Management. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Management. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The concept of management
Characteristic features of modern management
Goals and objectives of management. Object and subject of management
Management principles
The concept and classification of control functions
Basic management methods
Schools of Management
Varieties of organizational management structures
Organization management structure design
Integration in management
Management in the social sphere
Management ethics
Management efficiency and effectiveness
Marketing in the management system
Asian style of management
Western style of management
Manager, his personal qualities and skills
self-management
The concept and classification of leadership styles
Blake-Mouton management grid
The concept of a career, its essence and typical models
The concept of authority and responsibility, their characteristics
Delegation of powers. Centralization and decentralization of power
Leadership in the management system
Leadership concepts
Choosing a foreign partner
Project management
Planning in management
Business planning
The essence of the organization, its main features
Mission and goals of the organization
Internal and external environment of the organization
Laws and principles of functioning of organizations
Life cycle and types of organizations
Quality control
Risk management
Strategic management of the organization
Strategy implementation
The strategy of the international activity of the company
Ways to mobilize enterprise resources
The concept of motivation, its essence. The evolution of motivation
Modern theories of motivation
Ways to improve labor motivation
Theory of labor motivation in the West
D. McClelland's theory of labor motivation
The theory of labor motivation F. Herzberg
A. Maslow's theory of labor motivation
Communications in management
Communication process, types of communications
Control in management
Business conversation
Essence and classification of management decisions
Algorithm for the development, adoption and implementation of management decisions
Quality of management decisions
Essence and characteristics of human resources
Human resource management system
Evaluation of the effectiveness of human resources
Qualification requirements for personnel
The concept of the workforce. Stages of development
Conformism, its essence and role in team management
Factors that determine the position of a person in an organization
Essence and principles of financial management
Financial management tools
The Role of Central Banks in Monetary Management
The concept and role of conflict
Causes of the conflict
Conflict Management
The concept and essence of stress
Essence of innovation management
Organizational Forms and Resource Support for Systems of Innovative Type of Development
Essence and functions of organizational culture
Comprehensive analysis of the cultural environment
The essence of international management
The structure of the analysis of external criteria
Investment classification
Choosing a field of activity in the foreign market
Strategies for entering a foreign market
Multinational companies (MNCs). Organizational structure of MNCs
Training and selection of personnel
Property valuation
Features of Japanese management
Psychology of management
Problems of social management
Technology and tactics of directing subordinates
The role of economic analysis in the management of the organization
Environmental management
Globalization and internationalization of modern management
Public relations (PR) as part of communications management

1. THE CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT

The word "management" (management) in translation from English means "management". In recent times, this term denoted the ability to control horses. At present, we are talking about managing people, the ability to achieve goals using their work and motives of behavior. However, the word "management" should not be interpreted unambiguously. The following meanings can be extracted from the fundamental Oxford Dictionary:

1) a special kind of skill;

2) the power and art of interpretation;

3) way, manner of communication with people;

4) administrative unit.

Thus, this term can be considered from different angles. Firstly, management is a branch of knowledge that, with the help of managerial art, achieves success in such areas as economics, sociology, psychology, law, etc. Secondly, management is a professional activity aimed at shaping and ensuring the organization's goals by rational use of resources.

The main goal of management is to ensure harmony in the development of the organization, that is, the coordinated and effective functioning of all external and internal elements of the organization.

The category of management is the most general and fundamental concept that reflects the essential properties and stable relationships in the organization's management processes.

To determine the content of management, it is necessary to highlight: 1) the main functions;

2) types;

3) methods;

4) principles.

Three groups of functions can be distinguished:

1) general;

2) socio-psychological;

3) technological.

All management functions are closely related. Their interaction is a clear structure.

Types of management - certain areas of management reality associated with the solution of certain management tasks.

Management methods are a system of rules and various procedures, solving various management problems in order to ensure the effective development of the organization.

There are three groups of research methods:

1) methods of managing the functional subsystems of the organization;

2) management functions management methods;

3) methods of preparation and adoption of managerial decisions.

The principles of management are any regularities, stable requirements, subject to which the effective development of the organization is ensured. Much attention at the present stage is paid to the human factor in management. In this regard, many works have appeared related to the specifics of a person’s personality, the development of his leadership qualities and abilities, works devoted to managing both one person and a group of people. Particular attention is paid to staff motivation.

2. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF MODERN MANAGEMENT

The efficiency of the entire enterprise largely depends on the ability of its owners and managers to make timely and informed decisions.

Many managers in the face of rapidly developing competition, scientific and technological progress, as well as an unstable economic and political environment, are adapting to the situation.

The adaptation of the organization to the environment is an integral part of its existence due to the fact that it is from the external environment that it receives the resources necessary for its functioning, such as raw materials, labor and capital.

No organization can be self-sufficient, since resources are part of nature, workers are part of society, and capital is the result of the interaction of the first and second.

In the case when the connection of an enterprise with the external environment is broken for some reason, that is, in market conditions it ceases to focus on the market and consumers, it soon ceases to exist. The enterprise needs to develop the ability to adapt to environmental changes, to intensify the work of the marketing service.

An enterprise whose goal is, at least, to maintain its position in the market, must develop long-term (strategic) plans for the comprehensive development of its activities.

These plans should include the main points regarding the interaction of the organization with the environment, the ways in which the enterprise should develop. They form the basis of a tactical decision.

Depending on how the interaction of the organization with the external environment is built, an organization with a mechanical type of management and an organization with an organic type of management are distinguished.

The characteristic features of the mechanical type of control are the following:

1) well-defined, standardized and sustainable objectives;

2) conservative, inflexible structure;

3) command type of communications going from top to bottom;

4) power stems from hierarchical levels and from position in the organization;

5) hierarchical control system;

6) resistance to change;

7) the content of communications: orders, instructions, etc.

The characteristic features of the organic type of management are the following:

1) self-control and control of colleagues;

2) dynamic, not rigidly defined tasks;

3) readiness for different types of changes;

4) power is based on knowledge and experience;

5) flexible structure;

6) multidirectional communications.

3. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF MANAGEMENT. OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF MANAGEMENT

The task of management as a science is to develop the theory of management. The practice of management has a connection with the use of theoretical provisions in specific work on enterprise management and the generalization of this practice for the development of theory.

In management, general and specific goals are distinguished.

General (strategic goals) determine the concept of development of the organization as a whole. They are aimed at the long term (forecasting, planning the activities of the enterprise).

Specific goals are developed within the framework of general goals for the main activities of the enterprise.

Management is a synthetic science.

It uses the results of many scientific studies, primarily economic theory.

The main goal of management is management, focused on successful activities, inherent in each organization and individual. The goal of management is the survival of the organization, maintaining its place in the market for a long time. If we consider management as a science, then its tasks include: the development, experimental verification and practical application of scientific approaches, principles and methods that ensure sustainable, reliable, promising and efficient work of the team or individual by producing a competitive product.

The main tasks of management are:

1) organization of production of goods and services, taking into account consumer demand;

2) the use of highly qualified workers;

3) stimulation of employees of the organization by creating comfortable working conditions for them and a system of its payment;

4) determination of the necessary resources and sources of their provision;

5) development of an organization development strategy and implementation;

6) determination of the organization's development goals;

7) development of a system of measures to achieve the intended goals;

8) monitoring the effectiveness of the organization, the implementation of the tasks.

The subject of management is a person or a group of people who carry out management actions within the organization and to achieve its goals and objectives.

The object of management is everything to which the managerial influences of the subject of management are directed within the organization and for the realization of its goals and objectives.

Management objects:

1) human resources of the organization;

2) resource providers for the organization;

3) competitors of the organization (real and potential);

4) information support;

5) the finances of the organization (i.e., directly financial and cash flows) and their management.

4. MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

The following management principles can be distinguished, with which management activities are carried out:

1) the combination of science and creativity lies in the fact that the activities of the leader are based on professional knowledge and skills. But in some cases, due to the impossibility of using them, the adoption of a managerial decision is based on intuition or improvisation;

2) purposefulness implies that management activities should be aimed at achieving a specific goal, resolving problems that have arisen;

3) the combination of specialization and universality provides for the need for an individual approach to solving the problem. However, problem solving is a component of the organization's activities and is based on the general principles of its functioning;

4) the sequence is based on a strictly defined sequence of actions performed in time and space, the violation of which can lead to confusion in the work and, as a result, delay the execution of tasks.

Some works are cyclical, that is, they are repeated periodically;

5) continuity implies that each type of activity is the basis for the next type;

6) the combination of centralized leadership and self-government is expressed in decision-making on the ground in accordance with the orders and instructions of the manager;

7) focusing on the individual characteristics of employees, as well as the ability of their interaction in a team, is focused on creating a favorable psychological atmosphere, a certain organizational culture, with the help of which the decision-making process is facilitated, therefore, work efficiency increases;

8) ensuring the integrity of rights and responsibility at each level of work is expressed in the inadmissibility of excess of rights over responsibility, since such a situation is associated with the arbitrariness of managers, but the excess of responsibility over rights suppresses the work initiative and activity of employees, since the initiative is punishable;

9) the competitiveness of management participants allows to personally interest employees on the basis of material, moral and organizational incentives for an employee who has achieved the highest results;

10) the widest possible involvement of employees in the process of making managerial decisions is based on the fact that with the participation of managers (employees) of different levels in this process, the decision made is more readily and easily carried out than an order issued from above by management.

5. CONCEPT AND CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL FUNCTIONS

The management function is a type of management activity.

The study of management functions is of great importance. They largely determine the structure of governing bodies.

A common classification distinguishes the following groups of functions.

1. General management functions are mandatory for any organization. These include: planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions were singled out by the French practitioner and scientist An-ri Fayol in his work "General and Industrial Management" (1916).

