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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Psychology of Personality. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. Personality and individuality Individuality - this is the originality of an individual, a set of features belonging only to him. In psychology, the problem of individuality is posed in connection with the integral characteristics of an individual in the variety of his thoughts, feelings, manifestations of will, abilities, motives, desires, interests, habits, moods, experiences, qualities of perceptual processes, intellect, inclinations, abilities and other features. . The question of individuality is considered taking into account the analysis of the temperament and character of a person, the search for grounds for distinguishing types of people and is posed as a problem of the correlation in a person of typological features and individual differences, therefore, individuality is described as a set of features inherent in a given person. The prerequisites for human individuality are laid down in the anatomical and physiological inclinations, which are transformed in the process of education, which has a socially conditioned character, giving rise to a wide variability in the manifestations of individuality. Individuality is realized both through a person's behavior in a situation of communication, and through the cultivation of various abilities in his activity. The uniqueness of the human psyche is determined by the organic unity and integrity of the process of development of his needs and abilities, which are formed in active communication with the carriers of culture (in the broad sense of the word). Term "individuality" is used as a synonym for the word "individual" to denote the uniqueness of the totality of features inherent in a single organism and distinguishing this organism from all others belonging to the same species. Usually, the word "individuality" defines some dominant feature of a person that makes him different from others. Each person is individual, the individuality of some is manifested very brightly, convexly, while others are inexpressive, hardly noticeable. Individuality can manifest itself in the intellectual, emotional, volitional sphere, or in all spheres of mental activity at once. The originality of intelligence, for example, consists in the ability to see what others do not notice, in the features of information processing, that is, in the ability to pose problems (of an intellectual and moral nature) and solve them, in great mobility of emotions. Features of the will are manifested in its strength, amazing courage, self-control. Individuality characterizes the personality more concretely, in more detail and thus more fully. It is a constant object of research both in the study of personality psychology and other areas of psychology. 2. The problem of describing the structure of personality The problem of personality structure occupies an important place in personality psychology. There are several points of view on this. Without talking about individual characteristics, one can establish a typical personality structure. In some works (especially pedagogical ones), three components are distinguished in the structure of personality, such as motivational, intellectual and activity. The first component personality structure characterizes the orientation of the personality as a selective attitude to reality. Orientation includes various properties, a system of interacting needs and interests, ideological and practical attitudes. The dominant components of orientation determine the entire mental activity of the individual. So, the dominance of the cognitive need leads to an appropriate volitional and emotional mood, which activates intellectual activity. Second component determines the capabilities of the individual and includes the system of abilities that ensures the success of the activity. Abilities are interconnected and interact with each other. The nature of the correlation of abilities is affected by the structure of orientation. third component in the structure of personality is the character, or style of human behavior in the social environment. Character, of course, does not express the personality as a whole, but it represents a complex system of its properties, orientation and will, intellectual and emotional qualities. In the character system, leading properties can be distinguished. They are primarily moral (sensitivity or callousness, responsibility in relation to one's duties, modesty). Secondly - volitional qualities (decisiveness, perseverance, courage and self-control), which provide a certain style of behavior and ways to solve practical problems. The fourth component building on top of the rest, there will be a control system, which is denoted by the concept of "I". "I" - the formation of self-consciousness of the individual, it carries out self-regulation: strengthening or weakening of activity, self-control and correction of actions and deeds, anticipation and planning of life and activity. Consider how K. K. Platonov defines personality and its structure. Personality - man as a social being, the subject of knowledge and active transformation of the world. Man as a whole and as an individual, i.e. as a singularity taken independently from a plurality, has only two substructures. It can be considered either as an organism or as a person. An individual is a concrete person as a unit of society. 3. Personal approach Personal approach (one of the principles of psychology) is the understanding of the personality as a united set of internal conditions that refract all external influences. A personality is a concrete person as a subject of the transformation of the world on the basis of his knowledge, experience and attitude towards him. In the structure of personality, the following are distinguished: orientation, attitudes and its moral features. The elements (personality traits) included in its substructure do not have direct natural inclinations and reflect the individually refracted social consciousness. This includes, according to K. K. Platonov, several hierarchically connected forms. This attraction as the most primitive biological form of orientation. Desire - this is already a completely conscious need, an attraction to something. It can be passive, but when included in its structure, the volitional component becomes an aspiration. Interest - cognitive form of focus on objects. Genetically, it is based on an orienting reflex associated with emotion, but in a person, interests develop on the basis of a conditioned reflex of the second signaling system and in a complex manner, becoming curiosity. which can be defined as an interest in a particular activity. World view - a system of ideas and concepts learned by a person about the world and its laws, about the phenomena surrounding a person, nature and society. It can be a vague or passive world-contemplation, which has taken the form of a cognitive ideal, or becomes a conviction. Conviction - the highest form of orientation, the structure of which includes lower forms and in which the worldview is associated with the desire to achieve ideals. The second substructure of personality includes knowledge, skills, abilities and habits acquired in personal experience, through training. It is sometimes called individual culture or a substructure of experience. This substructure is formed through exercise, interacting with other substructures. It is called the substructure of reflection forms. The fourth substructure combines the properties of temperament (typological properties of the personality), sexual, age-related properties of the personality and its pathology, the so-called organic changes. In these four substructures all (four) known personality traits can be placed. Moreover, some of these properties relate to one substructure of directivity; erudition and skill - to the substructure of forms of reflection; exhaustion and excitability - to a biologically determined substructure. Other properties lie at the intersection of these substructures. 4. The idea of personality structure in various psychological theories There are a number of psychological theories that describe the structure of personality. Russian and Soviet psychological schools are presented in the works I. P. Pavlova, A. N. Leont'eva, B. G. Anan'eva, K. K. Platonova and more In Soviet psychology, a tradition has developed to distinguish between the individual and the personality. Two Soviet psychologists did most of all in the direction of this distinction - B. G. Ananiev и A. N. Leontiev. With some differences in the understanding of personality and with general differences or approaches, these authors determined the nature and properties of the individual and drew a line of difference ("line of demarcation") in the same place. An individual, in their opinion, is a natural, biological being, possessing both innate and life-formed properties. Personality is a socially formed quality. A person, according to A. N. Leontiev, as a natural being is an individual with one or another physical constitution, type of nervous activity, temperament, dynamic forces of biological needs. Characterizing a person as an individual, B. G. Ananiev wrote that there are grounds for distinguishing two main classes of individual properties: 1) age-sex; 2) individually-typical. The first class includes: 1) age properties that unfold in the process of becoming an individual (stages of ontogenetic evolution), and sexual dimorphism, the intensity of which corresponds to ontogenetic stages; 2) constitutional features (physique and biochemical individuality), neurodynamic properties of the brain, features of the functional geometry of the cerebral hemispheres (symmetry-asymmetry, functioning of paired receptors and effectors). Defining these properties as primary, and psychophysical functions and organic needs as secondary, these authors note that the highest integration of all these properties occurs in temperament and inclinations. Defining the difference between a personality and an individual, A. N. Leontiev wrote that a personality, like an individual, is a product of the integration of processes that carry out the relations of the subject. As a fundamental difference of personality, he named social relations specific to a person, into which he enters in his objective activity. For B. G. Ananiev, the starting point of the structural and dynamic properties of a personality is its status in society, where this personality is formed and formed. A. N. Leontiev believes that personality is a relatively late product of the socio-historical and ontogenetic development of man. 5. Factor analysis in the study of personality In Western theories of personality, the visual role is played by the theory of Z. Freud, the analytical theory of C. Jung, E. Bern. The psychoanalytic theory of personality developed by Z. Freud can be attributed to the type of psychodynamic, covering the whole life of a person and used to describe him as a person, the internal psychological properties of an individual, primarily his needs and motives. The analytical psychology of K. Jung considers the behavior of the individual in relation to others, that is, the social side of his behavior. In the theory of E. Bern, transactional analysis dominates. The main problem of psychoanalysis considered by Z. Freud is the problem of motivation. Freud distinguishes three levels in mental life: the unconscious, the preconscious and the conscious. The source of the instinctive charge that gives motivational force to human behavior (both in its motor and mental forms) is the unconscious. It is saturated with sexual energy (Freud calls it the term "libido"). Z. Freud dealt with the problems of neuroses, developed psychoanalysis - a psychotherapeutic method for treating neuroses, based on the technique of free associations and the analysis of erroneous actions and dreams as ways to penetrate the unconscious. He studied the psychological aspects of the development of sexuality, in which he identified a number of stages, expanding the scope of psychoanalysis. The structure of personality is understood by Z. Freud as consisting of "I" and "it". Freud believes that the driving force behind the development of the psyche is the energy of the unconscious, psychosexual attraction. A. Adler belongs to the Freudian school, who became the founder of individual psychology, where the driving force behind the development of the psyche is an inferiority complex, as a result of which the psyche develops as a result of overcoming it. Representatives of neo-Freudianism are somewhat moving away from Freud's biologizing approach, approaching anthropological psychologism and existentialism. Developing a holistic concept of personality development, E. Fromm, for example, tried to find out the mechanism of interaction between psychological and social factors in the process of its formation. The connection between the psyche of the individual and the social structure of society, according to E. Fromm, has a social character, in the formation of which fear plays a special role. Fear suppresses and forces out into the unconscious features that are incompatible with the norms prevailing in society. Western psychological theories thus tend to dominate the process of personality development of biological factors. 6. Role theories of personality Role theory of personality - this is an approach to the study of personality, according to which a personality is described by means of learned and accepted by it or forced to perform social functions and patterns of behavior - roles that arise from its social status in a given society or social group. The main provisions of the theory of social roles were formulated by the American social psychologist J. Mead, anthropologist R. Linton. The first one focused on the mechanisms of "role learning", the development of roles in the processes of interpersonal communication (interaction), emphasizing the stimulating effect of "role expectations" on the part of persons significant for the individual with whom he enters into communication. The second drew attention to the socio-cultural nature of role prescriptions and their connection with the social position of the individual, as well as to the appointment of social and group sanctions. Within the framework of the role theory, the following phenomena were experimentally identified: role conflict - the experience by the subject of ambiguity or confrontation of role requirements from different social communities, of which he is a member, which creates a stressful situation; integration and disintegration of the role structure of the personality - a consequence of the harmony or conflict of social relations. A distinction is made between leading social roles arising from the social structure of society and roles that arise relatively arbitrarily in group interactions and suggest an active social coloring of their implementation. These features of the role approach are most convexly presented in the concept of the West German sociologist R. Dahrendorf, considering a person as a deindividualized product of role prescriptions, which, under certain conditions, reflects the alienation of the individual. Overcoming the one-sidedness of the role approach to the study of personality involves an analysis of its properties. The role is most often understood as a social function, a model of behavior, objectively given by the social position of the individual in the system of social or interpersonal relations. The performance of the role must comply with accepted social norms and the expectations of others, regardless of the individual characteristics of the individual. There are various theories of the role behavior of a person (for example, the concept of symbolic interactionism is associated with the introduction by the American psychologist J. Mead of the concept of "exchange of symbols", which are expressed in verbal and other forms by ideas about the interaction partner and his expectation of certain actions from the subject. 7. Social role as a unit of social structure The fulfillment of a social role is connected both with the interests of large communities, arising from the common conditions of their life activity, and with spontaneously arising joint activity (in the process of playing, communicating, etc.). In the latter case, the social role has a subjective coloring, which manifests itself in the style of role-playing behavior, the level of activity of performance. The adoption of a social role by an individual depends on many conditions, among which the correspondence of the role to the needs and interests of the individual in self-development and self-realization is of decisive importance. So, a social role is a set of norms that determine the behavior of persons acting in a social environment, depending on the status or position, and the behavior itself that implements these norms. In the role description, a society or any social group appears as a set of certain social positions (worker, scientist, etc.), in which a person is obliged to obey the "social order", or the expectations of other people associated with this position. Fulfilling this "social order", a person performs one of several possible options for playing the role (say, a lazy or diligent student). American sociologists R. Linton, J. Meade they interpret the social role in different ways: as a unit of social structure (R. Linton) or in terms of direct interaction of people (role-playing game), during which, due to the fact that a person imagines himself in the role of another, social norms are assimilated and the social is formed in the individual . In reality, role expectations are never unambiguous. In addition, a person often finds himself in a situation of role conflict, when his different roles are poorly compatible. Human activity is not limited to role-playing, that is, patterned behavior; outside the social role there are various types of deviant (deviant) and spontaneous behavior, including innovative human activity that creates new norms and new roles. In the same way, the structure of the personality is not reduced to a set of social roles: their internalization (assimilation) and subordination always presuppose a specific individuality that develops over the life path of an individual and is highly stable. 