; and industrial crops - sugar beet, sunflower. Much of the area is occupied by potatoes and vegetables. Animal husbandry has a meat and dairy direction. Cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry are bred. Developed horticulture. The fuel and energy complex is a weak link in the economic complex. All types of transport are well developed. 50. Northern region of Russia The structure of the Northern region includes: Arkhangelsk, Murmansk, Vologda regions, Republics: Karelia and Komi, Nenets Autonomous Okrug. It is a northern region in the European part of Russia. Territory - 1643 thousand km 2, washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, there are important ports of the Russian Federation - Murmansk, Arkhangelsk. The economic and geographical position is peculiar. The climate is harsh. A feature of the natural conditions and climate of this region is the unusual lighting and heating of the earth's surface in different seasons of the year. Natural zones are mainly tundra, forest-tundra and taiga. Forests occupy about 3/4 of the territory. The area includes the Baltic Shield and the north of the Russian Plain, in which the vast Pechora Lowland and the Timan Ridge stand out. The rivers - Pechora, Mezen, Onega, Northern Dvina, belong to the basin of the Arctic Ocean. The peculiarity and complexity of the relief of the Northern region are due to the action of glaciers. The area is rich in minerals. The extraction of building materials (marble, granite) began during the construction of St. Petersburg. Deposits of iron and non-ferrous metal ores are located on the Kola Peninsula. The sedimentary rocks of the Timan-Pechora basin are rich in coal, oil and gas. The northern region is rich in bauxites, ores of titanium, tungsten; molybdenum and other metals. The population is about 5,8 million people; and the average density is 4 people per 1 km 2. The region is poorly provided with labor resources. The Russian population predominates, but other peoples of the North also live. The indigenous population is Komi, Nenets and others, who are mainly engaged in hunting, fishing and reindeer herding. The branches of specialization of the region are fuel, mining and timber industries. Non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering and the chemical industry are developing. The region is the main source of raw materials and fuel and energy for many regions of the European part of the Russian Federation; a third of Russia's wood, paper and pulp is produced. The mining industry is developed. Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the Cherepovets Metallurgical Plant. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by enterprises in Monchegorsk. The oil refining and chemical industries are developing. An oil refinery operates in Ukhta. A gas processing plant operates in Sosnogorsk, and a chemical plant operates in the city of Cherepovets. Mechanical engineering is an auxiliary branch of the economy of this region. The best reindeer pastures are located in the small land tundra, hunting and fishing are developed. Animal husbandry prevails over crop production. A significant place in the economy of the Northern region is occupied by the fishing industry. In conditions of poor transport development of the territory, rivers play an important role. 51. Northwestern region of Russia The structure of the North-Western region of Russia includes: Leningrad, Novgorod, Pskov regions, St. Petersburg. The economic and geographical position of this region is coastal, very advantageous. The region is located between such European states as Finland, Estonia, Latvia and the Central Economic Region of the Russian Federation. The North-Western region is a small area near the shores of the Baltic Sea, along the rivers and lakes of this region there was an ancient trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", on which Novgorod Rus arose. The climate of the region is temperate continental, on the coast - maritime, the entire territory is characterized by podzolic and peat-bog soils. There are about 7 thousand lakes here, the largest are Ladoga, Onega, Chudskoye, Ilmen. The Neva River (74 km) is one of the most abundant in Russia. Minerals - refractory clays, oil shale, bauxites, phosphorites, quartz sands, limestones, salt springs. The population of the region according to 1999 data is 7,96 million people. Area - 196,5 thousand km 2. The majority of the population is Russian. The main socio-economic prerequisites for the development of the region: a favorable economic and geographical position, qualified personnel, the development of science and culture, a developed experimental and design base. The North-West is an industrial region with a developed complex of manufacturing industries, with a high proportion of mechanical engineering, which is focused on imported raw materials and fuel. Branches of specialization - engineering, requiring highly skilled labor, non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and light industries. The machine-building complex of the region is characterized by developed intra-industry ties. Branches of mechanical engineering: energy, shipbuilding, instrument making, machine tool building. The North-Western region is a major supplier of instruments, tractors, automation equipment, and turbines. The production of power equipment: generators and turbines for hydroelectric power plants, state district power plants, nuclear power plants is represented by enterprises in St. Petersburg. Shipbuilding is developed: "Admiralteisky", "Baltiysky" plants of St. Petersburg produce nuclear icebreakers, ocean dry cargo ships, etc. Science-intensive industries are represented by instrumentation, radio engineering, electronics, electrical engineering (St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Pskov, Velikiye Luki). The chemical industry of St. Petersburg was an example in the production of polymers, plastics, pharmaceutical industry in Russia. Light industry is developed. A number of industries in the North-Western region are based on local natural resources (extraction of phosphorites and the production of mineral fertilizers from them, the production of refractory bricks from local clays, the extraction and production of building materials, and the extraction of shale). 52. Volga region of Russia It includes: Astrakhan, Volgograd, Samara, Saratov, Ulyanovsk, Penza regions, Republics: Tatarstan and Kalmykia. The Volga region stretches for almost 1,5 thousand km along the great Russian river Volga from the confluence of the left tributary of the Kama to the Caspian Sea. Territory - 536 thousand km 2. The economic and geographical position is favorable. The Volga region borders on the Volgo-Vyatka, Central Chernozem, Ural and North Caucasian economic regions of the Russian Federation, and Kazakhstan. Rail and road transport contributes to the establishment of broad inter-district industrial ties in the Volga region. The Volga region has favorable natural conditions for living and farming. The climate is temperate continental. The region is rich in land and water resources. The relief is varied, the western part is elevated, hilly, and the eastern part is a slightly hilly plain. This area is characterized by a variety of soils and vegetation. Nature is diverse, natural zones - forest, forest-steppe, steppe, sultry semi-deserts. The area is rich in minerals (oil, gas, sulfur, table salt, raw materials for the production of building materials). The Volga region ranks first in terms of oil reserves and production in the country. The population of the Volga region is 16,9 million people. The region has significant labor resources. In the national structure of the population, Russians predominate, but Tatars, Kalmyks, and Mari live. The main branches of the Volga region - oil and oil refining, gas and chemical, electric power industry, complex mechanical engineering and production of building materials. The chemical industry of the Volga region is represented by mining chemistry (extraction of sulfur and table salt), chemistry of organic synthesis, and production of polymers. The largest centers: Samara, Kazan, Syzran, Saratov, Volzhsky, Tolyatti. The automotive industry stands out especially in the Volga region. The most famous are factories in the cities of Ulyanovsk (cars of the UAZ brand), Tolyatti (Zhiguli), Naberezhnye Chelny (trucks KamAZ), Engels (trolleybuses). The leading role in agriculture belongs to animal husbandry, in the forest-steppe and steppe zones - to crop production. The region is provided with its own fuel resources (oil and gas), and the energy sector of the region is of republican importance. The Volga region specializes in the production of electricity; it also supplies other regions of Russia with it. The transport network of the region is formed by the Volga and the roads and railways crossing it, pipelines and power lines. Oil and gas from the region is transported through pipelines to the regions of Central Russia and to the countries of near and far abroad. The Druzhba oil pipeline system is of international importance. 53. North Caucasian region of Russia The structure includes: Krasnodar Territory, Stavropol Territory, Rostov Region and the Republics: Adygea, Dagestan, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, North Ossetia and Chechnya. The North Caucasus is a large economic region of the Russian Federation. Area - 355,1 thousand km 2. The area is located between the Black and Azov seas in the west and the Caspian in the east. The economic and geographical position is favorable. Natural conditions are favorable for the population and the development of agriculture. There are various minerals. The natural landscapes of the North Caucasus are diverse (mountain ranges and steppe plains, turbulent mountain rivers and drying rivers and lakes, oases of subtropical vegetation on the Black Sea coast and cold snowy peaks of the Caucasus Mountains). The highest point of the Russian Federation on Mount Elbrus. According to natural conditions, the region is divided into three zones: flat, foothill and mountainous. The region has fertile lands and natural pastures. Mountain rivers have great hydropower potential. The population of the North Caucasus is 17,7 million people. The region has a surplus