The sequence of execution of these functions provides control of any object.

The planning function includes the following processes:

1) based on the analysis of the external environment and the interests of groups, the mission of the organization is formed;

2) goals are determined based on an analysis of market requirements;

3) based on the established goals of the organization and the state of the external and internal environment, an alternative strategy is outlined;

4) policies and procedures are developed to implement the strategy;

5) work is carried out in units based on operational plans.

2. Concrete, or specific, functions are determined by the control object.

The feature implementation process answers the question of what is the logical sequence of steps for the feature to run smoothly.

The structure of a function answers the question of how or in what way all actions are related. Here the planning department (service) plays a leading role.

Based on content, process and structure! functions, an analysis is carried out, the results of which serve as the basis for the development of a particular function. This activity allows you to highlight new functions or remove functions as unnecessary.

The business management process consists in the performance of general and specific functions. In management practice, functions are distributed unevenly between management bodies: sometimes they are dispersed or duplicated.

The functions of a modern enterprise include the following functions:

1) planning (resource - time);

2) marketing (resource - consumer);

3) entrepreneurship (resource - business);

4) finances (resource - money);

5) organization resource - people);

6) production (resource - technologies);

7) innovation (resource - ideas);

8) information (resource - data);

9) social development (resource - culture).

6. BASIC MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Management methods are ways of influencing the management object to achieve its goals. But at the same time, the same goal can be achieved using various methods, or several goals can be achieved using any one method. They also allow you to manage production and marketing activities, build it in accordance with market requirements.

The main goal of the organization is to make a profit. The work should be structured and should not be regulated by the principles of management activities, in accordance with which methods for achieving goals are developed.

Management methods are divided into administrative, organizational and legal, economic and socio-psychological.

1. Administrative method of management. This method is based on the fact that all the activities of the organization are carried out on the strict subordination of employees and on their unquestioning implementation of instructions.

This method is used if the weight of traditions is great, in accordance with which only an unambiguous decision can be made.

As a result of the application of the administrative method, the set result is achieved, but the possibility of its development is not provided. Another distinguishing feature of this method is the encouragement of diligence, not initiative. The effectiveness of this method is significantly limited, as it does not take into account and does not use all the possibilities of the organization.

2. Organizational and legal method. It determines the organizational and legal form of the company, the operating conditions, the structure of the organization, regulates the rights and responsibilities of personnel, etc. This method is a kind of framework within which the enterprise operates.

3. Economic method. The method is based on the material interest of workers and allows you to intensify their activities. The company receives additional profit by reducing costs, from which bonuses are paid to employees. For greater employee interest, cash payments (wages, bonuses) are tied to profits or results achieved.

4. Socio-psychological methods.

They are divided into types of influence:

1) creating a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team and trusting relationships between the leader and subordinates;

2) providing an opportunity for the development and realization of the personal abilities of employees, which will lead to an increase in the satisfaction and efficiency of the work of employees and the enterprise as a whole.

All of these methods are not opposed, since the firm can achieve the greatest result only when they interact.

7. SCHOOLS OF MANAGEMENT

Only in the twentieth century management was recognized as an independent field of knowledge to be studied and considered.

Consider the fundamental schools of management.

Scientific School of Management (1885-1920).

The school is associated with the name of Frederick Winslow Taylor. Representatives of this school substantiated the need to select specific employees to perform certain work, train employees, train and retrain them both within the enterprise and in third-party organizations, as well as rationalize labor and its motivation.

Thanks to this school, 12 principles of management were developed, which have not lost their significance at the present time:

1) clearly defined goals - the starting point of control;

2) common sense, which involves the recognition of errors and the search for their causes;

3) competent consultation of professionals and improvement of management processes based on their recommendations;

4) discipline, ensured by a clear regulation of people's activities, control over its implementation;

5) fair treatment of personnel;

6) written standard instructions;

7) norms and schedules that facilitate the search and implementation of reserves;

8) normalization of working conditions;

9) normalization of operations; ^Performance reward.

Classical, or administrative, school (1920-1950).

This direction is associated with the name of Henri Fayo-la. Experts in this area investigated the effectiveness of the entire organization. The result of many works and studies carried out by A. Fayo-l is the creation of principles for managing the entire organization:

1) the original function is the division of labor;

2) powers and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite;

3) discipline as mutual respect reached by agreement;

4) unity of command and order;

5) unity of direction, i.e., each group operates within a certain framework to achieve certain goals;

6) subordination of personal interests to common ones;

7) a scalar chain is a series of persons standing on a management pyramid;

8) stability of the workplace.

School of Human Relations (from the early 1950s to the present).

The main goal of this school is to increase the efficiency of the organization through better use of human resources. Representatives of this school conducted research and experiments on the motivation of people, the nature of power, leadership, the quality of working life, etc. As a result, it was concluded that the system of human relations affects performance.

8. VARIETY OF ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES

The organizational structure of management is an ordered set of stably interconnected elements that ensure the functioning and development of the organization as a whole.

Types of relationships within the organization are divided into:

1) linear relationships are relationships between a leader and subordinates;

2) functional relations - relations of a specialist with other members of the organization;

3) relations of the administrative apparatus that take place in the case of the presentation of someone's rights and powers. Job responsibilities at the same time consist in providing recommendations, advice.

There are relationships of interdependence between all components of the organizational structure of management: changes in each of them cause the need to revise all the others.

An increase in the number of elements and levels in the organizational structure of management inevitably leads to a multiple increase in the number and complexity of connections that arise in the process of making managerial decisions; the consequence of this is often a slowdown in the management process.

Relationships between elements of the control structure are:

1) vertical, when there is interaction between the leader and the subordinate;

2) horizontal, when there is an interaction of equal elements.

The main systems for managing organizations: linear, functional, mixed (linear-functional), matrix, matrix-staff.

Linear control system - a scheme of direct subordination on all issues of lower units to higher ones. Such a system is quite simple and quite effective.

Functional management system - the system is a scheme of subordination of a subordinate unit to a number of functional units that solve individual management issues - technical, planning, financial, etc.

Linear-functional system. Decisions prepared by functional units are reviewed and approved by the line manager, who passes them on to subordinate units.

The matrix management system is a network of horizontal connections, numerous intersections of which with vertical ones are formed as a result of the interaction of project managers.

Matrix-staff management system - the system reflects all types of leadership and provides comprehensive coordination of activities between them, while maintaining the unity of command and control at the highest level.

9. DESIGNING THE MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION

Organizational structure design principles include:

1) organizational structure of management, reflecting the goals and objectives of the organization, subordination to production and its needs;

2) the need to provide for an optimal division of labor between management bodies and individual workers;

3) formation of a management structure by defining the powers and responsibilities of each employee and management body with the establishment of a system of vertical and horizontal links between them;

4) correspondence between functions, duties, powers, responsibilities;

5) the adequacy of the organizational structure of management of the socio-cultural environment of the organization, influencing decisions regarding the level of centralization, the distribution of powers and responsibilities. The size of the organization is a factor that determines the possible contours and parameters of the management structure.

The management structure of large enterprises is more complex: all management functions are sometimes concentrated in the hands of a few members of the organization.

With the growth of the organization and the volume of managerial work, the division of powers develops and specialized units are formed. Hence the need for coordination and control over the work of these links arises. It also becomes necessary to build a formal governance structure.

Changes in the organizational forms of the enterprise have an impact on the formation of the management structure. When a company becomes a part of a larger association, management functions are redistributed, and in connection with this, the management structure of the company also changes.

The level of development at the enterprise of information technology is one of the important factors in the formation of management structures.

Requirements for the formation of effective management structures:

1) reduction in the size of units and the recruitment of more qualified personnel in them;

2) reduction in the number of management levels;

3) organization of labor as the basis of a new management structure;

4) orientation of the current work to the needs of consumers;

5) creation of conditions for flexible product packaging;

6) stock minimization;

7) the presence of a quick response to changes;

8) setting up flexibly reconfigurable equipment;

9) creating conditions for high productivity and low costs;

10) production of quality products and focus on strong ties with the consumer.

10. INTEGRATION IN MANAGEMENT

Integration - the process of combining the efforts of various subsystems to achieve the goals of the organization. Integration is inherent in any system, including a person.

The most important condition for ensuring the effectiveness of the reorganization is the unity of purpose both in the planning process and in the organization process.

In order to effectively integrate the organization, managers must constantly keep in mind the overall goals of the organization and just as constantly remind all employees of the need to concentrate their efforts precisely on common goals.

There are several methods for effective integration. The choice of the appropriate integration method depends on the environment in which the organization has to operate. One of them is to develop appropriate rules and procedures.

The method is effective only under conditions of a relatively stable and predictable external environment.

Distinguish between internal and external integration. Internal integration is carried out with the own resources of an organization or firm and affects only its structural divisions.

External integration is carried out by combining the efforts of several organizations or enterprises.

Distinguish between horizontal and vertical integration.

Horizontal integration is the unification of structural divisions of one or more enterprises of the same activity profile, which allows you to pool resources and achieve common goals through joint efforts.

Vertical integration is carried out by expanding the scope of the enterprise in order to reduce costs and increase control over value added flows. Companies in some industries are highly vertically integrated.

The main forms of enterprise integration that have been developed in modern conditions:

1) corporation - an organization created to protect the interests and privileges of its participants and forming an independent legal entity;

2) holding - an organization that owns controlling stakes in other companies for the purpose of exercising control and management functions over them;

3) consortium - one of the forms of associations created on the basis of an agreement between several banks, enterprises, companies, firms, research centers, states for the joint conduct of large financial transactions for the placement of loans, shares or the implementation of science- and capital-intensive projects, including international ones. .