8. The concept of personality typology Personality as a general scientific and everyday term means: 1) the human individual as a subject of relations and conscious activity; 2) a stable system of socially significant features that characterize an individual as a member of a particular society or community. In psychology, a personality is understood as a certain core, integrating the beginning, linking together the various mental processes of an individual and imparting to his behavior the necessary consistency and stability. Depending on what exactly such a beginning is seen in, personality theories are divided into psychobiological (W. Sheldon), biosocial (F. Allport, K. Rogers), psychosocial (K. Adler, K. Horney and other neo-Freudians), psychostatic ("factorial") - (R. Kettel, D. Eysenck and etc.). Based on these theories, personality typology is carried out. There are specific historical personality types, ideal types that correspond to certain theoretical concepts, and empirical groupings of the examined individuals. In sociology, the identification and existence of various social personality types is associated with the features and characteristics of socio-economic formations (class, social and group personality types). The category "socio-historical type of personality" is used to refer to certain sets of personality characteristics, due to a particular historical era, the social structure of society. In Western psychology, typologies are common that take into account primarily personal indicators (properties and traits of individuals generated by their inherent orientations). Such, for example, is the typology of K. Jung, which includes personality types identified taking into account such features as sensitivity, thinking, experiencing evaluation, intuitiveness, extravertive or introvertive orientation. There is also a typology proposed E. Fromm, which distinguishes the following elements of personality: hoarding, orientation to exchange, perception, use, etc. Echoes of personological classifications can be identified in many socio-psychological typologies, in particular when building a personality typology on the basis of personality conformity with respect to the norms of a group and society, a typology of orientation and manageability of the individual. In empirical studies, typology matters - the grouping of subjects similar to a certain average image. Identification of numerous characteristics, indicators, personality traits, in particular with the help of factor analysis, allows you to build a multidimensional space of its features - personal space. Psychologists turn to the problems of personality typology due to the need to predict its behavior and development, the need to develop the most optimal options for its education and upbringing. 9. Typologies of personality based on the properties of the individual The idea of psychic energy, self-regulation is closely connected with the analytical psychology of psychological types. There are several such types. They refer to an innate difference in temperament, an integral combination of enduring psychodynamic properties manifested in activities that cause individuals to perceive and respond in a specific way. First of all, two stable types should be distinguished: extrovert и introvert. An extrovert is characterized by an innate tendency to direct psychic energy, or libido, outward, connecting the carrier of energy with the outside world. This type naturally and spontaneously pays attention to the object - other people, objects, external manners and landscaping. The connection of the extrovert with the subjective inner world is weak, he avoids meeting with it. He evaluates any subjective requests as egoistic. The introvert is characterized by the tendency of his libido to rush inward, linking psychic energy with his inner world of thought, fantasy, feeling. This type pays considerable interest and attention to the subject (with himself) at a time when he is relieved of the obligation to adapt to external circumstances. Along with extroverts and introverts K. Jung identifies four functional personality types, based on four main functions: thinking, feeling, feeling, intuition. Each potential individual has all four functions, although in reality one of them usually turns out to be the most developed and becomes the leading one. thinking type more in line with men. The mental life of this type is reduced to the creation of intellectual formulas and the subsequent adjustment of the available life experience to these formulas. sensual type more common in women. The establishment and development of interpersonal partnership relations is the main goal here. The greatest satisfaction a person experiences from emotional contact with other people. At its extreme, this functional type can be repulsive because of its excessive interest in the private affairs of others. Sensory (sensing) type characterized by adaptability to ordinary momentary reality, "here and now." The feeling type looks stable and earthy, real and present in the sense of being ready to live in the moment, but at the same time it looks rather stupid. intuitive type motivated mainly by a constant stream of new visions and premonitions flowing from his inner active perception. 10. The classical doctrine of temperament Temperament is understood as the natural features of behavior that are typical for a given person and manifested in the dynamics of tone and balance of reactions to life influences. Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on the characteristics of the natural organization of the individual, and therefore is detected quite early and clearly in children in the game, classes and communication. Temperament colors all the mental manifestations of the individual, it affects the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, volitional action, affects the pace and rhythm of speech. The doctrine of temperament arose in antiquity. The doctors Hippocrates, and then Galen, observing the individual characteristics of people's behavior, made an attempt to describe and explain these features. The founder of the doctrine of temperament is considered to be the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (XNUMXth century BC). Hippocrates believed that there are four fluids in the human body: blood, mucus, yellow and black bile. The names of temperaments given by the name of liquids have survived to this day. So, choleric temperament comes from the word chole "bile", sanguine - from sanguis "blood", phlegmatic from - phlegma "mucus", melancholic - from melan chole "black bile". Hippocrates believed that temperament depends on a person's lifestyle and climatic conditions. So, with a sedentary lifestyle, phlegm accumulates, and with a mobile lifestyle, bile accumulates, hence the manifestations of temperaments, respectively. Hippocrates accurately described the types, but could not scientifically explain them. In recent years, in addition to humoral, chemical, physical, anatomical, neurological and purely psychological theories have been put forward. However, none of them gives a correct and complete description of temperament. A significant contribution to the scientific justification of temperament was made by I. P. Pavlov, discovered properties of nervous activity. Unlike his predecessors, he did not take for research the external structure of the body - (German psychologist E. Kretschmer and vascular structure P. F. Lesgaft, but the body as a whole, and singled out the brain in it as such a component, which, firstly, regulates the activity of all organs and tissues; secondly, it unites and coordinates the activities of the diverse parts in the system; thirdly, it experiences the influence of all organs and, under the influence of the impulses sent by them, functionally restructures the maintenance of life in organs and tissues; fourthly, it is in the truest sense of the word the organ of communication between the organism and the outside world. 11. Psychological characteristics of the types of nervous activity Conditioned reflex method I. P. Pavlov revealed the patterns of higher nervous activity and the basic properties of nervous processes - excitation and inhibition. The main properties of nervous processes are as follows: 1) strength; 2) balance; 3) mobility. The strength of nervous processes is an indicator of the performance of nerve cells and the nervous system as a whole. A strong nervous system withstands a large and prolonged load, while a weak one “breaks” under these conditions. Mobility is the speed of changing one process to another. It provides adjustment to unexpected and sudden changes in circumstances. The combination of these properties characterizes specific types of nervous activity. Four types are most common. Of these, IP Pavlov classifies three types as strong and one as a weak type. Strong, in turn, into balanced and unbalanced, balanced - into mobile (labile) and calm (inert). As a result, the following typology was identified: 1) a strong unbalanced (unrestrained) type of the nervous system is characterized by a strong process of excitation and less strong inhibition; 2) strong balanced (the process of excitation is balanced with the process of inhibition), mobile; 3) strong balanced, inert (outwardly more calm, "solid"); 4) weak is characterized by weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition, low mobility (inertia) of nervous processes. In recent years, in addition to humoral, chemical, physical, anatomical, neurological and purely psychological theories have been put forward. However, none of them gives a correct and complete description of temperament. IP Pavlov identified the type of nervous system and temperament. Subsequent studies have shown that the type of nervous activity does not always coincide with the type of temperament. Temperament is affected not only by the properties of nervous activity, but also by the somatic organization of the personality as a whole. The type of the nervous system is considered as the deposit of temperament. Temperament is manifested not only in emotional, but also in mental volitional processes. When people talk about a person's temperament, they mean not the dynamics of isolated psychological processes, but the whole syndrome (a system of dynamic features of a person's holistic behavior). Temperament, therefore, is nothing more than the most general characteristic of the impulsive-dynamic side of human behavior, expressing mainly the properties of the nervous system. 12. Psychological characteristics of temperament choleric temperament. A person with this type of temperament is characterized by increased excitability, and as a result, unbalanced behavior. Choleric is quick-tempered, aggressive, straightforward in relationships, energetic in activities. Choleric is characterized by cyclical work. Such cyclicality is one of the consequences of the imbalance of nervous activity. Sanguine temperament. The sanguine person is characterized by great mobility, easy adaptability to changing living conditions; he quickly finds contact with people, is sociable, does not feel constrained in a new environment. In a team, a sanguine person is cheerful, cheerful, willingly takes up a living business, capable of passion. In sanguine people, emotions easily arise, are easily replaced. The ease with which a sanguine person forms and remakes new temporary connections, great mobility characterizes the flexibility of the mind. The sanguine person is prone to wit, quickly grasps the new, easily switches attention. A job that requires a quick reaction suits him. Phlegmatic temperament. Phlegmatic - a calm, balanced person, always even, persistent and stubborn worker of life. Balance and some inertia of nervous processes allow the phlegmatic to remain calm in all situations. The disadvantage of the phlegmatic is its inertia, inactivity. He needs time to build up, to focus attention, to switch it to another object. Inertia as a quality also has a positive meaning: it ensures slowness, solidity and, in general, constancy, certainty of character. Phlegmatic people are especially suitable for work that requires method, composure and long-term performance. Melancholy temperament. Representatives of this type are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, and as a result, increased vulnerability. Melancholics are somewhat closed, especially if they meet new people, are indecisive in difficult circumstances of life, experience strong fear in dangerous situations. The weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition, when they are unbalanced (inhibition predominates), leads to the fact that any strong influence inhibits the activity of the melancholic, he experiences extreme inhibition. In a familiar environment, a melancholic person can be a contact person, successfully carry out assigned work, show perseverance and overcome difficulties. Temperament is associated with other personality traits and affects relationships, culture of behavior and volitional activity of the individual. 13. The problem of development of the motivational sphere of personality The motivational sphere of a person is still little studied in psychology. This cannot be explained by the lack of interest in this subject: from ancient times to the present day, the question of the internal stimuli of human behavior has steadily occupied scientists and led them to build various hypotheses. Studies of needs and motives could not be developed within the framework of associative empirical psychology. This psychology was dominated by the idea that all mental processes are governed by certain laws of associations. The dominance of associative empirical psychology lasted a very long time, and even now its influence cannot be considered completely overcome. Another direction - Gestalt psychology - chose a different direction: for its research, it chose mainly the field of cognitive processes. Others - reflexology, reactology, behaviorism - have focused their attention on the external stimuli of human behavior. The first who tried to overcome the mechanism of associative psychology and pose the problem of the activity of the human "I" were psychologists of the Würzburg school. (A. Ah, Y. Kulpe and etc.) In the course of their research, they experimentally showed that representations and concepts are interconnected in a single act of thinking not according to the mechanical laws of associations, but are controlled by the task to which thinking is directed. They came to the conclusion that the flow of representations during the act of thinking may not depend on external stimuli and on associative influences, if the thought process is controlled by the so-called determining trends. Later, an attempt to overcome the mechanistic understanding of the psychological sources of human activity was made in the studies K. Levina and his students. Kurt Lewin conducted his research from the standpoint of the so-called structural theory (Gestalt psychology), the failure of which was noted by many Soviet psychologists. They believed that the main drawback of K. Levin's concept was that it ignored the content side of mental processes and a formal approach to their analysis. However, Levin and his students found successful experimental methods for studying a person's needs, his intentions, and will, and established some interesting psychological facts and patterns. In the future, a number of Soviet psychologists dealt with the problems of needs. (A. R. Luria, N. F. Dobrynin, A. V. Vedenov, G. A. Fortunatov, A. V. Petrovsky, A. N. Leontiev and etc.). 14. Motive as an object responsible for human needs Came closest to understanding and developing needs A. Leontiev. His approach is based on the understanding of motives as objects (perceived, represented, realized, conceivable) in which needs are specified. These objects constitute the substantive content of those needs that are embodied in them. Thus, the objectification of human needs occurs. motive, by definition, A. N. Leontiev, is an object that meets a particular need and which encourages and directs human activity. Motives, in his opinion, perform a dual function. The first is that they stimulate and direct activity, the second is that they give activity a subjective, personal meaning; therefore, the meaning of activity is determined by its motive. Psychologists usually begin the study of the motivational sphere by studying the motivational sphere in childhood and school age. They explain this by the fact that the educational and cognitive activity of the child is leading throughout the entire school (and not only school) age. All these motives can be divided into two broad categories. Some of them are related to the content of the educational activity itself and the process of its implementation; others with the child's broader relationship with the environment. The former include the cognitive interests of children, the need for intellectual activity and the acquisition of new skills, abilities and knowledge; others are connected with the child's needs in communicating with other people, in their assessment and approval, with the student's desire to take a certain place in the system of social relations available to him. Both of these categories are necessary for the successful implementation of any activity. The motives coming from the activity itself have a direct impact on the subject, helping to overcome the difficulties encountered that impede its purposeful and systematic implementation. The function of another type of motives is completely different: being generated by the entire social context in which the whole life of the subject takes place, they can induce him to activity through consciously set goals. A variety of interacting, intertwining, and sometimes conflicting needs can be embodied in the same object. This shows that external objects can stimulate human activity. In this regard, changes in objects in which needs are embodied do not constitute the content of the development of needs, but are only an indicator of this development. 