of labor resources. The population is unevenly distributed. The national composition of the population is several dozen nationalities and ethnic groups of the indigenous population (Ossetians, Kabardians, Chechens, etc.) The role of non-ferrous metallurgy and the production of building materials is noticeable. The leading branch of specialization is engineering, agricultural engineering is especially developed (Rostov-on-Don, Taganrog, Novocherkassk, Krasnodar), because it has its own metallurgical base (Rostov region), agriculture is developed and there are transport routes. A special place is occupied by the production of equipment for the oil and gas and food industries, the production of electric locomotives. Power engineering is represented by enterprises in Taganrog (steam boilers) and Volgodonsk (equipment for nuclear power plants). The largest industrial center of the North Caucasus region is the city of Rostov-on-Don. There are reserves of natural gas and oil in the foothill areas. The Rostov region is also rich in fuel resources - anthracite and coking coal. Here, the coal and metallurgical industries, transport engineering were developed. The oil and gas industry is represented by enterprises in Krasnodar, Maykop, Grozny, Tuapse. The region's chemical industry produces nitrogen fertilizers from natural gas, pesticides, synthetic materials, and plastics. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by enterprises in North Ossetia and Kabardino-Balkaria. The food industry is fully provided with raw materials by the developed agriculture of the region. There are enterprises for the production of flour, cereals, meat products, canned fruits and vegetables, wines. 54. Ural region of Russia It includes: Kurgan, Orenburg, Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk regions, the Republic of Bashkortostan, the Republic of Udmurtia, the Perm Territory. The position of the Ural region can be assessed as favorable for the functioning and development of the entire economic complex. Transport routes pass through the Urals, crossing the entire territory of Russia from the western borders to the Pacific Ocean. The Ural Mountains are the axis of the region, they are elongated in the meridional direction. The heights of the Middle Urals are 600-800 m. In the northern part of the Urals, its highest point is located - Mount Narodnaya (1894 m). The main river of the region is the Kama, a tributary of the Volga. The climate of different parts of the Urals is not the same. Forests cover the Ural Mountains almost all the way. The Urals is a "pantry" of minerals (deposits of copper and other ores are confined to igneous rocks, deposits of asbestos, marble, talc, gems, iron ores). In the Urals, copper, nickel, magnesium, bauxite, complex ores are mined, which also contain chromium, titanium, and vanadium. Copper ores contain zinc, gold, silver. The population of the Ural region is 20,4 million people. The population is unevenly distributed, the national composition of the population is heterogeneous (Russians, Ukrainians, Bashkirs and Udmurts). The largest cities of the Ural region: Chelyabinsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Tagil, Perm. The peculiarity of the Ural industry is the interconnection of different industries. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy create the basis for mechanical engineering. Mechanical engineering provides equipment for the mining, chemical and metallurgical industries. Ferrous metallurgy is the first in importance and the oldest branch of specialization. The non-ferrous metallurgy of the district is of republican importance. The oil refining industry is the basis for polymer chemistry. Chemical plants produce soda, potash and nitrogen fertilizers. Transport engineering is represented by enterprises in Nizhny Tagil and Ust-Katav (car-building plants), in Miass and Izhevsk (automobile plants). Labor-intensive mechanical engineering (machine tool building and instrument making) is concentrated in the cities of Ekaterinburg, Perm, and Chelyabinsk. Agricultural machine building (Kurgan) and tractor building (Chelyabinsk) are developed in the region. A modern woodworking industry has been created. Conditions for farming vary and depend on climatic conditions and terrain. Of great importance for the Urals is the oil industry, created in Bashkiria, the Perm and Orenburg regions and Udmurtia. The coal industry is of local importance. Brown coal and hard coal are mined. The transport of the region is extremely important, given the transit position of the Urals. The territory of the district is covered with a dense network of railways and roads, power lines and pipelines. 