Modern management presents a variety of forms of integration that an organization can use to achieve its goals.

11. MANAGEMENT IN THE SOCIAL SPHERE

The social sphere is a type of activity, the subject of which is a person and his needs. Social sphere - the sphere of reproduction of a person, family, labor collectives and other social groups, which includes the conditions of work and rest of people, their life and leisure, the level of material well-being, education, upbringing and health care.

The goals of social activity are the protection of life and health of people; ensuring and maintaining their living conditions at a decent level; providing educational and employment opportunities; ensuring fair wage conditions; ensuring a prosperous old age, etc. It is necessary to know that the formation of the social sphere is directly due to the development of economic, material and production conditions, as well as financial and commodity markets.

An organization is an association of people who jointly realize a common goal and act on the basis of certain rules. For more effective management of an enterprise, it is important for a manager to know one of the features of an organization, which is due to the property of social systems to adapt, self-organize and self-regulate in a management organization. The concepts are different:

1) formal organization - a legalized system of norms, rules, principles of activity;

2) informal organization - a system of unprescribed social roles, informal institutions and sanctions.

A feature of management in the social sphere is the qualification structure of the personnel employed in it. The share of employees with higher and secondary specialized education is more than a third of all employees, which is several times higher than the same indicator in other industries.

The objects of study of the social sphere in the narrow sense are a person as a consumer of services and goods, his physical health, mental and other abilities, as well as information about his activities.

Activities in the social sphere can be divided according to their intended purpose into groups, such as:

1) development of human resources;

2) public service;

3) protection of the population.

Management in the social sphere pays special attention to the work of social organizations, the provision of social groups with the relevant services necessary to maintain people's lives and their development. This activity is based on socio-economic research, during which the following issues are considered:

1) changes in the composition of the population, ways to increase its size;

2) territorial and natural-climatic distribution of people;

3) the possibility of free movement within the country and abroad, the choice of residence and work;

4) creating economic conditions, etc.

12. ETHICS OF MANAGEMENT

Ethics is one of the oldest disciplines, the object of study of which is morality. The basis of this subject was laid by Aristotle, who introduced this term.

Ethics is a set of unfixed and optional rules and norms, at the same time, their failure to comply can lead to the rejection of the individual by society.

The professional role of any employee of the organization is inextricably linked with the implementation of ethical standards, rules of conduct and relationships with their external environment. Compliance with the ethics of business relations is one of the main criteria for assessing professionalism.

Business ethics is the tool by which a manager makes his decisions. In Russia, business ethics is currently only a set of moral principles.

For each type of organization, it is necessary to develop a specific strategy of behavior. There are a number of postulates that must be followed in relation to any organization:

1) show respect for the company, regardless of whether it is a competitor or not;

2) a ban on anti-advertising of the activities of this company;

3) development of partnerships. American managers cite the following reasons for the expansion of unethical business practices:

1) competition that pushes ethical considerations aside;

2) the growing desire to indicate the level of profitability in quarterly reports;

3) a decrease in the importance of ethics in society, which gradually justifies unethical behavior in the workplace;

4) pressure from managers on ordinary employees in order to find a compromise between their own personal values and the values of managers. Russian managers indicate the following reasons for unethical business practices:

1) corruption;

2) the influence of organized crime;

3) low qualification and unprofessionalism of management.

Ethics is carried out at several levels. World-class. The manager carries out his work functions on the basis of universal values. Macro level. Implementation of moral principles in accordance with the industry or national code, business ethics - respect for private property and free competition, providing reliable information and non-discrimination in the labor market. Microlevel. Implementation of moral standards within an individual enterprise, its partners and competitors.

In an organization, the development and cultivation of ethical standards is practically essential. With a system of ethics in interorganizational relations, it is possible to ensure that the staff will be satisfied with their activities. The organization in the eyes of the public will be formed in a positive way.

13. EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE OF MANAGEMENT

The effectiveness of management is the ability of the management system to ensure, in accordance with the set goal, the achievement of final results that satisfy certain needs and create conditions for the sustainable development of the socio-economic system.

There are conditions under which management is effective:

1) a high level of achievement of the goal, i.e. the socio-economic system has achieved results in which the overall goal is largely realized;

2) the level of satisfaction of the need, at which the final results are commensurate with the need;

3) the level of possible expansion of production, when a potential need is identified, which is the basis for the formation of a new goal and the creation of conditions for sustainable development;

4) achieving positive results for each type of functional management.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of management activities allows you to identify opportunities and directions for the development of the organization.

The main function of efficiency is the achievement of a goal through managerial influence and interaction.

The economic meaning of management efficiency is to ensure the economic effect in the national economy with given resources (costs) for management.

The social meaning is to ensure the greatest social effect with given resources (costs) for management.

The effectiveness of management is evaluated in nine areas, among them:

1) setting and justification of the purpose of the assessment;

2) selection of criteria for selection of evaluation indicators;

3) comparison of the goal and the end result;

4) comparison of the end result and needs;

5) determination of the effectiveness of management;

6) determination of the resource availability of the target;

7) resource saving;

8) the ratio of the economic effect to the value of each type of resources used;

9) the ratio of the economic effect to the amount of management costs, etc.

The management theory defines the following types of management effectiveness:

1) by means of influence and interaction: target efficiency, motivational, strategic, tactical, resource, etc.;

2) according to the content of the effect: economic, organizational, social, environmental;

3) by the time factor: perspective, current, operational;

4) by stages of development of management systems: efficiency in the formation, formation, improvement, from reforming, as a result of the anti-crisis program;

5) by types of management activities: marketing, innovation, investment, production, financial, commercial;

6) according to the method of achieving efficiency: management system, management activities, management process, management innovation, the activities of a manager and an employee.

14. MARKETING IN THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

F. Kotler is considered a well-known researcher in the field of marketing. Marketing in the management system is often perceived as a sales activity, but in accordance with the definition of F. Kotler, its goals and objectives are much broader, and sales are only one of its areas.

Marketing activities are carried out in seven main areas:

1) in determining market share and competitiveness;

2) in the development of a diverse and high-quality assortment of goods;

3) in market demographic statistics;

4) in market research and development;

5) in pre-sales and after-sales customer service;

6) effective sales, advertising and promotion of goods;

7) in profit.

Market share and competitiveness. The market share occupied by the enterprise in its total capacity is a significant indicator of the effectiveness of the company. The amount of profit is not always directly related to the size of the market segment, as a small number of customers can bring huge profits.

Variety and quality of product range. In the course of the activities of the marketing department, the degree of need for diversification of production is determined in terms of market needs and the capabilities of the enterprise. In this regard, top management, setting long-term goals, must check the range and quality of products.

Market demographic statistics.

The demographic features of the market segment allow the company to identify the most significant groups of potential buyers for it, which should be targeted.

Market research and development. The development of a new product is one of the most pressing problems, as the demand for them is gradually decreasing due to market saturation. The activity of marketing services in this regard is directed to the study of the potential needs of buyers.

Pre-sales and after-sales service. Customer service is one of the weak points in the company's activities, especially in Russia. The quality of customer service often has a big impact. It should be borne in mind that the higher the level of service, the more customers will return for a new product. A high level of service allows the company to set high prices for goods.

Effective sales, advertising and promotion of goods. The success of an enterprise depends to a large extent on the activity of marketing in this area. Coordinating sales, advertising and promotion is an essential managerial function.

Arrived. Profit is one of the main indicators of efficiency and directly depends on the quality of goods and efforts aimed at its implementation. Continuous monitoring of profits from the sale of various goods (services) is the main indicator in the analysis of marketing functions.

15. ASIAN STYLE OF MANAGEMENT

The emergence of the Asian model of management is due to the specifics of Asian countries, permeated with Buddhist philosophy and a unique worldview.

In Asian countries, the use of the Western model was impossible, which is why it became necessary to form their own specific management model. This model was called Asian.

Characteristic features of the style:

1) the presence of intercompany relations based on trust and mutual understanding of company leaders;

2) a high level of staff education, there is constant training, advanced training;

3) trust of partners to each other;

4) confidence in the success of the company's long-term plans;

5) understanding of the joint contribution to the development of the company.

The basis of Asian management is the creation of friendly teams using a combination of formal factors of labor organization with informal ones. The difference from the American style of management is in the way of negotiations by Japanese businessmen, who discuss all issues, gradually approaching the very essence of the issue. The goal is to achieve mutual understanding and trust, and only then move on to solving business problems.

In Japan and South Korea, firms also provide income to people, give them the opportunity for self-development and self-expression.

Japanese management includes such features as:

1) morning exercises for company employees;

2) working hours in uniform;

3) the use of the consensus method at meetings of leaders, which end with the adoption of decisions;

4) obligatory rewarding for success in work;

5) the functioning of "quality circles", which include workers, managers and company leaders;

6) the presence of a common dining room for both managers and workers;

7) the great importance of the length of service of an employee in the company for setting wages and promotion;

8) lifetime employment;

9) the practice of deliveries just in time, which makes it possible to get rid of bulky storage facilities and allows you to achieve a high level of discipline of the company's personnel;

10) minimizing interruptions in work;

11) provision of pension benefits to all members of the worker's family after his retirement.

Features of the organization of production and marketing of products in Japan. Trade houses, such as Sogo Shosha, play an important role. By the mid 1990s. they accounted for over 40% of Japanese exports, and about 70% of imports.

In the 1990s The German company "Porsche", being on the verge of ruin, turned to Japanese colleagues for help. For 3 years, as a result of innovations, several utility rooms disappeared, the territory of the plant was reduced by 30%.