15. Development of the structure of the motivational sphere The structure of the motivational sphere characterized by a change in the dominant motives in content, an increase in the role of mediated needs and their increasing hierarchization. With age, the stability of the emerging motivational structure also increases, which increases the role of dominant motives in the life and behavior of a person. The nature of the dominant motives depends primarily on the biography of a person and his upbringing. Stable dominant motives of behavior acquire a leading meaning for a person and thereby subordinate all his other motives to themselves. The hierarchical structure of the motivational sphere in its most developed form presupposes the assimilation of certain moral values - ideas, concepts, ideas that become the dominant motives of behavior. The goals set by a person are able to subjugate immediate motives, which determines the volitional nature of human behavior. But when the acquired values acquire the power of immediate motives, they can involuntarily subordinate to themselves all his other motives, including those not realized by him. In this case, we can talk about the harmonic structure of the motivational sphere of a person, and, consequently, about the harmonic structure of his personality. The hierarchical structure of the motivational sphere determines the orientation of a person's personality, which has a different character depending on which motives have become dominant in their structure and content. So, the need directly induces the individual to activity aimed at satisfying this need. It is thus an internal stimulus to his behavior and activities. Initially, the need causes non-directed activity of the individual, associated with the unconscious search for his satisfaction, but when the object is found, the activity of the individual acquires a purposeful character. Needs underlie all other stimuli of behavior, including the highest, characteristic only of a person. Motives are a kind of incentives for human behavior. Objects of the external world, representations, ideas, feelings and experiences can act as a motive. The formation of specifically human stimuli of behavior puts a person in a completely new relationship with the surrounding reality. These relationships are characterized by the fact that a person stops only adapting to circumstances, but begins to interfere in them, "create himself" and these circumstances. 16. Orientation of personality Under development of the motivational sphere one can understand the development and change of the motives themselves in terms of their content, strength, tension, effectiveness. In the process of life, some motives acquire paramount importance, others fade into the background. As the personality develops, some motives begin to dominate, subordinating the actions of all the others. In some people, dominant motives are relatively stable; for others, they change easily in the course of life. The hierarchical structures of motives in a child develop very early. Initially, they are based on the dominance of immediate motives that subjugate all other motives (structures of the first type). Characterized by the dominance of organic needs (food, sexual, motor) or non-biological needs (love for art, family, moral feelings). The motivational structure of the second type has an arbitrary character. It assumes that a person has ideas that have become motives for behavior. The motivational sphere organized in this way forms the basis of a mature personality. This structure gives the subject the ability to control his behavior and be relatively independent of external influences. As the personality develops, these motives become directly acting needs. A motivational structure of this type arises only on the basis of experience acquired by the subject in the process of its development. An arbitrary or involuntary hierarchy of motives creates the direction of his personality. The orientation of the personality is an indicator of the stability of the hierarchical structure of motives. There is also the so-called situational orientation associated with the satisfaction of any vital needs. The needs that determine the direction of the individual are practically insatiable. They operate all the time, determining all other needs, and in particular - ways to satisfy them. There are three types of orientation: collectivist, personal and business. Personal focus exists when the motives of one's own well-being predominate in the system of motives. If a person's actions are determined mainly by the interests of other people, that is, collectivist motives prevail, we are talking about public orientation. If the interests of the case prevail over all others, we can talk about business orientation. Of course, dominance or predominance is a statistical value and is itself relative, but even its relative stability is already a new quality of the motivational sphere. 17. Personal self-esteem Self-concept includes the ability to assess one's strengths and capabilities, to treat oneself critically. It forms the basis of the level of those tasks for which a person considers himself capable. Being present in every act of behavior, self-esteem is an important component in the management of this behavior. Self-esteem can be adequate и inadequate . Depending on the nature of self-esteem, a person develops either an adequate attitude towards himself, or an inadequate, incorrect one. The nature of self-esteem determines the formation of certain personality traits. Of course, quite adequate self-esteem is typical for an adult. In the process of the development of the child, there must be some features of the formation of self-esteem, specific for each stage of age development. Flexibility in evaluating oneself, the ability to correct one's behavior under the influence of experience are the conditions for a painless adaptation to life. Of decisive importance for the normal mental state of a person is agreement with oneself. Psychologists note the importance of the need for a positive assessment for personality development: the individual needs the approval and respect of other people. On the basis of this respect, self-respect arises, which becomes the most important need of the individual. An important factor in the development of a child's personality are assessments by those around him. With age, self-esteem as a motive for behavior and activity becomes a fairly stable formation, and more significant than the need to evaluate others. The genetic need for appreciation is an earlier formation than the need for self-esteem. With age, self-esteem to a certain extent is emancipated from the assessments of others and begins to perform an independent function in the formation of personality. A person, based on an assessment of his capabilities, makes certain demands on himself and acts in accordance with them. It should be noted that the requirements imposed on a child or adolescent from the outside, if they differ from his requirements for himself, are not able to have a proper impact on him. The ability to act independently or contrary to the assessments of others is associated with the stability of the individual. If the discrepancy between the assessment or self-assessment is of a long-term nature (especially in cases where the assessment is adequate), the latter is either rebuilt after the assessment, or an acute conflict arises, leading to a serious crisis. Therefore, it is so important to study a person's self-esteem and its compliance or non-compliance with the assessment. 18. Self-Esteem Research The problem of developing self-esteem has been the subject of many studies both here and abroad. Western European and American psychologists consider self-esteem mainly as a mechanism that ensures the consistency of the individual's requirements for himself with external conditions, that is, the maximum balance of the individual with his social environment. At the same time, the environment itself is considered as hostile to man. This approach is typical for Z. Freud and for his neo-Freudian followers (C. Horney E. Fromm and etc.). In the works of these psychologists, self-esteem appears as a function of personality and consider! in connection with the affective-need sphere of personality From the point of view of Soviet psychology, the role of self-esteem is not limited to an adaptive function; self-esteem becomes one of the mechanisms that implement the activity of the individual. Of great importance for solving the problem of self-esteem are works K. Levina and his students, who were engaged in a special study of motives, needs, the level of claims and their correlation. As a result of these and other studies, scientists came to the conclusion about the relationship between self-esteem and the level of claims. Interesting from this point of view is theory of K. Rogers. Personality, according to Rogers, arises in the process of development, and its essence is the knowledge of the individual about himself and self-esteem. Self-esteem arises as a result of interaction with the environment, evaluative interaction with other people. The behavior of the child and his further development is primarily consistent with his self-esteem. In individual development, as Rogers says, a conflict can arise between a person's idea of himself and real experience, which includes both the assessments of others and moral values. In some cases, the cause of the conflict is the discrepancy between self-esteem and the assessments of others, in others, the discrepancy between self-esteem and the ideal self-image that a person seeks to meet. But this discrepancy is not always pathogenic. Rogers believes that the way out largely depends on how self-esteem has developed in the individual experience of a person. In Soviet psychology, studies of the problem of self-esteem are associated with the study of the problem of development and self-consciousness, which is associated with names B. G. Ananyeva, S. L. Rubinshteina, L. I. Bozhovich, M. S. Nei-mark, L. S. Slavina, E. A. Serebryakova and others. These studies are devoted to the study of the level of children's aspirations, their self-confidence or lack of self-confidence and related features of their self-esteem. 19. Concept of primary group The social essence of a person is manifested primarily in his activities, communication with other people. Isolated from other people, he cannot develop as a person. Only active labor social activity provides a person with a livelihood and contributes to the development of many personal qualities. The social environment, relationships in work are a decisive factor in the formation and development of the psyche, the emergence of a specifically human property - consciousness. The historical conditions of life have led to the fact that people have united in nations, states, parties, and other communities. A person during his life directly communicates with other people, realizing his social essence. This communication takes place in groups and collectives that have a great influence on the position, orientation and self-esteem of the individual, etc. These communities are heterogeneous and can be classified on several grounds: the proximity and depth of the emerging relationships, the principle of education, the attitude of the individual to the norms of the group, etc. Depending on the proximity and depth of the emerging relationship, they distinguish the primary group. primary group. A relatively stable and small in composition, connected by common goals, an association of people in which direct contact is made between its members is called primary group. Everyone who enters it knows each other personally and communicates with each other in the process of solving the problem facing them. The size of the primary group cannot be less than two, but does not exceed 30-40 people. Such associations as a family, a production team, an aircraft crew, winterers at a polar station, a school class, or a student group may be called primary groups. A person can belong to several primary groups at the same time. Contacts in primary groups are not dosed. Everyone can communicate with everyone as they wish and need. In practice, group members prefer one over the other. They communicate more often, contacts are of a close nature (on a personal or business basis). This is the so-called circle of communication, which is made in the form of a microgroup. As a rule, such a group is not numerous (2-7 people). The person remains a member of the primary group and does not cut off contact with it. Individual members of the group usually identify with their group in such a way that they profess the values accepted in the group as their own. The group develops an idea of what is the correct behavior of its members. 20. Classification of groups According to the principle and method of formation, real and conditional, official and unofficial groups are distinguished. Real group - actually existing associations of people with real connections and relationships of its members, with goals and objectives. A real group can exist for a short time or for a long time, be small or large. A community of people, made up nominally, is called conditional group. For example, sports journalists decide to form a team consisting of the best football players in the world. These people will never get together and play together. But this group is composed and conditionally exists. Official (formal) group is created on the basis of the staff list, charter or other official documents. Between the members of such a group, business contacts are established, confirmed by documents. They imply subordination or equality, greater or lesser responsibility for the task. Such a group can be reorganized, but again on the basis of an order or resolution. Relationships in the official group, even with the same instructions, cannot be identical, since people with unique traits of character, temperament, abilities, communication style come into contact. Business relationships are complemented by personal, unforeseen instructions. Psychological closeness (sympathy, respect, friendship) cements the official group, helps to establish a favorable psychological climate, which ultimately contributes to successful work. Other relations that do not contribute to the success of the case (antipathy, disrespect, neglect, enmity) may also develop in the official group. Informal groups arise on the basis of a single psychological motivation - sympathy, closeness of views and beliefs, recognition of authority, competence. Such a group is not provided for by the staff list or charter. This is how groups are formed on the basis of common interests or hobbies. Sympathies and affections cement the group. If they disappear, the group breaks up. On the basis of the attitude of the individual to the norms of the group, a reference group is distinguished. Reference (reference) group - this is a real or imaginary group, the views, the norms of which serve as a model for the individual. A person can be included in a group of norms, the values of which he recognizes and supports and considers to be the best. Then the person not only adheres to these norms, but also defends them, and sometimes promotes them. Sometimes a person, being a member of one group, considers the values of another group as an ideal. 