55. West Siberian region of Russia It includes: Altai Territory, Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Tyumen Regions, Khanty-Mansiysk and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrugs, the Republic of Altai. The West Siberian economic region occupies a vast area to the east of the Ural Mountains, extending almost to the Yenisei. This is one of the largest economic regions in Russia. Possessing the richest natural resources, the region has favorable prerequisites for economic development, but the peculiar natural and climatic conditions greatly complicate the situation. Most of the territory of the region is occupied by the West Siberian Plain. Most of Western Siberia is located in the continental climate of the temperate zone, and its northern part is located within the subarctic and arctic zones. The main river of the region - the Ob - is navigable throughout and flows into the Kara Sea. More than a third of the entire area of Western Siberia is occupied by swamps. The area is rich in various minerals (oil and gas reserves). The population of the region is 15,1 million people, more than 90% of the population are Russians, and the remaining 10% are Ukrainians, Nenets, Khanty and Mansi, Altaians, Shors, Kazakhs. Western Siberia is Russia's main oil and gas production base. Oil is of high quality, and its prime cost is the lowest in the country. The Kuznetsk coal basin is the core of the Kemerovo region. Ferrous metallurgy. Kuzbass is a coal and metallurgical base of republican significance. The main center of ferrous metallurgy is Novokuznetsk. Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by a zinc plant and an aluminum plant, where tin and alloys are produced from Far Eastern concentrates. A deposit of nephelines has been developed - a raw material base for the aluminum industry. Mechanical engineering of the region serves the needs of all Siberia. In Kuzbass, metal-intensive mining and metallurgical equipment and machine tools are made. Novosibirsk produces heavy machine tools and hydraulic presses. In the forest and tundra zones of the region, the conditions for agriculture are unfavorable and the main role here is played by reindeer herding, fishing and fur trade. The fuel and energy complex occupies a leading position in the industry of the region. The region is provided with fuel resources and exports them to other economic regions of Russia and abroad. The energy supply of the West Siberian oil and gas complex is carried out at the expense of thermal power plants operating on fuel oil and gas. The power plants of Western and Eastern Siberia form the unified energy system of Siberia. Pipeline transport has a high rate of development. Oil pipelines have been built and are operating. 56. East Siberian region of Russia It includes: Irkutsk Region, Chita Region, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Aginsky Buryat, Taimyr, Ust-Ordynsky Buryat and Evenk Autonomous Okrugs, republics: Buryatia, Tuva and Khakassia. Eastern Siberia is located far from the most developed regions of the country. Long high-water rivers, taiga, mountains, plateaus, low-lying tundra plains - this is the diverse nature of Eastern Siberia. Territory - 5,9 million km 2. The climate is sharply continental. Natural zones are replaced in a latitudinal direction sequentially: arctic deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, forest-steppes and steppes. In terms of forest reserves, the region ranks first in the country. Most of the territory is occupied by the East Siberian Plateau. Features of the geological structure have led to a variety of minerals (reserves of brown coal, iron ores, oil, coal, copper-nickel and polymetallic ores, gold, mica, graphite). Lake Baikal is located in Eastern Siberia - this is a unique natural object that contains about 1/5 of the world's fresh water reserves. This is the deepest lake in the world. Eastern Siberia is one of the most sparsely populated regions of Russia. The majority of the population is Russian, there are Buryats, Tuvans, Khakasses, Nenets and Evenks. The core of the modern economy of Eastern Siberia is the electric power industry. Eastern Siberia is distinguished by the country's largest hydroelectric power plants. The region is developing energy-intensive industries - non-ferrous metallurgy, pulp and paper industry. Gold, silver, molybdenum, tungsten, nickel, lead-zinc ores are mined in the region. The oil refining and chemical industries are represented by enterprises in Achinsk, Krasnoyarsk, and others. Large forest reserves contribute to the development of the timber and pulp and paper industries. Logging is also carried out in the Yenisei and Angara basins. The main timber industry enterprises are located in Krasnoyarsk, Bratsk, Ust-Ilimsk. Mechanical engineering serves the needs of the region. Large enterprises are factories in Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, and Chita. Agriculture is developed mainly in the south of the region. Animal husbandry specializes in the production of meat and wool. The leading place in agriculture belongs to grain crops - spring wheat, oats, barley, forage crops are also significant, potato and vegetable growing are developing. The electric power industry is a branch of specialization of the region's industry. The development of natural resources and the development of industry are hampered by an underdeveloped transport network. Provision with a transport network is the lowest in the country. The largest transport artery is the Yenisei River. Author: Natalia Burkhanova
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