16. WESTERN STYLE MANAGEMENT

The main characteristic features of the Western style of management are:

1) individual responsibility;

2) self-assertion of the heads of individual departments in the enterprise.

The formation of the Western management model took place in specific conditions, which determined its effectiveness.

In Western countries, the need for effective management has increasingly arisen, and it has become a source of management formation.

Participants in the Anglo-American governance model include owners; shareholders; managers; government organizations; exchanges; consulting firms.

Distinctive features of the Western style of management:

1) employees lack a sense of dedication to their work;

2) the decision is made by one manager, subordinates only help him choose a solution based on an analysis of production and marketing costs;

3) business relationships are never combined with personal ones.

Features of American management are that businessmen:

1) act in a straight line;

2) resort to the order in the process of agreeing on a decision in the negotiations;

3) do not make long digressions, but immediately go to the very essence of the issue.

The main goal is an agreement. One of the most important conditions is compliance with all laws, regulations, regulations, and not the benefit and agreement between partners. The American negotiating delegation must include an authorized representative with the right to make decisions and a lawyer.

The advantages of the English management style include:

1) increased attention to production costs (the desire to constantly reduce them);

2) development of new science-intensive products, thorough R&D;

3) flexibility in the use of technological processes, i.e. modernization and implementation of new processes is quite fast. The distinctive features of German management are:

1) foresight;

2) high discipline;

3) a longer process of innovation, modernization of production.

The specifics of the German management model:

1) the management of the company is carried out by two structures: the board and the supervisory board. Their functions are separated, and no one can combine the positions of both structures. Board members are only employees of the company, the supervisory board may be partially formed by employees (depending on the size of the company);

2) the size of the supervisory board is established by law and cannot be changed by the shareholders;

3) bank financing of the activities of companies is preferable to equity;

4) banks have the right to vote at meetings.

17. MANAGER, HIS PERSONAL QUALITIES AND SKILLS

A manager is a leader who holds a permanent position and is empowered to make decisions on specific activities of the company.

Managers are people who achieve the goals of the organization at the expense of other people.

Manager is:

1) the organizer of any work within the framework of individual units or program target groups;

2) leader in relation to subordinates;

3) an administrator of any level of management who organizes work in accordance with modern methods.

According to the requirements for the leader, the manager:

1) must be confident in his decisions, be fair;

2) should treat his employees like family members.

In practice, this principle is most widely used in Japanese management, where

Belonging to the company as a family is brought up from childhood.

To work effectively, a manager must have authority that will allow him to influence his subordinates.

Authority is based on the manager's formal status and earned respect.

Respect for the individual is an integral part of authority.

In the course of his activities, the manager has to work with partners and competitors, and, although their behavior can be threatening and defiant, he must be able to communicate with them correctly, negotiate and bargain.

The main qualities of a modern successful manager are: high professionalism; the ability to support innovation and improvement, encourage staff to be frank and conduct effective group discussions; the ability to encourage staff for good work and criticize when it is really necessary, to provide assistance to subordinates when they need it; the ability to stick to one's principled line, etc.

In the late 1960s theorist G. Mintzberg singled out three roles of a manager, such as:

1) communication (coordination) role. Within the framework of it, the manager organizes the interaction of his employees;

2) informational role. The manager is engaged in the reception, transmission and processing of information necessary for the operation of the enterprise;

3) leadership role. The leader makes decisions that become the basis of the work of the enterprise.

18. SELF-MANAGEMENT

Self-management is the organization by the head of the enterprise of his own activities. The process of self-management involves a clear planning of your work and free time.

For a manager, the commandments should become mandatory:

1) to achieve results instead of fulfilling a duty;

2) optimize the use of resources instead of reducing costs;

3) increase profits;

4) do the right thing instead of doing the right thing;

5) create alternatives instead of solving the problem.

At the workplace, the manager must clearly plan his working day in accordance with the duties that he needs to perform. You should clearly allocate time for their implementation with a small margin to resolve unplanned issues. The next point that allows the manager to save his time is to draw up a schedule for the performance of his official duties, where all completed and outstanding cases are recorded.

With all of the above, it should be noted that the work of a manager primarily lies in his ability to communicate with people and lead them. For a manager to be more effective, it is necessary to constantly maintain his authority.

Image is a set of features of appearance and behavior, it is the art of managing an impression. It is necessary to constantly monitor how you are dressed, how you look. It is important to always be healthy. It is necessary to constantly develop memory. In addition to words, you need to use non-verbal communication methods (sign language).

A business calendar is necessary for every leader, it is a philosophy of information order, a tool for effectively achieving goals in official activities and in personal life (it will remind you that you need to complete an important task, organize a trip, etc.). The leader's time will not be wasted.

The leader must be able to relax. The ability to easily relax and quickly collect one's thoughts allows the manager not to accumulate fatigue, which often leads to irritability, a drop in attention and, as a result, a decrease in the productivity of both himself and the enterprise as a whole. A fairly large number of relaxation methods have been developed in this direction, such as listening to soothing music, installing an aquarium in the office, meditation, etc.

Self-management (manager's ability to organize his own work) is no less important for the success of the enterprise than other factors of the external and internal environment.

19. CONCEPT AND CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT STYLES

Leadership style is the habitual behavior of a manager towards his employees in order to influence them or induce them to action. There are three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic and liberal. In different sources, they may be called differently, but their meaning is always the same.

The authoritarian style of management consists in the fact that all power is in the hands of the leader. All decisions are made by him alone, without taking into account the interests of subordinates. An authoritarian management style is necessary in a crisis situation, when decisions must be made more quickly than ever and be clearly coordinated.

As a result, employee satisfaction with their activities decreases and their dependence on the manager increases.

Positive aspects of the authoritarian style:

1) does not require special material costs;

2) allows you to quickly establish interaction between employees and departments.

Negative aspects of the authoritarian style:

1) suppresses the initiative;

2) requires a cumbersome system for monitoring the work of personnel;

3) increases the degree of bureaucracy.

The democratic style involves delegating part of its authority to subordinates by the head and making decisions on a collegiate basis. This style is relevant for the stable operation of the enterprise and its desire to introduce innovations.

This leadership style stimulates creativity, reduces employee dissatisfaction with the decisions made, as they are made jointly, increases labor motivation, improves the psychological climate in the enterprise and, therefore, causes satisfaction from the work performed.

But since there is no strict centralized control over the work of the personnel, responsibility for its implementation can be shifted for a long time, which delays the process of decision-making and their implementation.

The liberal style is management without the participation of a leader. This style of management is used with highly qualified employees and a low level of managerial training.

In fact, this method was used in our country during the formation of a market economy - from 1985 to the mid-1990s.

Despite the significant difference in these management styles, it is impossible to single out among them absolutely effective or ineffective.

As a result, the leader must be able to apply all these styles.

20. BLAKE-MOUTON MANAGEMENT GRID

The management grid of R. Blake and J. Mouton makes it possible to assess the nature of management in an enterprise. The position in the grid determines the degree of development of enterprise management methods.

One axis reflects the orientation of the leader to the team, and the second - the production orientation of the activities of the management team.

Blake-Mouton Leadership Style Grid

Five typical leadership styles are derived from the leadership style grid.

1-1 - a leadership style that is not focused on high labor achievements, on caring for interpersonal relationships. A conniving style can lead to apathy and frustration among employees.

1-9 - a leadership style in which a favorable atmosphere is created for interpersonal relations, but little attention is paid to labor achievements. In such groups, there are no conflicts for a long time, until the employees are put under pressure by production needs or higher authorities.

5-5 - leadership style aimed at average labor achievements and average employee satisfaction. Conservative style of achievement, labor results are average.

9-1 - leadership style focused on high productivity and lack of concern for interpersonal relationships. Corresponds to authoritarian leadership.

9-9 - leadership style aimed at high labor achievements and high employee satisfaction.

The Blake-Mouton lattice is called the managerial lattice.

Most executives find the 9-9 style to be the most appropriate to use. But applying this style in practice is difficult.

The disadvantage of this theory is the impossibility of accurately determining the position of the leader on this grid, because the information that can be obtained both from the leader and from subordinates is unlikely to be complete and reliable.

21. THE CONCEPT OF CAREER, ITS ESSENCE AND TYPICAL MODELS

Career is the advancement of a person in any field of activity, a change in skills, abilities, qualifications and remuneration associated with activity, moving forward along a once chosen path of activity, achieving fame, fame, enrichment.

Management specialists combine the variety of career options into four models: "springboard", "ladder", "snake" and "crossroads".

"Springboard" is widely distributed among managers and professionals. It lies in the fact that the work path of an employee consists of only climbs up the career ladder.

Throughout his work, the growth of his potential, knowledge and qualifications is carried out. The positions he occupies are constantly changing to higher and better paid ones.

The "ladder" consists in the fact that each of its steps is a specific position that the employee occupies for a predetermined time (more often than 5 years).

The term is quite sufficient for a person to enter this position, realize all his abilities, improve his qualifications and creative potential. After that, the employee moves to a new position.

After working in this position for some time, he gradually descends the ranks, working in an easier and safer job. But at the same time, the contribution of this employee to the development of the enterprise is very significant, and in accordance

with him he can receive a certain material reward.

"Snake". This model provides for the movement of an employee from one position to another by appointment. The tenure in each position is 1-2 years, no more and no less.

In order to take the highest position, an employee goes through all positions and comprehensively studies the organization, gains experience and improves his qualifications, as a result of which he becomes able to look at the situation in a volume and calculate possible risks and opportunities.

"Crossroads" is based on the evaluation of the employee after a certain period. In accordance with the certification data, decisions can be made on:

1) promotion of an employee if his professional knowledge and skills correspond to a higher position. It is important that the leader be able to maintain conflict-free relations in the team;

2) linear movement, if the potential of the leader is average;

3) demotion, if the leader has low qualifications, does not have the authority of subordinates, and conflicts often arise in the team.