21. Personality and collective The basic group can be considered from different points of view. The collective was named as the primary group. Collective - a group of people united by common goals, subordinate to the goals of society. Clearly and fully established the signs of the team A. S. Makarenko, who defined it as follows: "The collective is a purposeful complex of individuals, organized, possessing the organs of the collective." At the same time, he noted that the collective is united by the presence of socially (socially) significant goals. Therefore, we can say that every collective is a group, but not every group is a collective. The personality in the collective is connected with other personalities and together with them expresses the direction of the community. In the course of historical interaction with the material world and communication with people, a person not only acquires individual experience, on the basis of which individual traits and properties are formed, but also appropriates social experience, which becomes the most important component of his spiritual wealth. The relationship between the individual and the team is diverse. Two aspects can be distinguished: the influence of the collective on the individual and the influence of the individual on the collective. The influence of the collective on the individual is carried out mainly through the so-called small groups, in which a person has direct contacts with other people. The influence of small groups on the personality is considered in detail, especially in recent years, when the collective has ceased to be regarded as a kind of homogeneous formation and the presence of various groups has begun to be recognized in it. As in society as a whole, and in individual organizations, the socially isolated individual is extremely rare. When a person gets a job or enters an educational institution, he immediately begins to make acquaintances and friends, usually from among those with whom he works together most of the time, and soon becomes involved in one or more social groups. Human behavior in such groups usually undergoes significant changes under the influence of the collective. A small group of people who work together every day makes up a real social group (collective). Its members usually call each other by their first names. They get to know each other better as a result of close personal contacts. They communicate with each other not as private individuals, that is, not just as employees, but as full-fledged individuals with their hopes and fears, ambitions and claims, inclinations and troubles, social and family problems, etc. 22. Interpersonal communication in a social group Social group is a type of social community of people united in the process of joint activity. This community has a number of significant features: 1) internal organization, which consists of management bodies, social control and sanctions; 2) group values formed by public opinion; 3) own principle of isolation, differences from other groups; 4) influencing the behavior of group members; 5) general goals and objectives of the activity; 6) the desire for sustainability due to the mechanisms of relations that arise between people in the course of solving group problems; 7) fixing traditions, symbols (signs, clothes, flags, etc.). Each social group has its own social structure, which is based on three pillars: status-role relations, professional characteristics и gender composition. To understand the essence of status-role relations, it is necessary to consider the scheme of a person's role behavior proposed by a psychologist G. Allport. It all starts with the need to fulfill a social role. Without understanding it and its basic functions, it is very difficult to cope with your role. Once a person has understood the role, he must either accept it or reject it. Assuming a role is accompanied by a process of learning new functions, developing certain positions, a style of behavior and communication. It is necessary to give a person time for this difficult matter and not confuse him until the process of entering the role has ended. The next stage of role behavior - the performance of the role - has two sides: the behavior of the person performing the role, and the assessment of others. It often happens that self-assessment and assessments by other people are very different, so it is important to always have feedback all the time, that is, to be interested, especially in the leader, what they think of him "from above, from the side, from below" and adjust your behavior accordingly. The second "whale" in the social structure of the group is professional and qualification characteristics. This component speaks of the intellectual, professional potential of the group. The third "whale" is the gender and age composition of the group. Each age period has its own psychological characteristics that cannot be ignored. Features of female and male psychology also leave their mark on the nature of intra-group relations. Women's teams are more emotional. Men's are more rational. Therefore, the combination of men and women in the group is a favorable factor for its development and the creation of favorable conditions for life. 23. Psychological attitudes and their types Psychologists distinguish three types of attitude to the perception of another person: positive, negative и adequate. With a positive attitude, we overestimate the positive qualities of a person. A negative attitude leads to the fact that mostly negative qualities of another person are perceived. The best thing, of course, is an adequate attitude to the fact that each person has both positive and negative qualities. The presence of attitudes is seen as an unconscious predisposition to perceive and evaluate the qualities of other people. These attitudes underlie the typical distortions of ideas about the other person. Entering into communication, people influence each other, which has deep psychological mechanisms. Psychological mechanisms of communication and mutual influence can be built in a certain row. The very first in this series will be the property of infection - the effect of a multiple increase in the emotional states of people communicating with each other. Infection occurs at an unconscious level and is especially pronounced in a crowd, queue, in public, but infection also occurs at the level of small groups. There is an expression "contagious laughter", and anger and other emotions can also be contagious. The next in the series will be two properties: suggestion and imitation. Suggestion, or suggestion, can also be individual and group and occurs on a conscious or unconscious level, depending on the purpose of communication. Each person has the ability to perceive the ideas, actions, feelings transmitted to him in communication in such a way that they involuntarily become, as it were, his own. Imitation is a complex dynamic property. Its possible manifestations range from blind copying of behavior, gestures, intonations to conscious motivated imitation. One of the psychological mechanisms of communication is competition - the ability of people to compare themselves with others, the desire to be no worse than others, not to lose face. Competition causes mental, emotional and physical stress. It's good when competition is an incentive for development, it's bad when it develops into rivalry. And finally, the third level of human interaction is persuasion: a reasoned conscious verbal expression of one's ideas, opinions, and actions. Persuasion is effective only when it is based not only on words, but also on deeds, emotions, the effects of infection, suggestion and imitation. If the leader relies on all mechanisms, he will achieve positive results. 24. Communication and interpersonal relationships Communication - communication between people, during which there is a psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding. Recently, the concept of "communication" has been used in science. Communications - communication, the interaction of two systems, during which a signal carrying information is transmitted from one system to another. Communication is the exchange of information between people. Thus, communication is a narrower concept in comparison with the concept of communication. The content of communication can be a person (his appearance, demeanor, etc.); activity; relationships and relationships. The content side of communication is realized through ways, means. Language is the main means of communication. However, non-speech means are widely used in parallel with the language; appearance, facial expressions, gestures, position of partners relative to each other, image. The appearance of a person is consciously changed and to a certain extent created by him. The appearance is made up of a physiognomic mask, clothes, demeanor. The physiognomic mask - the dominant facial expression - is formed under the influence of thoughts, feelings, and relationships that often arise in a person. Complements the appearance and clothing, which is often an indicator of class, estate, professional affiliation. In the manner of holding one can see the upbringing of a person, his position, self-esteem, attitude towards the person with whom he communicates. The dynamic side of communication is manifested in gestures and facial expressions. Mimicry - dynamic facial expression at the moment of communication. Gesture - a socially developed movement that conveys a mental state. Both facial expressions and gestures develop as social media, although some of the elements that make them up are innate. Non-verbal means of communication include the exchange of objects, things. Passing objects to each other, people establish contacts, express relationships. The means of communication is also tactile-muscular sensitivity. Mutual contact, muscular tension for movement directed at another person, or withholding from him - these are the limits of such communication. Specific manifestations of it can be a handshake, finding a child in the arms of a mother, martial arts athletes. Tactile-muscular sensitivity is the main channel for obtaining information from the outside world and the main means of communication for people deprived of hearing and vision, and thus the ability to naturally "use" sound speech. 25. Zones and levels of communication Proxemics explores the location of people in space during communication and identifies the following zones of distance in human contact: 1) intimate area (15-45 cm); only close, well-known people are allowed into this zone; this zone is characterized by trust, a low voice in communication, tactile contact, and touch. Studies show that a violation of the intimate zone entails certain changes in the body: an increase in the heartbeat, a rush of blood to the head, etc. Premature invasion of the intimate zone is perceived as an attack on immunity; 2) personal or personal zone (45-120 cm) for an ordinary conversation with friends and colleagues involves only visual eye contact between partners supporting the conversation; 3) social area (120-400 cm) usually observed during official meetings in offices, teaching and other office spaces, as a rule, with those who are not well known; 4) public area (over 400 cm) implies communication with a large group of people - in a lecture hall, at a rally, etc. Based on the content and conditions, the levels of communication are considered. Psychologists distinguish three levels of communication: 1) the first level (macro level). In this case, communication is considered as the most important aspect of a person's lifestyle, which considers the prevailing content, the circle of people with whom she mainly contacts, the established style of communication and other parameters. All this is due to social relations, the social conditions of a person's life. In addition, considering this level, one should take into account what rules, traditions, accepted norms a person adheres to. The time interval of such communication is the entire previous and future life of the individual; 2) second level (mesa level). Communication at this level involves contacts on a specific topic. Moreover, the implementation of the topic can be carried out with one person or group, may end in one session, or may require several meetings, acts of communication. As a rule, a person has several topics that he implements sequentially or in parallel. In both cases, communication partners can be individuals or groups; 3) third level (micro level). It involves an act of communication in the role of a kind of elementary particle (unit). Such an act of communication can be considered a question-answer, a handshake, a meaningful look, a mimic movement in response, etc. Through elementary units, themes are realized that form the entire system of communication of a person in a certain period of his life. 26. Types of communication Depending on the contingent of participants in communication, interpersonal, personal-group, intergroup communication can be distinguished. In the primary group, the primary collective, each person communicates with everyone. In the course of such paired communication, both personal and group goals and objectives are realized. The awareness of communities about the content of communication or the presence of a third person at the moment of communication between two persons changes the picture of communication. Personal-group communication is most clearly manifested between the leader and the group, the team. Intergroup communication involves the contact of two communities. Such are the team competitions in sports. The goals and objectives of communication between groups and collectives may coincide (communication is peaceful), or they may not coincide (a conflict situation). Intergroup - not a faceless amorphous effect. In it, each individual is the bearer of the collective content, defends it, and is guided by it. Communication can be direct and indirect. When the term is used "direct", they mean face-to-face communication, in which each participant perceives the other and makes contact. mediated communication - this is communication, in which intermediate links are wedged in the form of a third person, mechanism, thing (for example, talking on the phone). The time during which communication takes place affects its character. It is a kind of catalyst for the content and methods of communication. Of course, it is impossible to know a person in detail in a short time, but an attempt to comprehend personal and characterological features constantly exists. Long communication - not only the path to mutual understanding, but also the path to satiety. Long-term communication creates a prerequisite for either psychological compatibility or confrontation. Communication can be complete or incomplete. finished can be considered such communication, which is identically evaluated by its participants. At the same time, the assessment captures not only the subjective significance of the result of communication (satisfaction, indifference, dissatisfaction), but the fact of completeness, exhaustion. During the unfinished communication, the content of the topic or joint action is not brought to the end, to the result pursued by each of the parties. The incompleteness of communication can be due to objective or subjective reasons. Objective or external reasons - separation of people in space, prohibition, disappearance of means of communication, etc. Subjective - mutual or unilateral unwillingness to continue communication, understanding the need to stop it, etc. 27. Communication as a social act Communication as an activity is always social. Even when people (two) communicate without a third person, they communicate as representatives of groups, collectives, certain social strata. The degree of sociality can be different. It is determined by the number of people involved in communication, or dedicated to its goals, content, results of communication. In some cases, a large number of people are involved in contacts; in this case, the social situation of communication is quite wide. When the number of people is small (for example, communication between a student and a teacher), the social situation of communication is narrow. The degree of sociality of the situation of communication determines all its components: content, means, types. A person entering into communication experiences the "burden of sociality". It has been established in psychology that if the content, results, means and forms of communication are known or can be known to other people, it proceeds differently in comparison with communication, which only contacting people know about. Communication takes place unequally in the case when people contact in the presence of others or alone. So, for example, in classes there are often teenagers who play the role of jesters. They usually play this role in the presence of classmates who support them with laughter, smiles, and remarks. But as soon as such a teenager is left alone with a teacher, loses the support of his comrades, his manner of communication changes dramatically. People react differently to the social situation of communication depending on their personal characteristics, on the practice of communication. Psychologists have established that the manner (dynamics) of communication determines temperament, which is expressed in sociability (non-sociability) as a property of character. People who are sociable in any situation find an adequate manner of communication. They quickly navigate the situation, find a topic, ways of contact. Unsociable people feel constrained, especially in an unusual situation for themselves. If the social situation of communication turns out to be wide, if the contacts of a given person are in the field of view of a large number of people, then for unsociable people it can be overwhelming, and sometimes even disorganizing. A person in this situation says and does not what is planned in advance, taking into account the requirements of the situation. On the other hand, the social situation of communication serves as a condition and factor in the development and formation of sociability as a personality trait. Consistently engaging in a narrow, and then in a wide situation of communication, a person acquires a skill, which, gradually turning into a habit, becomes the property of the individual. 28. Interpersonal relations in groups and collectives. The concept of psychological incompatibility In groups and collectives there are relationships and relationships. Attitude - this is the position of the individual to everything that surrounds her, and to herself. Relationship - the mutual position of one person to another or to the community. Unlike relationships, relationships are constantly feedback. Between communication, on the one hand, and attitude - relationship - on the other, there is a certain correlation. Relationship and relationship are aspects of communication. Distinguish business и personal relationships. Business ones are created in the course of fulfilling official duties, regulated by the charter, instructions, resolution. When forming a group, the functions of its members are determined. There are several types of business dependency: 1) business relations of equality: group members perform similar functions, have the same rights and obligations; 2) business relationship of subordination: in them, one person, according to the document, occupies a position obliging him to outline for another the object of the application of efforts, methods of implementation, to exercise control, to accept execution. Another person recognizes and fulfills the instructions of the document, although they do not come from the document, but from a person with powers vested in him; 3) personal relationships arise on the basis of psychological motives: sympathy, commonality of views, interests, complementarity (complementing each other), hostility, etc. In personal relationships, documents are not valid. Relationships can end as soon as the psychological motives that gave rise to them disappear. The system of personal relationships is expressed in such categories as friendship, comradeship, love, hatred, alienation. In the process of communication, there are several options for the correlation of business and personal relationships: 1) positive alignment. In a group that does not have business conflicts between group members, good personal relationships contribute to the successful completion of the task at hand. Under the influence of positive personal relationships, business relationships become less formal, but the differences between them remain; 2) strained business relationships and unfriendly personal ones. This is a pre-conflict situation. It can arise in relationships of equality and subordination. The causes of complications may be different, but the way out of the conflict situation should not be due to disruption of the business activity of the group; 3) neutral business and just as personal. Neutral is understood as such a relationship in which both parties do not go beyond the instructions. 