22. THE CONCEPT OF AUTHORITIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Most organizations are now fairly large. The leaders of such organizations are not able to single-handedly solve all the emerging management problems.

To perform his duties in the organization, any leader, functional or line, must have certain powers, that is, official rights and duties that give him the right to make managerial decisions, give orders and perform actions within the framework of the goals of the organization.

With the ever-increasing amount of information in the world and the tremendous speed of this process, the head of the enterprise is sometimes not able to perform all functions without someone's help. To do this, he needs to distribute his powers among subordinates and give them a certain responsibility for the work they perform. Thanks to this, the manager frees up his time for more important and responsible work.

Responsibility - the obligation to perform existing tasks and be responsible for their satisfactory resolution.

The responsibility given to a certain position helps to prevent arbitrariness in the workplace. There are two types of liability:

1) common responsibility is to create conditions for the performance of work;

2) functional responsibility is associated with the fulfillment of the assigned tasks. The authority and responsibility vested in the position must correspond to the tasks performed by this manager. If there is a disproportion towards an unreasonable increase in powers, the official begins to abuse them.

If the responsibility for the decisions being made is too high, then the employee's initiative is suppressed. It should be noted that the position is vested with authority, not the person holding it.

The scope of authority vested in the head is determined in accordance with:

1) the nature of the problems being solved - the higher their importance and diversity, the more significant the powers of this level should be;

2) the development of the communication system -

the easier it is to establish a relationship with the leader, the less authority is required by subordinates;

3) personal characteristics of performers -

the higher the education, experience, responsibility, the more authority can be given to an employee;

4) the moral and psychological climate of the organization - the greater the scope of authority, the more favorable the moral and psychological climate, since in this case it is less likely that employees will abuse them.

23. DELEGATION OF POWERS. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF POWER

Delegation of authority is the transfer of the right to subordinates to make managerial decisions and carry out certain actions. Delegation of authority allows the manager to use his time more efficiently. All work assigned to subordinates can be divided into groups, such as:

1) preparatory work, where information is collected;

2) routine work that does not require special skills, but which takes a lot of time. Performing such work, the performer does not make serious decisions;

3) specialized work that requires special skills. All powers related to the performance of such work are delegated, since one person is not able to perform well many types of such activities (legal support for the operation of the enterprise, marketing research and accounting).

Power can be concentrated in one hand, or it can be dispersed in different directions.

The centralization of power is the concentration of decision-making rights, the concentration of power at the top level of the organization's management.

Decentralization of power - the transfer or delegation of responsibility for a number of key decisions and the transfer of the rights corresponding to this responsibility to the lower levels of management of the organization.

The degree of centralization and decentralization in organizations is determined using variables. These include:

1) the number of decisions made at each level of management;

2) the importance of the decision for the organization as a whole;

3) the degree of control over the execution of the decision.

Organizations evolve with a constant choice between centralization and decentralization.

When designing an organization, the following factors can influence the choice:

1) the capital intensity of the decisions made. Many enterprises document a specific amount within which the manager can make certain decisions;

2) uniformity of policy;

3) the size of the enterprise. There is a limit to which centralization has a certain effect, after exceeding this limit, the issue of decentralization is relevant;

4) organizational culture of the system. It is necessary to take into account its value orientations, norms and patterns of behavior;

5) management philosophy;

6) the desire of parts for independence. The separation of a part from the whole organization is accompanied by the desire of this part to turn into a new whole;

7) the availability of appropriate personnel, etc.

24. LEADERSHIP IN THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Leadership is the leading position of an individual or a social group, class, party, the ability of an individual to influence or influence other people to achieve certain goals. It often happens that the terms "leader", "manager" and "manager" are used as synonyms, but this is wrong, because they are different.

The first difference is in origin. Leadership arises naturally, is the result of intra-group processes in a small group that determine its structuring.

The second difference concerns the ways in which leadership and leadership functions are exercised. Leadership functions are most often informal. They are not registered anywhere, the leader's orders are not written into orders by anyone. The manager is obliged to issue his orders, since he is accountable to the head. The influence of the leader is great. He can give both oral and written orders.

The third difference is related to the spheres of influence of the leader, manager and manager. If a person does not consider himself a member of any small group, then the influence of its leader does not apply to him. The subordinate may not internally consider himself loyal to this unit, but this does not in any way relieve him of the obligation to carry out the orders of the manager.

In order to become a leader, in addition to talent, you must have perseverance and hard work.

You should devote a lot of time to your development, both professional and personal.

Of course, leadership is a talent, but without development, it fades away, like all other abilities.

Management specialists distinguish two groups of leaders: "players" and "open". The attractiveness of the former is based only on the external impression they make, behind which there is nothing.

"Players" use their ability to understand people and control others solely for their own purposes. Behind their external nobility lies a cold calculation in personal interests.

"Players" are careerists who will stop at nothing to achieve a high position.

"Open" leaders live by the interests of the team, by a common idea.

In their work, such leaders are guided by circumstances, otherwise they are the complete opposite of the "players".

These people are real leaders, whose relationships with people, including their followers, are based on sincere relationships.

25. LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS

The study of leadership qualities has been studied in the world for a long time, as a result of which three approaches to the study of leadership have emerged: traditional concepts, situational concepts and new leadership theories.

Traditional concepts are historically earlier.

They are based on the concept of leadership qualities and the concept of leadership behavior. The similarity of these concepts lies in the fact that they are based on the consideration of the leader as a person endowed with unique qualities. Each theory attempts to identify general aspects of leader behavior.

The most famous adherents and researchers of the concept of leadership qualities are Ralph Stogdill, Warren Bennis and Edwin Ghiselli. This theory served as a prerequisite for the emergence and development of other concepts of leadership, in particular the concept of leadership behavior.

The concept of leadership qualities considers leaders as special people with a set of certain character traits that are unique to them. The main idea of the theory is that leaders are not made - they are born.

The concept of leadership behavior implies the possibility of training leaders according to special programs by cultivating appropriate qualities in them. This concept has served as the basis for the development of leadership training programs. Despite numerous studies, the relationship between the character traits of a leader, on the one hand, and production efficiency and job satisfaction, on the other hand, has not been identified. There is no universal type of leader, which served as a prerequisite for the development of other approaches to the theory of leadership.

Based on the traditional approach, the situational concept of leadership, proposed by Frank Fiedler, appeared. He assumed that the leader reveals his unique qualities under certain prevailing conditions, and under various circumstances in each case he manifests them in his own way. In situational concepts of leadership, special attention is paid to the impact of external factors that have a significant impact on a person's ability to lead a team.

Common to traditional and situational concepts of leadership is the assumption that the result of managerial activity is interconnected with the leader's leadership qualities, that is, both can be changed.

As a result, new concepts of leadership were created. The most famous of these are the concepts of attributive leadership (analyst), charismatic leadership, and transformative leadership (reformer).

All of them have a right to exist, but none of them fully reflects the phenomenon of leadership, which to this day remains a mystery.

26. SELECTION OF A FOREIGN PARTNER

Of all the available potential partners, one should try to choose those who can best understand the business strategy, agree on production and marketing projects, and establish contacts with local firms, for example, transport.

Then comes a stage where negotiations on cooperation take place. The goals of cooperation are set before the partners, confidence is instilled in the reality of the tasks set, such requirements should be clear and understandable. Information about a potential partner is compiled in a certain order and contains information about:

1) former specialization;

2) companies (address, telephone, information about the field of activity, etc.);

3) the degree of competitiveness (market capacity, market share, etc.);

4) company resources (key financial indicators, technologies used, human resources, etc.). The foreign branch must be superior to the local company in terms of technology.

In order to avoid the risk of abandoning a large trading firm, one should choose a firm with a narrower specialization.

These firms prefer to sell small batches of various goods or large batches of products of a limited range, since these firms have their own sales market and they have specific knowledge and connections. The risk of working with such an enterprise includes the possibility of changing the product, which will have greater competitive qualities, as well as the lack of qualified personnel.

Joint activities with local agents that represent several companies at once are dangerous because there is the possibility of hidden competition with the goods and services of other firms using the services of this agent.

When choosing a foreign partner for the final decision, attention should be paid to which of the potential partners enjoys more support and respect from local authorities and government circles.

It should be known in advance whether firms in the host country will be able to adopt the strategy of the parent company and whether they are ready to follow it.

It is more reasonable to contact a sociable partner, but sociability plays far from the main role.

Sometimes local companies that prefer a formal style of communication have more opportunities, connections and work more efficiently and professionally.

27. PROJECT MANAGEMENT

In connection with the collapse of the USSR and the opening of the Iron Curtain, it became necessary to study the Western experience of management.

Western management has brought to Russia many new trends that had previously been neglected. One of these areas is project management.

The concept of project management is based on the concept of "project", which not only refers to the number of management objects with individual characteristics, but is also based on the uniqueness of the goal, limited time and other resources.

Project management is a management activity based on the rigorous development of a model of activities for the implementation of specific tasks and the achievement of a goal. This type of management applies to any kind of activity.

The initial condition is the definition of the goal. The goal should contain a certain amount of novelty arising from internal or external conditions, it can be divided into parts, in accordance with which further types of work are determined.

A project is a set of tasks or undertakings associated with the achievement of a planned goal, which usually has a unique and unrepeatable character.

Project managers are responsible for three aspects of project implementation: timing, costs, and quality of the result. Effective time management is key.

Critical path method. The critical path in a project is the longest last chain of activities. The length of the critical path is the continuation of the path through the project. Any delays along the critical path lead to an increase in the completion time of the work. To reduce the duration of the project, it is necessary to reduce the length of the critical path.

The slack or slack is the difference between the earliest possible completion time for operations and the latest possible completion time.

This critical path method involves performing four stages of analysis.

The first stage defines the goals and limitations of the project related to the parties to the project implementation - duration, cost and quality.

The second stage determines the duration of operations, works included in the project.

The third stage includes drawing up a network work schedule. At the same time, the analysis of the relations of the order of operations is carried out.

At the fourth stage, a calendar network schedule is compiled based on estimates of the duration of operations and the resulting grid of work and events.

The network schedule will give a clear and understandable picture of the sequence of work for the implementation of the project. It shows the consequences of the delay of any operation in terms of the implementation time of the entire project.

28. PLANNING IN MANAGEMENT

Planning determines the prospect of development and the future state of the production system (both the object and the subject of management, taken together). Planning is an active management process of influencing the system, improves the rate of development of production, contributes to the mobilization of additional reserves, requires the use of advanced methods and forms of influence on the entire production process.

The level and quality of planning are determined by the conditions:

1) the competence of the company's management at all levels of management;

2) qualifications of specialists working in functional units;

3) the presence of an information base and the provision of computer equipment.

In the broad sense of the word, planning is the activity of developing and making a managerial decision.

Planning is the task of showing in a plan what needs to be achieved, by what levers, in accordance with time and space.

Planning involves a set of goals, policy definition, development of activities (mode of action), methods for achieving goals, providing a basis for making subsequent long-term decisions.

Planning is the first stage of management, which is a process that continues until the completion of the planned set of operations.

Planning includes determining:

1) final and intermediate goals;

2) the tasks necessary to achieve the goals;

3) means and methods of their solution;

4) the required resources, their sources and method of distribution.

Planning is necessary to achieve the goals:

1) increasing the controlled market share;

2) anticipation of consumer requirements;

3) ensuring agreed delivery dates;

4) setting the price level, taking into account the conditions of competition.

There are three types of planning:

1) strategic;

2) medium term;

3) tactical.

Features of planning. The process of solving an inexact problem based on subjective estimates is an explanation for many economic phenomena. It is impossible to calculate the sales of products for the next period, relying only on the mathematical apparatus.

In this case, there is no objective criterion to make the forecast reliable.

If, along with objective data, it is necessary to use subjective information, then there is a need for appropriate methodological support for processing the collected data.

29. BUSINESS PLANNING

In order to increase profits, any firm (organization) is constantly developing projects for investing financial resources in the creation of new technologies. Each such project is based on a business plan, which is based on a concept from an idea to the calculation of a specific amount of profit that will be received from its implementation.

A business plan is a concise and precise definition of the proposed business.

Business planning is an independent type of planned activity related to entrepreneurship.

The main purpose of developing a business plan is to plan the company's business activities for the nearest and long-term periods in accordance with market needs.

The main stages of the business planning process:

1) development of a business plan;

2) promotion of the business plan to the market;

3) the stage of implementation of the business plan. The structure of the business plan includes mandatory sections.

The title page and table of contents should consist of the title of the plan itself, an indication of the person who prepared the business plan, the date of its creation, the full name and address of the company, and the customer for whom it was prepared. The table of contents should clearly reveal its main structure, essential points.

In addition, the summary is one of the most important parts of the plan. It is placed at the beginning, but written after it is finalized. The resume includes:

1. Introduction. It reflects the very purpose of the project;

2) description of important parts of the project;

3) conclusion. This part reveals the main activities of the enterprise.

The history of a business is included in a business plan if an organization or a certain firm has been on the market for some time. This part of the business plan reflects the main information about the activities of the company, which can create a favorable impression of it.

The description of the product (or services that the company produces) is one of the important points, since it can immediately determine the degree of novelty in this market and the estimated opportunities for its promotion. Such a section includes a description of the product (or service).

In addition, the development of a marketing and financial plan is necessary. The marketing plan to some extent reveals the policy in the field of trade and service. The choice of a marketing strategy is mandatory at all stages of a business from the introduction of products on the market to its subsequent sale.

To discuss the project with partners, it is determined by what principles the products will be distributed, and other issues of marketing policy are also considered. Much attention is paid to the study of issues of product quality.

30. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATION, ITS MAIN FEATURES

An organization is a consciously coordinated social entity with defined boundaries, functioning on a relatively permanent basis to achieve a common goal or goals. Organization as a term is used in the following meanings:

1) an association of people who interact with each other to achieve certain goals with the help of material, legal, economic and other conditions;

2) a management function, the purpose of which is to create an association or coordinate the actions of its members.

Any organization has a structure - a set of interrelated elements, which includes three components.

1. Technical component - a set of material elements of an organization (buildings, structures, any equipment, special working conditions, technology features, etc.). Such a combination determines the professional and qualification composition of employees.

2. The social component includes a set of participants, formal and informal groups, the definition of connections between them, norms of behavior and spheres of influence.

3. The socio-technical component includes a set of jobs.

The organization system has the following features:

1) integrity, i.e., the formation of a system from a variety of elements interacting with each other;

2) a clear organizational form, i.e., an ordered relationship of all elements;

3) a single goal inherent in all the elements included in the system;

4) emergence, i.e., a qualitatively new property of the whole, which is not present in any individual element.

To implement such structuring, there are signs that allow you to divide the organization into its constituent objects:

1) homogeneity of functions;

2) homogeneity of goals;

3) territorial community of objects. Struct definition! organization gives it stability and the ability to resist and develop in a changing internal and external environment.

The period in which an enterprise operates on the market forms a life cycle consisting of such stages as:

1) origin. Includes the decision to create the company (organization) itself, the development and approval of relevant documentation, the registration of the company and the creation of conditions for its activities;

2) the growth of the company - an increase in the share of its products in the market;

3) development - the search for new directions and forms of activity with the development of existing ones;

4) maturity - the existence of an enterprise without expanding and improving its activities;

5) completion of activities. Associated with the ruin of the company or the achievement of its goals.

31. MISSION AND GOALS OF THE ORGANIZATION

The mission is the very reason for the existence of the enterprise.

The mission is defined in the process of strategic planning.

Its adoption allows you to determine the purpose of the activities of a given enterprise or firm, does not give managers the opportunity to focus on personal interests.

For example, Henry Ford defined the mission of his company as providing people with cheap vehicles.

To select a mission, it is necessary to clearly and clearly determine which people will be specific clients of the company, what needs it will satisfy.

The choice of mission normalizes the stability of any activity, determines the basic principles of work. On the basis of the mission, the goals of the activity are indicated.

The most successful can be called such a definition of the company's mission, which is based on an ideal idea of the company's goal, an "impossible dream" that sets the direction for the development of the organization for the next 10-20 years.

The purpose of the activity is the desired state of the control object after a certain time. The overall work of the staff depends on the correct formulation of the goal.

But no matter how well the goals of the enterprise are formulated, they must be communicated to the staff, which often does not happen at our enterprises.

Goals can be set based on principles such as:

1) achievability and reality. Goals should be in line with the abilities of employees;

2) specificity and measurability;

3) availability of deadlines;

4) the elasticity of goals, the possibility of their adjustment. This principle is especially relevant in our constantly changing environment. The goals of the enterprise are divided into short-term, medium-term and long-term.

1. Short-term goals are determined for no more than a quarter or 1 year. This may be an increase in the assortment at a trading enterprise, and the sale of stale goods at a certain time, etc.

2. Medium-term goals. Installed for a period of 1 to 3 years. This is both an increase in capacity and an improvement in quality.

3. Long term goals. Such goals are determined for a period of 3 to 10 years. They include the development of new markets and the universalization of production.

The time for achieving the goals is determined by each enterprise in accordance with its capabilities.

Only if the enterprise has a mission and a goal, it can proceed to further activities.

32. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

All organizations are open systems. Almost all of them are influenced by the external environment. The manager must keep the focus on the internal variables of the organization and assess the state of the external environment.

The main internal variables of the organization include goals, structure, tasks, technology and people.

A goal is a result that an organization (or person) seeks to achieve. In the management process, the leader develops the goals of the organization and communicates them to the performers. Purpose is a powerful factor. Every organization has a large number of goals.

As goals for trade enterprises, there may be an increase in the volume of trade, an increase in the distribution channels for products, an increase in market share, etc.

The structure of the organization is the relationship between management levels and functional areas that most effectively achieve the goals of the organization. The structure is based on delegation of authority. Jobs are assigned to those workers who can do the job better.

Tasks are a series of work or a piece of work that must be completed in a prescribed manner within a predetermined timeframe. There is an assumption that if all the tasks of the organization are carried out in a certain way in a timely manner, then the activities of the organization will be successful.

People are the personnel of the organization that create its product, form the culture of the organization, its internal climate. They define what the organization is in essence. Organizations are always trying to take advantage of the different abilities of their employees when deciding what position and what job a particular employee will perform. This is the use of the benefits of specialization.

Any enterprise is also affected by the external environment. There are factors of direct impact and indirect impact of the external environment.

Direct impact factors include:

1) law;

2) suppliers;

3) competitors;

4) consumers;

5) trade unions.

Factors of indirect influence include:

1) the state of the economy;

2) scientific and technological progress;

3) politics;

4) socio-cultural factor;

5) international factor. The head of the enterprise is unable to change the external environment. Therefore, he must study it and adapt to it. He must know that the external environment has the following characteristics:

1) complexity, since it is characterized by a large number of factors to which the organization must respond to some extent;

2) mobility - the speed with which a change occurs in the environment surrounding the organization;

3) uncertainty, because if there is little information or there are doubts about its accuracy, the environment becomes more uncertain.