29. The concept of conflict Word "conflict" means collision. The causes of collisions can be a variety of problems in our lives. The conflict is essentially one of the types of social interaction, the subjects and participants of which are individual individuals, large and small social groups. However, conflict interaction involves the confrontation of the parties, i.e., actions directed against each other. The conflict is based on subjective-objective contradictions, but these two phenomena (contradictions and conflict) should not be identified. Controversy can escalate into conflict. Therefore, it must be borne in mind that the conflict is based only on those contradictions caused by incompatible interests, needs and values. Such contradictions, as a rule, are transformed into an open struggle of the parties, into a real confrontation. The confrontation can be more or less intense. Intensity, according to R. Dahrendorf, means the energy invested by the participants and at the same time the social importance of individual conflicts. The form of clashes - violent or non-violent - depends on many factors, including whether there are real conditions for non-violent conflict resolution and what goals the subjects of confrontation pursue. So, конфликт - this is an open confrontation, a clash of two or more subjects and participants in social interaction, the causes of which are incompatible needs, interests and values. Also in psychology, conflict is defined as "a collision of oppositely directed, incompatible tendencies, a single episode in consciousness, in interpersonal interactions or interpersonal relationships of individuals or groups of people, associated with negative emotional experiences." There is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon, that it should be avoided as far as possible and that it should be resolved immediately as soon as it arises. This attitude is clearly seen in the works of authors belonging to the school of scientific management, the administrative school and sharing the concept of bureaucracy according to Weber. These approaches to organizational effectiveness relied more on the definition of tasks, procedures, rules, interactions between officials and the development of a rational organizational structure. It was believed that such mechanisms largely eliminated the conditions conducive to conflict and could be used to resolve emerging problems. 30. Social functions of the conflict Conflict has both positive and negative functions. Consider some positive functions of conflict: 1) the conflict reveals and resolves the contradictions that arise in relations between people and thereby contributes to social development. Timely identification and resolution of the conflict can prevent more serious conflicts leading to dire consequences; 2) in an open society, the conflict performs the functions of stabilizing and integrating intragroup and intergroup relations, reduces social tension; 3) the conflict greatly increases the intensity of ties and relationships, stimulates social processes, gives society dynamism, encourages creativity and innovation; 4) in a state of conflict, people are more clearly aware of both their own and opposing interests, more fully reveal the existence of objective problems and contradictions of social development; 5) the conflict contributes to obtaining information about the surrounding social environment, about the ratio of the power potential of competing formations; 6) external conflict promotes intra-group integration and identification, strengthens the unity of the group, nation, society, mobilizes internal resources. It also helps to find friends and allies and reveals enemies and ill-wishers; 7) internal conflicts (in a group of organizations, societies) perform the following functions: a) creating and maintaining a balance of power (including power); b) social control over the observance of generally accepted norms, rules, values; c) creation of new social norms, institutions and renewal of existing ones; d) adaptation and socialization of individuals and groups; e) group formation, establishment and maintenance of a relatively stable structure of intra-group and inter-group relations; f) identification of informal leaders; g) reveals the positions, interests and goals of the participants and thereby contributes to a balanced solution of emerging problems. The conflict brings negative features, when: 1) it leads to disorder and instability; 2) society is unable to ensure peace and order; 3) the struggle is carried out by violent methods; 4) the consequences of the conflict are large material and moral losses; 5) there is a threat to the life and health of people. Most emotional conflicts and, in particular, conflicts arising from the socio-psychological incompatibility of people can be attributed to the negative ones. Conflicts that make it difficult to make the necessary decisions are also considered negative. A protracted positive conflict can also have negative consequences. 31. Intrapersonal conflict Intrapersonal conflicts can be conditionally designated as conflicts "between what is and what I would like to have." Such a conflict can be represented as a struggle between positive and negative tendencies in the psyche of one subject. There are options when trends contain both positive and negative points at the same time. In one person, several mutually exclusive needs, goals, values, and interests can simultaneously exist. Intrapersonal conflict is social. Situations that cause intrapersonal conflicts include: 1) conflicts of values; 2) conflicts between value and norm; 3) conflicts between value and need, etc. One of the types of intrapersonal conflicts is an unconscious internal conflict. It is based on conflict situations, which we have already forgotten about. The reason for the resumption of an unconscious intrapersonal conflict may be circumstances similar to a past unresolved situation. Conflicted people, according to V. I. Speransky, can be divided into two groups: conflicting и conflictogenic. The first group includes permanent opponents of the existing state of affairs. They are not so much interested in the search for truth as their own position. The second group includes people with high self-esteem, the ability to ingratiate themselves. However, they are not able to maintain long-term friendly contacts and work conscientiously. Conflictogenic personalities most often become a source of emotional conflicts. If a way out of the conflict is not found, and the increase in tension exceeds a certain threshold value, then a psychological breakdown occurs. The positive effect of conflict is as follows: 1) the attractiveness of an unreachable goal is enhanced; 2) the presence of an obstacle contributes to the mobilization of forces and means to overcome it; 3) intrapersonal conflict contributes to an increase in the body's resistance to stress; 4) positively resolved problems build character. Each person should be able to manage their conflict: use it only in necessary cases, when it is not possible to solve their problems by other means; direct conflict activity in the right direction, at the right time and in adequate proportions; restrain their "excessive" conflict and use it in other areas of life for the benefit of themselves and others. In addition, it is necessary to allocate an appropriate place to the conflict (not to dramatize) and be able to extract certain benefits from the conflict situation (for example, useful experience). 32. Interpersonal conflict Interpersonal conflicts can be divided into the following types: 1) rivalry - the desire for dominance; 2) dispute - disagreement about finding the best solution to problems; 3) discussion - discussion of the controversial issue. The key to successful communication is conformity of the behavior of interacting people with the expectations of each other. The social significance of the conflict is different and depends on the values underlying interpersonal relationships. In joint activities, the causes of conflicts can be two kinds of determinants: subject-business disagreements and the divergence of personal-pragmatic interests. The reason for the emergence of conflicts is also unsurpassed semantic barriers in communication, which impede the establishment of interaction between those who communicate. The semantic barrier in communication is the discrepancy between the meanings of the stated requirement for partners in communication. In works A. P. Leontieva the concept of personal meaning is deeply analyzed. One and the same word, action, circumstance can have a different meaning for different people. In any communication situation, an understanding of the strategy and tactics of the partner's behavior according to the situation is required. Moreover, if the interaction strategy is determined by the social activity performed, the interaction tactics are determined by the direct idea of the partner. In the unity of these two points, a real situation of interaction is created. From the point of view E. Berne in every person there are three "I": Child (dependent, subordinate and irresponsible being); Parent (on the contrary, independent, insubordinate and taking responsibility) and Adult (who knows how to reckon with the situation, understand the interests of others and distribute responsibility between himself and them). "I" in the form of a Child arises in childhood; at the same age, through imitation, the parental "I" is formed; "I" in the form of an adult is formed due to the life experience of the subject. The essence of E. Berne's theory is that when the role positions of communication partners are agreed, their act of interaction gives both a sense of satisfaction. If a positive emotion is present in advance in communication, E. Berne calls such interaction "stroking". When coordinating positions, people exchange strokes. The content of the contact can be very diverse in terms of the role positions of the partners, and it can be decisive how correctly the position is chosen. What position we take in contact also determines the range of psychological roles. 33. Conflict between the individual and the group The social group reflects the diversity of society. Therefore, in it, to one degree or another, a wide variety of types of conflicts can take place. The most characteristic of these is the conflict between the group and the member of the group. At the heart of such conflicts, as a rule, are attempts to change within the group and outside it. Even if the majority of group members understand the need for these changes and approve of them, individual members of the group, for one reason or another, may find themselves in opposition and even leave the group. The very membership of the individual in the group is conflict. On the one hand, a person needs others to realize his personal goals and interests, and on the other hand, he is forced to obey group norms and requirements that do not always correspond to his personal plans and desires. Therefore, the violation of group norms is the most characteristic cause of intra-group conflicts. We can identify the main reasons why a group member violates group norms and requirements: 1) pursuing their personal goals; 2) accidentally or because they have not yet fully mastered these norms; 3) the individual is not able to fulfill the requirements prescribed by the group. There are a number of reasons underlying the conflict between the individual and the group: 1) the expectations of the individual are contrary to the expectations of the group; 2) contradictions between the individual and the group in terms of goals, values, interests, positions, etc.; 3) the struggle to improve their status in the group; 4) conflict between the governing bodies and the informal group; 5) search and finding the real and imaginary culprit of failures. An attempt to change one's place in the group generates structural or status-role changes. Such changes may be due to role conflicts that arise due to the discrepancy between the role accepted (voluntarily or under pressure) by a member of the group with group norms or expectations. Most often, such conflicts occur when a vacant position is occupied by a new member of the group. Adaptation and socialization are always fraught with conflicts. First, the requirements of the group for newcomers, as a rule, are too high. Secondly, the new member of the group usually does not fully own all the intricacies of intra-group interaction. Structural and status-role changes can also be associated with a change in group goals and activities that involve a redistribution of roles, functions, means, rights, duties, responsibilities and power. 34. Characteristics of intergroup conflicts Intergroup conflicts are a clash of separate groups about the emergence of conflict contradictions between them. Intergroup interaction is based on such concepts as social identity and social comparison. These concepts presuppose the division of people into "us" and "them", the separation of one's own group (we-groups) from the general mass of other groups (outgroups). Through comparison and opposition, individual individuals identify themselves with a certain social community and ensure the relative stability of intra-group relations. Assigning oneself to a group A. Rapoport, generates a negative image "even if there is no real clash of interests and any long history of intergroup relations." The peculiarities of the intergroup conflict also include the fact that they contribute to the strengthening of intragroup ties and relations, the unification of all members of the group to fight the external enemy. The phenomenon of unity in the face of an external threat is often used by leaders of groups and large social communities to maintain intra-group unity and strengthen their personal power. To the greatest extent, such a policy is inherent in closed groups with an authoritarian management system. In open groups with democratic methods of management, intra-group balance is largely maintained due to the multiplicity of conflict situations and the presence of various methods and mechanisms for their resolution. "In conditions of structural flexibility, heterogeneous internal conflicts are constantly superimposed on each other, thereby preventing a global split of the group in any one direction." The interaction of different groups in society can be built on different grounds. Groups may maintain relative neutrality with respect to each other; can cooperate on the basis of division and addition of functions in joint activities; can wage an irreconcilable struggle to destroy each other. In market conditions, the strategy and tactics of individual and group survival objectively presuppose intergroup competition and struggle for various types of resources. This struggle is especially aggravated during periods of socio-political, economic and socio-cultural changes, when norms, values, attitudes towards power, property and moral principles change. During such periods, the intergroup struggle for the distribution and redistribution of resources turns into an open "war of all against all" without rules and morality. 35. Basic interpersonal conflict resolution styles C. Thomas indicates that there are five basic styles of behavior in conflict: accommodation, compromise, cooperation, avoidance, rivalry, or competition. Style competition can be used if: 1) the outcome of the conflict is very important; 2) there is sufficient power, and the proposed solution is the best; 3) there is no other choice and nothing to lose; 4) an unpopular decision needs to be made, but there is enough authority to choose this step; 5) subordinates, prefer an authoritarian style. Style cooperation can be used if there is a need to take into account the needs and desires of the other party. The purpose of its application is to develop a long-term mutually beneficial solution. This style can be used to resolve a conflict in the following situations: 1) it is necessary to find a common solution, and a compromise is impossible; 2) you have a strong and interdependent relationship with the other party; 3) the main goal is to acquire joint work experience; 4) the parties are able to listen to each other; 5) it is necessary to strengthen the personal involvement of employees in activities. Essence of style compromise lies in the fact that the parties seek to resolve differences in mutual concessions. This approach to conflict resolution can be used in the following situations: 1) the parties have convincing arguments and have equal authority; 2) the satisfaction of one's desire is not very important; 3) the possibility of a temporary solution; 4) the opportunity to get at least something. Style evasion implemented when the problem is not so important and there is no desire to spend time on its solution. The avoidance style can be recommended in the following situations: 1) the source of disagreement is not significant; 2) there is no way to resolve the issue in their favor; 3) little power to solve the problem in the desired way; 4) the opportunity to gain time before making any decision; 5) the impossibility of resolving the issue immediately; 6) subordinates themselves can successfully resolve the conflict. Style adaptations involves joint action with the other side, without trying to defend their own interests. A fixture style is used when: 1) it is necessary to restore stability; 2) the subject of the disagreement is not important; 3) there is a desire to maintain good relations with people; 4) there is an awareness of the falsity of one's position; 5) there is a lack of power or a chance to win. Successful conflict resolution requires that both parties or at least one show a desire to resolve the conflict. 