33. LAWS AND PRINCIPLES OF THE FUNCTIONING OF ORGANIZATIONS

The activity of the organization is subject to laws, investigative relationships of phenomena, i.e. if one event occurs, then it always entails a certain effect.

Laws can be divided into two types: natural and artificial.

1. All life on Earth is subject to natural laws, including man as part of nature.

2. Artificial laws are created by man himself and regulate his activities as a social being.

The principles of organization are the general rules for the formation of systems in nature and society, ensuring their orderliness and expediency of functioning.

The general principles of the organization include:

1) the principle of compatibility. The implementation of this principle ensures the creation of the unity of the elements that make up the production process;

2) the principle of updating. Here, all possible functions of the system and the relationships between its elements are identified;

3) the principle of mobility. Conscious support for the development of the system, increasing organization;

4) the principle of concentration. The subordination of the functions of each element of the system to its main, main function.

Private principles of organization:

1) the principle of specialization - narrowing the range of products and, in accordance with this, limiting the varieties of technological processes performed;

2) the principle of parallelism - the simultaneous execution of a number of technological operations. Performing the same operation at several workplaces;

3) the principle of direct flow - the rationality of transferring the product from one technological machine to another;

4) the principle of proportionality - the alignment of all technological and transport machines in terms of productivity, and production sites and workshops - in terms of production capacity;

5) the principle of continuity - the complete elimination or reduction to a minimum of interruptions between successive technological operations and stages;

6) the principle of rhythm - the work of the enterprise in a planned rhythm;

7) uniformity - the release of the same amount of products at regular intervals or the performance of the same amount of work;

8) automaticity - the organization of production, which ensures minimal labor costs;

9) the principle of reliability - ensuring the smooth interaction of all production processes.

34. LIFE CYCLE AND TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONS

The stages of the life of an organization are as follows: it is born, then develops, achieves certain successes, weakens and ceases to exist. Every day new organizations arise, and at the same time as some other organizations appear, they disappear forever.

At the moment, there are two options for dividing the life cycle of an organization. The first option includes:

1) the stage of entrepreneurship - the stage of formation of the organization. At this level, its life cycle of future products is just beginning to form, the goals are not clearly defined;

2) the stage of collectivity - the stage at which the innovative processes formed at the previous stage develop, here the very mission of the organization is determined. The structure of the organization and the communication process are not clearly defined;

3) the stage of formalization and management - the stage at which the most clear structure of the organization is built, a network of various rules is formed. The stability of the processes occurring within the organization is constant. Bodies for the development and adoption of decisions become the main ones;

4) the stage of developing the structure - a stage characterized by an increase in the production of products and the expansion of the market for the provision of services. Here, new development opportunities are already being identified. The processes in the organization become the most complex and mature. Decisions are already made decentralized; 5) the stage of decline - the stage where competition intensifies more, the demand for the organization's products or services decreases. At this level, the need for workers who have the most valuable specialties increases. New leaders are trying to delay the decline.

The second option for highlighting the life cycle of an organization includes such stages as:

1) birth. At this stage, it is necessary to fully focus on achieving goals;

2) childhood. The greatest number of failures occurs during the first years after the emergence of the organization. A high rate of increasing success must be maintained;

3) adolescence. This is the so-called transitional period of growth of the organization. Coordination is carried out below the optimal level;

4) flourishing of forces. The organization of balanced growth is important. Structure, coordination, stability and control should be as important as innovation, improvement of all parts and decentralization;

5) full maturity. The organization may well operate on its own. Organizational growth is slowing down. Organizational weaknesses arise;

6) aging. This stage occurs if the management of the organization did not realize the need for renewal at the previous stages;

7) update. This stage can be initiated by a new leadership team.

35. QUALITY MANAGEMENT

According to ISO 8402, "quality is the totality of the characteristics of an object relating to its ability to satisfy specified or implied requirements."

For the first time the term "quality" was analyzed by Aristotle in the XNUMXrd century. BC e. By quality, he understood the difference between objects on the basis of "good - bad."

Product quality has recently become of great importance due to the integration of the market, scientific and technological progress and the ever-increasing demands of consumers.

There are a great many parameters that determine the quality of a product, and for each they are different. In this regard, there was a need for such a trend in management as quality management. This is the activity of managing all stages of the product life cycle and its interaction with the external environment.

All over the world, product quality systems began to be developed, of which there are already several hundred at the moment.

Their common task is to produce goods that meet the requirements of consumers in all respects.

Quality includes internal and external components.

The internal components of quality are the characteristics of the manufactured product. These include service life, absence of defects, specifications, design, etc.

The external components of quality are the conformity of the product to the needs of the consumer and competitiveness.

In our country, the development of quality systems began only in the middle of the XNUMXth century, but, as it turned out later, all of them turned out to be ineffective, since little attention was paid to the motivation of workers.

Since 1997, quality systems have been developed in accordance with the requirements of the international organization for standardization ISO.

This organization began its activity in 1946.

The introduction of certified quality systems gives the company significant advantages over the market.

The fundamental principle of any quality system is the continuous improvement of product quality, because otherwise the cost of it will be meaningless due to the ever-increasing demands of customers.

The management of the quality department describes in detail the system for all elements of the company's activities as a whole. It contains the structural and functional diagrams of the quality department (service).

Currently, the most widespread (both throughout the world and in Russia) are such quality systems as QMS (Quality Management System) and TQM (Total Quality Management).

36. RISK MANAGEMENT

Risk accompanies any activity of an organization or firm, as the situation is constantly changing, conditions of uncertainty are created. For the greatest accuracy in determining the possibility of such an event, objective information is collected based on mathematical or statistical methods of analysis.

Such information is used by insurance companies, which, on the basis of statistical data, calculate the amount of premiums and insurance premiums for each type of insurance.

Risk is the probability of loss or loss of any income.

This is the threat of losing one's resources or part of the resources.

Naturally, at a certain stage, the so-called risk situation arises. The modern market environment is impossible without risk.

A risk situation is a determined degree of probability of one or another variant of circumstances or conditions that facilitate or hinder the implementation of a given action.

The conditions for the development of a risky situation are:

1) the presence of uncertainty;

2) the need for an alternative;

3) the ability to assess the likelihood of implementation of the chosen alternatives.

Risk management methods: 1) risk avoidance - refusal to carry out an activity that, for one reason or another, may be associated with a risk;

2) reducing the degree of risk - reducing the likelihood and volume of losses;

3) acceptance of risk - leaving the entire risk or part of it to the entrepreneur.

If the enterprise has an insufficiently developed communication system, then the level of risk of the enterprise's activities increases. This leads to the collection of inaccurate information, on the basis of which management decisions are developed and implemented. To reduce the probability of loss of the managerial decision being made, it is necessary to collect all available information (both primary and secondary).

Secondary includes information that was once already collected. You can get such information from the archive of the enterprise, balance sheets, reports, various orders, etc.

External information includes information obtained from the environment (these are various exhibitions, fairs), as well as from advertising, various publications. The advantages of secondary information are its speed of obtaining and accessibility.

Primary information is collected only if information from secondary sources does not provide an objective picture of the situation. The process of collecting such information is purposeful. The method is expensive. It takes a lot of money and time. The information collected is used as secondary information.

37. STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

The term "strategic management" appeared in the 1960s and 1970s. The need to introduce strategic management is explained by the fact that managers need to respond appropriately and timely to the changes taking place in it.

A strategy is a model of the actions required to achieve the set goals by coordinating and allocating the organization's resources. A strategy is a general program of action for an organization, setting priorities, resources, and a sequence of steps to achieve a strategic goal.

The strategy, in turn, is of the following types.

1. Basic strategy - a model of behavior of the entire organization as a whole.

2. Functional strategy - a set of measures and programs for the development of individual functional areas and departments of the organization.

Strategic management or strategic management is the activity of strategic management. Such activities are associated with setting goals and objectives of the organization, with maintaining relationships between the organization and the environment, which make it possible to achieve their goals.

The task of strategic management is to achieve the goals of the organization through the optimal use of its internal reserves, taking into account environmental factors.

For a complete understanding of the strategy management system, attention should be paid to the principles and functions of strategic management. The principles of strategic management are:

1) scientific character;

2) unity of direction;

3) economy;

4) efficiency;

5) obtaining personal interests in communication;

6) staff motivation;

7) division of labor;

8) corporatism of the function of strategic management, similar to the general functions of management;

9) planning;

10) organization;

11) motivation;

12) control.

Strategic management can be viewed as a series of management processes that logically follow one from the other, and each process has an impact on the entire system as a whole.

Environmental analysis is the initial process of strategy management. At this stage, an analysis of the internal environment of the enterprise and its environment is carried out. The mission is the expressed goals and intentions of the organization, i.e. the mission reveals the meaning of the organization's existence. After the mission and goals are defined, the stage of analysis and strategy selection begins, which is the center of the strategy management system. With the help of special techniques, the organization can determine how it can achieve the realization of its goals and realize its mission.

38. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRATEGY

Strategic management activities have a huge impact on the life cycle of an organization. Executing a strategy is not the same as managing. If the company's strategy is defined, then it is necessary to start work on its implementation.

The tasks of implementing the strategy include:

1) prioritization among administrative tasks so that their relative importance is consistent with the strategy that will be implemented;

2) establishing a correspondence between the chosen strategy and internal organizational processes in order to orient the main activities of the organization towards the implementation of the chosen strategy;

3) selection and alignment with the ongoing strategy of leadership style.

All three tasks are solved through change, because change is the core of the execution of the strategy. Such a change is called a strategic change.

Such changes in the organization leads to the fact that it can create the conditions necessary for the implementation of the chosen strategy. The main factors that determine change in an organization are as follows:

1) the state of the industry;

2) the state of the organization;

3) the state of the market;

4) the condition of the product.