36. Conditions for the mental development of a person The essence of personality, as we know, is social in nature. The sources of its development are in the environment. The process of personality development in this sense is the process of assimilation of social experience by a person, which occurs in communication with people. As a result of this, the mental characteristics of a person are formed: his character, volitional traits, interests, inclinations and abilities. Psychology believes that the mental characteristics of a person are a lifetime, ontogenetic formation; the leading, decisive role in their formation is played by the social experience of a person, the conditions of his life and activity, training and education. The environment (in the broad sense of the word), purposeful training and upbringing form the psychological characteristics of a person, and are not just a condition for the manifestation of something originally given, genetically strictly determined. At the same time, the special role of the influence of the older generation on the younger in order to form certain personality traits is noted. Man is an active, active being, and not a passive object of environmental influences. Therefore, external influences determine the human psyche not directly, but through the process of interaction between a person and the environment. At the same time, it is more correct to speak not about the impact of the environment, but about the process of active interaction of a person with the environment. The development of the psyche is ultimately determined by external conditions, external influences. However, this development cannot be directly derived from external conditions and circumstances that always pass through a person's life experience, through his personality, individual mental characteristics, his mental make-up. In this sense, external influence is refracted through internal conditions, which include the uniqueness of the individual's psyche, his personal experience. More I. M. Sechenov, putting forward the thesis about the determinism of human behavior by external influences, he warned against a simplified understanding of external influences as only cash, currently acting influences, while in fact it is necessary to take into account the totality of previous influences that accumulate in the life experience of a given person. Thirdly, a person as an active being can himself consciously change his own personality, that is, engage in self-education, self-improvement. The process of self-education is motivated by the environment, in the process of active interaction with which it occurs. So here, too, the influence of the environment is indirect. 37. The influence of natural features on the mental development of a person The same external conditions, the same environment can have different effects on a person. The laws of the mental development of a young person are complex because mental development itself is a process of complex and contradictory changes, because the factors influencing this development are multifaceted and diverse. Man, as you know, is a natural being. Natural, biological prerequisites are necessary for human development. A certain level of biological organization, the human brain, and nervous system are needed to make it possible to form the mental characteristics of a person. The natural features of a person become important prerequisites for mental development, but only prerequisites, and not driving forces, factors of mental development. The brain as a biological formation is a prerequisite for the emergence of consciousness, but consciousness is a product of human social existence. The nervous system has innate organic foundations for reflecting the surrounding world. But only in activity, in the conditions of social life, the corresponding ability is formed. A natural prerequisite for the development of abilities is the presence of inclinations - some innate anatomical and physiological qualities of the brain and nervous system, but the presence of inclinations does not yet guarantee the development of abilities that are formed and developed under the influence of living conditions and activities, training and education of a person. Natural features have a sufficient influence on the mental development of a person. First, they determine different ways and means of development of mental properties. By themselves, they do not determine any mental properties. No child is naturally "disposed" to cowardice or boldness. On the basis of any type of nervous system, with the right education, you can develop the necessary qualities. Only in one case it will be more difficult to do than in the other. Secondly, natural features can influence the level and height of human achievement in any area. For example, there are inborn individual differences in inclinations, in connection with which some people may have an advantage over others in terms of mastering any kind of activity. For example, a child who has favorable natural inclinations for the development of musical abilities will, all other things being equal, develop musically faster and achieve greater success than a child who does not have such inclinations. The factors and conditions of the mental development of the personality were named. 38. Driving forces of human mental development The driving forces of human mental development are complex and diverse. The direct driving forces behind the development of the child are the contradictions between the new and the old, which arise and are overcome in the process of education, upbringing and activity. Such contradictions include, for example, contradictions between new needs generated by activity and the possibilities of their satisfaction; contradictions between the increased physical and spiritual needs and the old established forms of relationships and activities; between the growing demands from society, the collective, adults and the current level of mental development. These contradictions are typical for all ages, but acquire specificity depending on the age at which they appear. For example, in a junior schoolchild there is a contradiction between readiness for independent volitional activity and the dependence of behavior on the current situation or direct experiences. For a teenager, the most acute contradictions are between his self-esteem and the level of claims, on the one hand, and the experience of relations with him from others, as well as the experience of his real position in the team, on the other; the contradiction between the need to participate in the team; the contradiction between the need to participate in the life of adults as a full member and the discrepancy to this of one's own capabilities. The resolution of these contradictions occurs through the formation of higher levels of mental activity. As a result, the child moves to a higher level of mental development. The need is satisfied - the contradiction is removed. But a satisfied need creates a new need. One contradiction is replaced by another - development continues. Mental development cannot be reduced to the fact that with age the amount of attention increases, development is not a process of only quantitative changes, properties and qualities. Mental development is also not limited to the fact that with age the amount of attention, the arbitrariness of mental processes, semantic memorization, and so on increase, children's fantasy, impulsiveness in behavior, sharpness and freshness of perception decrease. The development of the psyche is associated with the appearance in certain age periods of qualitatively new features, the so-called "new formations" (a sense of adulthood in adolescents, the need for life and labor self-determination in early adolescence). 39. Patterns of the mental development of a person In psychology, there are general trends, patterns of mental development. So, under any, even the most favorable conditions of training and education, various mental functions, mental manifestations and mental properties of a person are not at the same level of development. In certain periods of a child's development, the most favorable conditions arise for the development of the psyche in one direction or another, and some of these conditions are of a temporary, transitory nature. Apparently, there are optimal terms for the formation and growth of certain types of mental activity. Such age periods, when the conditions for the development of certain mental properties and qualities will be the most optimal, are called sensitive. (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev). The reason for this sensitivity is both the regularities of the organic maturation of the brain and the fact that some mental processes and properties can be formed only on the basis of other formed mental processes and properties (for example, mathematical thinking can be formed on the basis of the ability to abstract thinking that has formed to a certain extent), and life experience. For example, for the development of speech, the period from 1 to 5 years is sensitive, for the formation of motor skills - primary school age, for the formation of mathematical thinking - 15-20 years. Another pattern is the integration of the psyche. As the human psyche develops, it acquires more and more value, unity, stability, constancy. Little child, according to N. D. Levitova, mentally, it is a poorly systematized combination of mental states. Mental development is the gradual development of mental states into personality traits. The third pattern is plasticity and the possibility of compensation. The greatest plasticity of the nervous system was indicated by I. P. Pavlov, noting that everything can be changed for the better, if only the appropriate actions are carried out. This plasticity is the basis for the possibility of a purposeful change in the psyche of a child, a schoolchild in the conditions of education and upbringing. Plasticity opens up opportunities and compensations: with weakness or defective development of one mental function, other functions develop intensively. For example, weak memory can be compensated for by the organization and clarity of activity, visual defects are partly compensated by the heightened development of the auditory analyzer, etc. 40. Stages of human mental development Child development is a complex dialectical process. In psychology, the following periods of development of a child and a schoolchild are distinguished: newborn (up to 10 days), infancy (up to 1 year), early childhood (1-3 years), pre-preschool (3-5 years), preschool (5-7 years), junior school age (7-11 years old), adolescence (11-15 years old), early adolescence or senior school age (15-18 years old). The age characteristic is determined by a change in the position of the child in the family and school, a change in the forms of education and upbringing, new forms of activity and some features of the maturation of his body, that is, age is not only a biological, but also a social category. In this regard, in psychology there is a concept of the leading type of activity. Each age is characterized by different types of activity, there is a need for each of its types: in the game, teaching, work, communication. The leading type of activity is that type of activity that, at a given stage of development, at a given age stage, causes the main, most important changes in the psyche of a child, a schoolchild, in his mental processes and mental properties of a person. For preschool age, the leading activity is the game. At school age, teaching and play lose their leading importance. With age, the role of labor activity increases. And the educational activity itself is undergoing significant changes. During the 10-11-year period of schooling, its content and nature change, the requirements for the student increase every year, the independent, creative side of his educational activity plays an increasingly important role. Within each age, large individual differences are observed as a result, firstly, of individual variants of living conditions, activities and upbringing, and, secondly, natural individual differences (in particular, in the typological properties of the nervous system). The specific conditions of life are very diverse, as well as the individual characteristics of the individual. Therefore, we can say that age characteristics, although they exist as fairly typical for a given age, are subject to revision from time to time in connection with the so-called acceleration (acceleration) of development. All this makes the characterization of age features conditional and unstable, although age features exist as the most typical, most characteristic general features of age, indicating the general direction of development. 41. The crisis of "three years" in a preschool child The objective action of the child is the joint action of the child and the adult, in which the element of assistance is the leading one. Even before the child's active speech begins, it is this assistance of the adult that performs the function of communication and guidance. It is expressed not only in the display of the object, but also in the constancy of evaluative influences on the child. Already in the second year of life, the child learns to walk independently; in the third year, the child's movements (running, walking, climbing) become more perfect and coordinated. With proper upbringing, by the age of three, a child can eat, wash, etc. on his own. Speech becomes the main means of communication between the child and adults. Leadership by adults is becoming increasingly verbal. The ability to separate yourself from your actions appears. An adult, his manners and actions become a subject for imitation. These advances in the development of the child in the third year of life make him more independent. The manifestation of independence is not only in what the child can really do without the help of adults, but also in areas that are not yet available to the child. This finds expression in the words "I myself." The emergence of a desire for independence means the emergence of a new form of desires that do not directly coincide with the desires of adults, which, in particular, is confirmed by the persistent "I want." Psychologists note the manifestations of selfishness, jealousy, stubbornness, negativism and "depreciation" that arise in the child during this period. Psychologists believe that stubbornness arises when a child's freedom is infringed, that is, when his independence and initiative are limited. There are several types of stubbornness. If exactingness significantly exceeds the level of respect, then stubbornness of the “offended” type arises; when exactingness is very small, then stubbornness of the "mind" type is ascertained. A situation is also possible in which no demands are made on the child and no respect is shown - then this is a case of stubbornness of "neglect". Stubbornness does not arise, and development proceeds normally, without any conflicts, when there is a balance between exactingness and respect. A. N. Leontiev noted that in reality crises are not inevitable companions of a child's mental development. A crisis is evidence of a break, a shift that did not take place on time and in the right direction. There may not be a crisis, because the mental development of a child is not a spontaneous process, but is a reasonably controlled process - controlled upbringing. 42. Theories of the development of social instinct in a child In the development of a child in early childhood, a tendency to independence arises, behind which lies not only a separation of oneself from one's actions, but also a separation of oneself from an adult. The emergence of personal desires restructures the objective action into a volitional one. In the transitional period from early childhood to the preschool period, desires take the form of affect, the child is at the mercy of his desires. Cases of negativism are clearly manifested, when the child continues to insist on his own, despite the offer by adults of a more attractive subject. During this period, the prerequisites for the development of personality occur. In a work devoted to the first year of a child's life, J. Piaget comes to the assumption that the infant is inherent in absolute egocentrism, which in psychology is defined as "solipsism of the first year." According to Piaget, social life and logical thought develop beyond the boundaries of preschool age. Piaget sees the roots of egocentrism in the egocentric nature of his activity. The sphere of play is more real for the child than the sphere of reality. The struggle of these spheres is an expression of the struggle of the initially biological in the child with the social imposed on him from outside. Many domestic psychologists (for example, L. S. Vygotsky), on the contrary, they believe that already in the earliest periods of life, the child is extremely closely connected with adults. Specific reactions to caring adults (human face and voice) occur at the end of the second month of life. Piaget believed that the social instinct develops by the age of 7-8, Vygotsky spoke about the initial sociality of the child and considered development as a movement from sociality to individuality. Modern psychologists agree with Vygotsky's statement only in the first part, but the process of development of his personality is understood somewhat differently. The child throughout his development is a social being. Each stage of independence associated with the assimilation of social experience is not a weakening of ties with society, not a weakening of sociality, but only a qualitative change in its form. At every stage of its development, the child is connected with society by the closest ties. Without these connections, it cannot exist. The original theory of the development of a child's personality in preschool age was proposed by L. S. Vygotsky, who believed that the most significant thing in the development of a child and his consciousness lies not in isolated changes in individual functions (attention, memory, thinking), but in development as a whole. This growth and development, according to Vysogotsky, is primarily reflected in the fact that the relationship between individual functions is changing. 43. Development of relations between an adult and a child The most important feature of preschool age is that memory is placed at the center of consciousness. First of all, the child's thinking changes: it acquires the ability to act in terms of general ideas. First consequence abstract thinking significantly expands the range of ideas and generalizations available to the child. Second consequence - restructuring the interests and needs of the child. There is the first effective generalization, substitution and switching of interests. Third corollary - the child moves to new types of activity with a peculiar relationship of thought and action. There is an opportunity to go from the idea to its implementation. Finally, at preschool age, the child develops initial general ideas about nature, about himself, and the first outline of the child's worldview appears. L. S. Vygotsky connects this with the fact that preschool age is deprived of childhood amnesia, characteristic of early ages. A. N. Leontiev believed that each stage of mental development is due to a certain, at this stage, the child's attitude to reality, the leading type of activity. A change in the leading type of activity is associated with the emergence of new motives. A characteristic feature of activity that occurs in preschool age is that it is motivated by a system of mutually subordinate motives. From the end of early childhood there is a disintegration of the joint activity of the child with adults. In contrast to early childhood, when there are no intermediate personal-motivational links between the situation and the child's actions, tendencies towards independence appear at the turn of early and preschool age, and the adult stands out as a model. The subordination of motives, which Leontiev speaks of, is an expression of collisions between the tendency to direct action and action according to a model. Three types of activities can be distinguished, including the presence of an adult. First, a game in which the relationship between a child and an adult is given in an indirect form. Secondly, classes in which an adult directs activities through the meaning of the proposed tasks and their evaluation. Thirdly, the activity associated with the implementation of various regime moments, in which the relationship between the child and the teacher is given in a direct form. The development of relations between an adult and a child leads, by the end of the preschool period, to the identification and recognition by the child of the specific functions of an adult and his own specific duties. There is an awareness of the role of the teacher and his social function - to learn. 44. Psychological characteristics of a child in primary school age Entering school is a turning point in a child's life as the leading activity changes. The child is included in a whole system of collectives. Inclusion in the teaching forces the student to submit his life to a strict organization and regime. The moral consciousness of younger schoolchildren undergoes significant changes from grade I to grade IV. If the moral judgments of students in grades are based on the experience of their own behavior, on specific instructions and explanations of the teacher and parents, which children often repeat without always thinking, then students in grades III-V, in addition, try to analyze the experience of other people. Unlike children of 7-8 years old, students of grades III-IV are much more able to perform moral actions on their own initiative. The characterological manifestations of younger schoolchildren are distinguished by inconsistency and instability. Sometimes temporary mental states can be mistaken for character traits. In the behavior of younger schoolchildren, typological features of higher nervous activity are more clearly and transparently manifested, which are later overlapped by the usual forms of behavior that has developed in life. But the nervous system, as pointed out I. P. Pavlov, very plastic and capable of some changes under the influence of external influences. Younger students are impulsive. The reason for this is the need for active external discharge. Another age feature is a general lack of will. Character flaws common at a young age - capriciousness and stubbornness - are explained by the shortcomings of family education. This is a protest against the need to sacrifice what is "wanted" in the name of what is "necessary". An important age feature is imitation. This, on the one hand, makes it possible to cultivate socially valuable personality traits, and on the other hand, it is fraught with some danger. The pliability and well-known suggestibility of schoolchildren, their gullibility, their tendency to imitate - all this is necessary for support in education. By the beginning of training in grade III, the ability to volitionally regulate one's behavior gradually develops. Pupils of grades III and especially IV are capable, as a result of the struggle of motives, to give preference to the motive of duty. Sustainable needs in connection with the habitual and sustainable way of their implementation are the qualities of the individual. Going to school means changing position, mastering a new social role. For children, learning at school is the acquisition of a new social position. 45. Problems of self-esteem in children of primary school age If a child, especially a junior school student, encounters failure, inadequate, low self-esteem is easily formed in him. A child with such self-esteem is afraid of failure, of those experiences that are associated with it. Self-esteem is formed under the influence of assessments of others and the results of their own activities. As self-esteem develops, it begins to actively influence the behavior of the child. The need for a certain self-esteem that satisfies a person is the basis of his level of claims. After the level of aspirations of the child has developed, he compares each assessment of adults with his own self-assessment. Thus, the existing self-esteem and the level of claims begin to mediate the child's attitude towards other people. The formation of a child's personality largely depends on how the relationship develops between his self-esteem and claims, on the one hand, and his real achievements, on the other. Requirements for oneself, claims and self-esteem may turn out to be lower than the real achievements of the child, and then in the process of development he does not realize his capabilities. It may also happen that claims will require the exertion of all forces and this will lead to the intensive development of all the abilities of the child. Students, on the one hand, are acutely experiencing failure, and on the other hand, they ignore it, choosing more difficult tasks. The reaction of younger students to failure is aggressive. In no case do they admit their weakness, what they claim to be. The need to maintain high self-esteem causes such a student to react sharply to everything and everyone who somehow reveals his failure to him. This state is called the affect of inadequacy. This unpleasant, difficult emotional state is the result of increased claims that do not coincide with opportunities, that is, the result of the fact that stable self-esteem is higher than real achievements, than the assessment that the child receives from others. The affect of inadequacy performs a certain protective function. It protects the child from traumatic influences. Thus, the affect of inadequacy helps to maintain self-esteem, that attitude towards oneself, which ensures self-esteem. Affective states are often found in younger students. However, at this age, such conditions are still unstable and pass quickly. The problem is particularly acute in relation to adolescents. 46. Driving forces of adolescent personality development Adolescence is considered the most difficult for education and upbringing. The transition from childhood to adulthood is taking place, there is a serious restructuring of the psyche, a change in the conditions of life and activity. Psychology has established that the driving forces behind the development of a teenager are the contradictions between the new needs generated by his activity and the possibility of satisfying them; between the increased physical, intellectual and moral capabilities of the adolescent and the old, pre-established forms of his relationship with the surrounding old types and levels of his activity; between the growing demands on the teenager from society, adults, the team and the current forms of behavior of the teenager. These contradictions are resolved through the formation of a higher level of mental development, more complex forms and activities, a number of new personality traits. As a result, the transition of a teenager to a higher stage of mental development is carried out. With the transition to education in the middle classes, the content of education changes. And this requires adolescents to have a higher level of mental activity. The old forms of teaching and learning activities come into conflict with new needs and tasks. A new socially organized and stimulated activity of a teenager is the basis for the development of his psyche, his personality. The content characteristics of adolescence change over time, because the biological and especially social conditions of human existence change. The scale of the ongoing restructuring is significant and concerns the body, self-awareness, ways of social interaction, interests, cognitive and educational activities, and moral positions. The main factor in the development of the personality of a teenager is his own social activity, aimed at entering the world of adults. The trigger mechanism of this process is the transition to the final stage of maturation of the body. Its restructuring begins with the activation of the pituitary gland, its anterior lobe, the hormones of which stimulate tissue growth and the functioning of the endocrine glands. This hidden hormonal restructuring causes the “growth spurt” characteristic of a teenager and puberty, leading to the emergence of new sensations, feelings, experiences. Acceleration of physical development shifts these processes in girls from 11-12 years old to 9-10 years old, in boys from 13-15 years old to 12-13 years old. The timing of the onset of puberty and its completion are different not only in children of different sexes, but even within the same sex. 47. Stages of psychological development of a teenager's personality In adolescence, there is an uneven development of individual organs and systems, accompanied by functional disorders, poor health and fatigue. Mental and physical stress, especially strong emotional experiences can cause functional disorders in the activity of the cardiovascular system, the endocrine system, and this in turn leads to a general imbalance of the teenager, his irritability. The disproportionate development of bones and muscles leads to clumsiness and angularity. All the changes that are taking place are realized by teenagers and are deeply experienced. Such experiences can be exacerbated by the emergence of interest in the opposite sex. In grades V-VI, girls noticeably overtake boys in development, who can only manifest themselves in a childish way. In grades VII-VIII, spontaneity disappears, mutual affection manifests itself very emotionally. Interest in peers of the opposite sex has a certain attention to the development of the individual: conditions are created for mobilizing the capabilities of the individual in connection with the desire to become better, more attentive, more caring. Communication stands out as a separate, very important sphere of life for a teenager. At the same time, tendencies to communicate and desire to be accepted and respected are manifested. Adolescents who are not accepted in their educational or other community often seek recognition in others, including antisocial groups. By personality, the younger teenager is a social activist. Children are attracted by the collective way of life and activity. In any event, they prefer to be doers, not contemplators, to show activity, independence, and initiative. The relationship of a teenager with adults (parents, teachers) is undergoing serious changes. The teenager extends his new rights primarily to the sphere of relations with them. He begins to resist the categorical demands of adults, protests against the restriction of his independence, all sorts of guardianship, petty control, treating him like a little one. He demands to take into account his interests, attitudes, opinions, although they are not always sufficiently reasonable and mature. Expanding their rights to independence, respect for the individual, a teenager in most cases does not have the opportunity to take on new responsibilities. The contradiction that has arisen between the need to show independence and the real possibilities of its implementation acts as a conflict-forming factor. 48. Personality formation Formation of a teenager's personality - the process is complex and ambiguous: pedagogical influence, as a rule, occurs with an active subject of self-education. Among the first are external models of adulthood. Fitting one's appearance to existing patterns, instead of developing taste, produces the same faces and uniforms, and the assimilation of what is considered popular without understanding, makes it a formally accepted personal criterion for evaluation and self-esteem, gives rise to lack of spirituality. Behavior, appearance - a kind of calling card of a person, an indicator of his culture and an important condition for internal comfort. The tendency to imitate is characteristic of a person of any age, but teenagers especially show this tendency. They imitate not only external models, but also their internal content. For boys, for example, the standard of a "real" man is popular. This standard includes, on the one hand, strength, will, courage, endurance, and on the other, loyalty to friendship and comrades. In this set, the most significant quality is strength. In order to win the respect of his comrades, a teenager not only demonstrates it (sports, wrestling, fighting, etc.), but often exaggerates the degree of his involvement in the manifestation of the qualities of masculinity. Hence the well-known boastfulness of a teenager. The transition to serious studies in a particular area and the implementation of the acquired knowledge in the activity puts the teenager before the need for self-assessment of his compliance with the requirements of the activity and self-improvement. In this regard, the adolescent turns to thinking about his shortcomings and merits, but it is still difficult for him to solve these issues on his own due to the lack of both sufficiently clear assessment criteria and psychological knowledge. For older adolescents, the desire for self-education is characteristic, but it is concentrated, concentrated around behavioral moments (regulation of one's reactions, actions, lesson planning, etc.). Especially often the task of self-education of the will is set, although disorganization most often depends on the lack of disorganization, the ability and desire to work systematically. To teach this means to give a teenager a key, a tool for self-education and self-development. The formation of a teenager's personality largely depends on how the relationship between his claims, self-esteem and his real opportunities to satisfy his claims, justify his self-esteem will develop in the process of his life and upbringing. 49. The value of the ratio of claims and self-esteem in the formation of the child's personality These relationships can develop in different ways: the child's requirements for himself, his claims and self-esteem may turn out to be lower than his real and even potential possibilities, and then in the process of development he does not realize these possibilities. It may happen that the satisfaction of claims will require the exertion of all forces, and this will lead to an intensive development of abilities. Finally, it may turn out that the claims in some area or the general claims of the individual to a certain position in society or a team exceed his capabilities. In this case, as a rule, one's own experience, assessment by other people rebuild self-esteem and claims and bring them into line with the child's capabilities. However, a situation may arise when claims and self-esteem do not decrease, despite the experience of failures, and at the same time, the child cannot achieve success, raise his abilities to the level of his claims. There is a gap between the needs and aspirations of the child to meet them. These cases are accompanied by a severe emotional state, a feeling of constant dissatisfaction. One of the ways to maintain a certain attitude towards oneself, to maintain a high self-esteem is, as it were, impenetrability to experience. In this case, in order to maintain a habitual, satisfying attitude towards himself, the child ignores his failure, he develops an acute emotional repulsion, unconscious of himself, of everything that can knock him out of his usual position. The inadequacy of the attitude to reality becomes the defining feature of such a state. And it is she who, in turn, does not allow the teenager to overcome his failure. It would seem that, logically, the most radical way out of this state is to raise your achievements to the level of claims. However, this is precisely what does not happen even in those cases when a teenager could easily overcome his inability to work. But he goes down the line of ignoring failure. This whole complex of experiences gives the child an inner reason to be aggressive towards those people and circumstances that reveal to him and to other people his inconsistency. Such a situation and such a state is called the affect of inadequacy, which is typical for adolescents and has a strong influence on the formation of their personality, in particular, it affects both the formation of self-esteem and the orientation of the personality and, in the end, can lead to personality degradation. 50. Age stratification Periodization of the life path and ideas about the properties and capabilities of individuals of each age are closely related to the age stratification existing in society, that is, the system for organizing the interaction of age strata (strata). There is an interdependence between age and social abilities of an individual. Chronological age, or rather, the level of development of the individual assumed by him, directly or indirectly determines his social position, the nature of his activity, and the range of social roles. Age serves as a criterion for the occupation or abandonment of certain social roles. In some cases, the criteria are normative-legal (school age, civil age), in others - actual (for example, the average age of marriage). Age stratification also includes a system of age-related socio-psychological expectations and sanctions. On the one hand, in society there is a constant redistribution of individuals of certain ages according to the corresponding social systems and roles. It is determined by the objective needs of the social system, primarily by the social division of labor. On the other hand, there is a counter process of socialization, the essence of which lies in the assimilation by the individual at each stage of his life path. In this sense, preparation for retirement is just as necessary an element in the anticipatory socialization of older people as vocational guidance is in the anticipatory socialization of adolescents and young men. The new time brought important social and psychological changes. Physical, in particular puberty, maturation noticeably accelerated, forcing "reduce" the boundaries of adolescence. On the contrary, the complication of social and labor activities in which a person must participate has led to a lengthening of the need for training periods. Hence - the lengthening of the period of "role moratorium", when the young man "trying on" various adult roles. Word "generation" ambiguous. It means: 1) generation, a link in the chain from a common ancestor (the generation of "fathers and children" in contrast to the generation of "children"; 2) an age-homogeneous group, a cohort of peers born at the same time and forming a certain segment of the population; 3) a conditional period of time during which a given generation lives and acts; 4) contemporaries - people who were formed in certain socio-historical conditions, under the influence of some significant events and united by a common historical fate and experiences. 51. Characteristics of the age period of youth Adolescence, that is, the transition from childhood to adulthood, continues, according to Gesell, from 11 to 21 years, of which the first five years, i.e., from 11 to 16, are especially important. Ten years is the golden age when a child balanced, easily perceives life, trusting, equal with parents, cares little about appearance. At the age of 11, the restructuring of the body begins, the child becomes impulsive, negativism appears. At the age of 12, such "turbulence" passes, the attitude towards the world becomes more positive. The leading feature of the thirteen-year-old is turning inward, the teenager becomes more introverted; begins to be interested in psychology, is critical of parents; becomes more selective in friendship. At the age of 14, introversion is replaced by extraversion: a teenager is expansive, energetic, sociable, his self-confidence increases, as well as interest in people; he is fascinated by the word "personality", likes to compare himself with other people. The essence of a 15-year-old, according to psychologists, is difficult to express in a single formula, as individual differences are growing rapidly. Neoplasms of this age are the growth of the spirit of independence, which makes relations in the family and at school very tense, the thirst for freedom from external control is combined with the growth of self-control and the beginning of conscious self-education. At the age of 16, balance sets in again: rebelliousness gives way to cheerfulness, inner independence, emotional balance, sociability, and aspiration for the future increase. The concept of youth is closely related to the concept of the transitional period, the central biological process of which is puberty. In physiology, this process is conventionally divided into three phases: 1) prepubertal, preparatory period; 2) puberty, when the process of puberty is carried out; 3) the post-pubertal period, when the body reaches full puberty. If we combine this division with the usual age categories, the prepubertal period corresponds to the younger adolescence, puberty - adolescence, post-puberty - adolescence. The main aspects of physical maturation - skeletal maturity, the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, and the period of growth spurt - are closely related in both men and women. Adolescence and youthful age is always interpreted as a transitional, critical. In biology and psychophysiology, such phases of development are called critical or sensitive, when the body is characterized by increased sensitivity to some well-defined external and / or internal factors. 52. Problems of youthful self-determination Since sensitive periods and social transitions are accompanied by psychological tension and restructuring, there is a special concept in developmental psychology age crises. Normative life crises and the biological and social changes behind them are recurring, regular processes. Knowing the relevant biological and social laws, one can say quite accurately at what age the "average" individual of a given society will experience a life crisis and what are the typical options for resolving it. The social status of youth is heterogeneous. Youth is the final stage of primary socialization. Young men are still acutely concerned about the problems inherited from adolescence - their own age specificity, the right to autonomy from their elders. But both social and personal self-determination presuppose not so much autonomy from adults as a clear orientation and definition of one's place in the world. Along with the differentiation of mental abilities and interests, this requires the development of integrative mechanisms of self-awareness, the development of a worldview and life position. Youthful self-determination is an extremely important stage in the formation of personality. But as long as this "anticipatory" self-determination is not verified by practice, it cannot be called firm and final. The period from 18 to 23-25 years can be conditionally called late youth or the beginning of adulthood, when a person is an adult both biologically and socially. Society sees in him not so much an object of socialization as a responsible subject of social production activity. Labor is now becoming the leading sphere of activity, with the resulting differentiation of professional roles. One of the main trends of the transition period is the reorientation of communication with parents, teachers and peers. Communication with peers is a very specific channel of information; from it, young men learn many necessary things that, for one reason or another, adults cannot tell. This is a specific kind of interpersonal relationship. Here the skills of social interaction are developed, the ability to obey collective discipline, to correlate personal interests with group interests. Outside the society of peers, where relationships are built on an equal footing and status must be earned, a teenager cannot develop the communicative qualities necessary for an adult. This is a specific kind of emotional contact. Consciousness of group belonging, solidarity, comradely mutual assistance gives him an extremely important sense of emotional stability. 53. Motivational prerequisites for the socialization of the individual Primary in the development of man (and mankind) is not the consciousness of people, but their being. It is constructive changes in the social environment, the creation of such living conditions in society that help develop all the inclinations of a person, are an objective prerequisite for the development of the individual. The process of personality formation is conditioned by both the genetic (internal) program of a person and the social (external) program, which are organically linked. The social environment and personality are in constant interaction. In studying the mechanisms of the influence of the microenvironment on the personality, psychologists assign an important role to the so-called social situation of development (L. S. Vygotsky), which L. I. Bozhovich defines as a special combination of internal development processes and external conditions. Thus, developing in a particular social situation, a person does not develop in parts. Among the factors influencing the behavior and activities of a person in society, the problem of motivation is of particular interest. The motive is considered in unity with the goal based on the principle of studying human motivation as the principle of connection between consciousness and activity. The connection of the active side of consciousness (goal) with the motive is goal-setting. “Goals as rituals of the future result of activity do not arise in a person by themselves. They (rites) become a goal only when they acquire personal meaning, that is, when they are associated with a motive. In the same way, a motive acquires its incentive functions only in a system relationship with purpose (A. N. Leontiev). Motives perform two main functions: 1) encouraging and guiding; 2) giving activity a subjective personal meaning. The first aspect of motives is connected with their consideration as a "guiding mechanism", the second - as "accumulators" of personal experience. The motive as an "accumulator" of personal experience, giving personal meaning to the activity, plays the role of an internal regulator of future actions, strengthening or restraining them. In psychology, the classification of motives is quite broad. They are divided into: 1) motives caused by socially significant goals, circumstances and processes specific to this activity, including interests, circumstances that are constant for it (the desire for communication, self-respect, for superiority, for competition, etc.); 2) motives of self-education, active, communicative, prestigious, entertaining, motives of employment of imitation; 3) individual, group, public motives. 54. Interest as a leading motive for social activity Defining interest as an active, selective attitude of a person to a certain object of reality, we consider it as a complex personal formation inherent in a person. The substantiation of interest as the leading motive for activity in a microsociety is very important for a psychologist. The following provisions of this approach are fundamental and universal for various areas of social work: 1) the concept of "interest" reflects the subjectively existing relations of the individual, which are manifested as a result of the influence of real conditions of life and human activity; 2) the origins of interest lie in public life; 3) the interest expresses the unity of the objective and the subjective, i.e., on the one hand, interest indicates an object of the objective world that is significant and valuable for the individual, and on the other hand, interest, preference for some objects over others, reveal the orientation of the personality itself. Interest as the leading motive of social activity and human behavior in its microenvironment has a personal meaning. Independent choice of types of social activity is an incentive for a person of any age to search for new interests, emphasizes the personal originality of each, which is revealed in the entire content of the activity, and not in limited, narrow, performing areas. This phenomenon can be characterized as the well-known phenomenon in psychology of the proximity of interest to the goal reflex. I. P. Pavlov considered the goal reflex "the main form of vital energy of each of us." He drew attention to the importance of independent search for a goal. A. N. Leontiev, who believed that in order to arouse interest in an activity, it is necessary to create a motive, and then open the possibility of independent walking of the goal in a particular subject, content. This is precisely the mechanism of manifestation and consolidation of interests in the social activity of a person, when a free, informal environment is created for him. The peculiarity of social activity lies in the fact that the results of its constituent actions are often more significant than the motive that called them to life. This is exactly how, for example, interest in a teenage club developed, where the initial motive led teenagers - an elementary interest in courageous sports, a desire to learn something specific. Within 1-1,5 years, interest grew into a wide range of motives, now associated with awareness of the significance of one's activity. Thus, interest as the main motive for the inclusion of children and adults in social activities can turn into broad social motives. 55. Personal socialization Socialization - development of a person throughout his life in interaction with the environment in the process of assimilation and reproduction of social norms and values, as well as self-development and self-realization in the society to which he belongs. Socialization occurs in conditions of spontaneous interaction of a person with the environment. This process is directed by society, the state through the influence on certain age, social, professional groups of people. In addition, management and influence on the part of the state is carried out through targeted and socially controlled education (family, religious, social). These components have both private and significant differences throughout a person's life at various stages or stages of socialization. Social activity, more precisely socialization, is divided into three stages: 1) pre-labor; 2) labor; 3) post-work. This division is conditional, because people whose socialization differs significantly fall into the same stage. Another approach to considering the stages of socialization is age: 1) infancy (up to 1 year); 2) younger preschooler (1-3 years old); 3) preschooler (3-6 years old); 4) junior schoolchild (6-10 years old); 5) teenager (11-14 years old); 6) early youth (15-17 years old); 7) a young man (18-23 years old); 8) youth (23-33 years); 9) maturity (34-50 years); 10) elderly (50-65 years old); 11) senile (65-80 years old); 12) long-liver (over 80 years old). The essence of socialization is that it forms a person as a member of the society to which he belongs. Society has always sought to shape a person in accordance with a certain ideal. Ideals changed with the development of society. The content of the socialization process is determined by the fact that any society is interested in its members successfully mastering the roles of men and women (i.e., in successful sex-role socialization), could and would like to competently participate in productive activities (professional socialization), and be law-abiding (political socialization), etc. All this characterizes a person as an object of socialization. But a person becomes a full-fledged member of society, being not only an object, but also a subject of socialization. The assimilation of norms and values does not occur passively, it goes in inseparable unity with the realization of human activity, his self-development and self-realization in society. Human development occurs as a result of the solution of a number of tasks. They can be defined as follows: cognitive, moral, value-semantic, communicative, worldview. 56. Classification of tasks facing a person in the process of development Each stage of development poses new types of tasks for a person, which are correlated with age. Let's try to correlate age with the type of tasks. There are three groups of tasks that a person has to solve: 1) natural cultural - achievement at each age level of physical and sexual development (at the same time, the solution of problems is associated with different rates of puberty, standards of masculinity and femininity in various ethnic groups and regions); 2) socio-cultural - cognitive, value, semantic, specific for each age stage in a particular society in certain periods of its development. These tasks are determined by society as a whole, regions and the immediate environment of a person. They are put at each age stage in the sphere of cognition of social reality and in the sphere of participation in the life of society. These tasks have, as it were, two layers: on the one hand, these are tasks presented to a person in a verbalized form by the institutions of society; on the other hand, tasks perceived by him from the social practice of morals, stereotypes; 3) socio-psychological - this is the formation of the self-consciousness of the individual, its self-determination in today's life and in the future, self-actualization and self-affirmation, which at each age stage have a specific content and ways to solve them. Personal self-determination involves finding certain positions in various spheres of active life and developing plans for various segments of the future life. Self-assertion presupposes the realization of one's activity that satisfies a person in spheres of life that are significant for him. Self-assertion can take a variety of forms, which can be both socially acceptable and socially dangerous. Solving the problems we are talking about is an objective necessity for the development of the individual. If any of these groups of tasks or individual tasks remain unresolved at one or another age stage, then this either delays the development of the personality, or makes it inferior. It is also possible that a task, remaining unresolved at a certain age, does not outwardly affect the development of the personality, but after a certain period of time “emerges”, which leads to unmotivated actions. This need to solve certain problems encourages a person to set certain goals, the achievement of which leads to the solution of problems. It is important that the tasks are adequately understood. Author: Guseva T.I.
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