Currently, there are several types of stable and characterized by a certain completeness of types of changes:

1) the restructuring of the organization involves a fundamental change in the organization. When such a restructuring is carried out, the greatest difficulties with the implementation of the strategy are observed;

2) a radical transformation is carried out in the implementation of the strategy, if the organization does not change the industry;

3) moderate transformation is carried out when the organization enters the world market with a new product. Here the changes concern the production process as well as marketing;

4) the usual changes are related to the implementation of transformations in marketing and are not significant;

5) the unchanging functioning of the organization occurs when it consistently implements the same strategy. The strategy does not need to make any changes. An organization can get good results based on the accumulated experience. Making strategic change in an organization is one of the most difficult tasks. The difficulty in solving this problem lies in the first place in the fact that any change meets with resistance.

To carry out changes, it is necessary to do the following: analyze and predict what resistance the planned change may meet; reduce this resistance as much as possible, regardless of whether it is potential or real; set the status quo of a new state.

39. STRATEGY OF THE FIRM'S INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

The international activity of the company is the activity of exporting and importing goods, capital, various technologies and services. This is the implementation of projects jointly with organizations from other countries.

The strategic goals of the importer include:

1) modernization of the production base of the company;

2) achieving savings on the replacement of equipment, raw materials, components;

3) increase in profits by capturing new domestic markets;

4) expansion of the range.

The strategic goals of the exporter are:

1) expansion of production;

2) achieving economies of scale in production;

3) an increase in the firm's foreign exchange resources. The management of any firm must be aware of what features of the home country determine the ability or inability of the firm to create and maintain an advantage at the international level.

International trade allows the country as a whole to increase the productivity of its production. In our time, there is a globalization of international relations. The firm will be successful in the market if it uses the factors of competitive advantages more effectively.

The foreign economic policy of the state has a considerable influence on the strategy of any company.

There are four main types of foreign economic strategy of the state:

1) the strategy of isolation - the strategy of excluding the state from world economic relations, is carried out solely for political reasons;

2) the strategy of protectionism - the strategy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition. Such a strategy is adopted if national production is not competitive;

3) free trade strategy - a strategy for minimizing restrictions on foreign trade;

4) the strategy of filling the scarce market ("protectionism on the contrary") - an effective strategy only in cases of a large scarce national market, in which there is a place for everyone. There are so-called levers that allow the state to regulate foreign trade relations:

1) tariff restrictions - high rates of customs duties for both exports and imports;

2) non-tariff restrictions.

40. WAYS TO MOBILIZE THE RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE

It is not enough for an organization to create the necessary conditions for achieving strategic goals. In order for the organization to successfully follow the developed strategy, it is necessary to form and mobilize the resources of the organization and its human potential.

Currently, there are two main areas in this area:

1) the commitment of the organization's personnel. It is very difficult to create this, the management of the company must do everything so that the employees develop a stable perception of the strategy as their personal achievement;

2) the presence of positive results in the implementation of the strategy.

Their appearance depends on what employees do to achieve successful work in their business.

The process of resource mobilization itself begins with the fact that the mechanism for using the resource potential of the organization is brought into line with the strategy of the organization.

Here, issues related to the list of works of the functional divisions of the organization are resolved.

This is necessary to ensure that all structural units have a focus, the implementation of the strategy. This means that all new tasks must be brought to the functional units.

To implement the strategy, the main task is developed by the management of the organization. It addresses two main issues related to making strategic changes and mobilizing the capacity of the organization.

The main tool for allocating resources is the budget. It can concern not only cash, but also stocks, capital funds, sales, etc.

Direct execution is often the most difficult step in any process. Implementation of the strategy includes making strategic changes, mobilizing the organization's capacity to implement the strategy.

These two tasks require leaders of the organization to have a clear vision of the process and direction of the organization.

It is necessary to mobilize the resources of the organization as much as possible and distribute them so that their use has an effect, to make changes, to build relationships with the members of the organization.

A firm that plans to win a part of the market enters into a competitive struggle, in which the survival of the enterprise can be ensured in two ways:

1) an attack on the leader. This can be done if the enterprise has competitive advantages;

2) an attack on a smaller competitor who cannot resist the onslaught of the firm and is losing ground.

41. THE CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION, ITS ESSENCE. EVOLUTION OF MOTIVATION

One of the main tasks of the manager is always the definition of goals (the functioning of the organization and the effective distribution of planned work). Effective distribution allows the manager to directly control the activities of his employees. When implementing such a management process, managers can use various principles of influencing an employee, which are called motivation.

Motivation is the process of inducing people to engage in business activity in order to achieve personal goals as well as the goals of the organization.

Motivation is a combination of internal and external driving forces. Such forces induce a person to any activity, set certain forms and give it an orientation focused on achieving certain goals. Motives are always driven by needs.

The original and simplest concepts of motivation include the policy of carrots and sticks, as well as attempts to use the methods of psychology in management.

Before the term "motivation" came into use, it was known that it was possible to deliberately influence people to achieve the goals of the organization. There are many examples in history in which kings held a reward before the eyes of a hero. However, the reward was not offered to everyone, the very fact that people would be grateful for anything that would allow them to survive was considered here.

In 1910, the first school of scientific management arose, it advocated the separation of managerial functions and responsibilities. The founder of this school is G. Taylor. He discovered and developed the "economic man" model. The meaning was that a person performs his work only to obtain a certain amount of profit, i.e. payment for his work.

G. Taylor singled out the following basic principles of scientific management:

1) the creation of a scientific foundation - it meant the study of each individual type of labor action;

2) selection of workers and managers, their training and education based on scientific criteria;

3) effective cooperation between managers and workers in the field of introducing a scientific organization of labor;

4) effective delegation of authority. Each of the participants must accurately and timely perform their work. Attempts to use psychological motives in management began with the appearance of the works of Elton Mayo (1880-1949). This is a man with an academic education of his time. E. Mayo determined that the solution to the problem of reducing staff turnover lies in changing working conditions, and not in increasing remuneration for it. He is the author of the idea of increasing breaks during work. The results from the implementation of this idea were not long in coming.

42. MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Modern theories of motivation can be divided into two categories: content and process.

The main theorists of the content theory of motivation are David McClelland, Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg.

Representatives of this theory were sure that a person has internal motivating factors called needs.

Such theories of motivation are considered complementary rather than mutually exclusive.

In order to fully understand the meaning of the content or process theories of motivation, it is necessary to understand the meaning of such concepts as need and reward, since they are fundamental links of motivation.

A need is a lack of something, a desire to have something without which a person feels uncomfortable. Today, there are two types of needs - primary and secondary.

Primary needs are the most basic needs that can be classified as physiological, since they appear in a person along with his birth.

Secondary needs are psychological in nature. These include the need for success, creative self-realization, respect, power, etc.

Here the concept of "reward" means a broader sense than money or pleasure.

A reward is everything that a person considers valuable for himself. Distinguish between internal and external rewards.

Internal reward occurs during the very process of work, as internal reward can be considered friendship and communication that arose between people in the course of any activity.

The simplest ways to ensure this type of remuneration are the creation of appropriate working conditions and the precise setting of tasks.

External rewards, unlike internal rewards, do not arise in the process of work. This type of remuneration should be considered as material remuneration in the form of wages, benefits, benefits, bonuses, income, etc.

Non-material rewards are needed in the form of career advancement, praise, etc.

In order to use intrinsic and extrinsic rewards more effectively to motivate, you need to accurately identify the real needs of your employees.

In practice, many well-known firms have received widespread motivation methods associated with material incentives, and those methods in which employees participate in the distribution of profits.

43. WAYS TO IMPROVE LABOR MOTIVATION

To date, there are five main areas for improving labor motivation:

1) material incentives;

2) improving the quality of the labor force;

3) improvement of labor organization;

4) involvement of personnel in the management process;

5) non-monetary incentives. Financial incentives are one of the most effective and common forms of staff motivation.

This is one of the so-called levers of influence on a certain employee in the implementation of motivation.

Such stimulation occurs through the system of remuneration, bonuses, allowances, etc.

This also includes the ability of staff to participate in the capital of the enterprise and the distribution of profits with direct participation in the management of the organization through the purchase by the employee of the company's shares.

Such stimulation instills self-confidence in the employee, makes him satisfied with his work, the team.

When applying this method, the manager pursues the goal that the employee himself shows initiative, determination, improves the quality of work and deserves appreciation and gratitude.

Improving the quality of labor organization consists in setting goals, expanding labor functions, using flexible schedules for completing tasks, and improving working conditions.

A correctly set goal can serve as a motivating factor for an employee of an enterprise.

The very essence of using this method of motivation is to reduce working hours.

Setting a goal is a motive for an employee of an enterprise, it is the need for a person to have certain benefits after a certain period of time.

Improving working conditions is a topical issue that every organization must address.

Improving working conditions is not only a need, but also a motive that encourages work with a certain return.

Expansion of labor functions - this function includes the introduction of various additional duties and operations performed by the employee.

Such an event is aimed at increasing the working cycle and labor intensity.

44. THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION IN THE WEST

In the West, there are a large number of theories of labor motivation. One of them is McClelland's theory.

It emphasizes such needs as power and success.

A person who has power behaves most energetically, he has a desire to defend his point of view, he is not afraid of conflicts and does not avoid them.

A person who is successful in something is not inclined to take risks, but is able to take responsibility for himself.

Such individuals must be given independence and the opportunity to bring the matter to the end.

A well-known scientist in the field of leadership D. McGregor identifies two basic principles of influencing people's behavior.

They were laid down in the foundations of two theories - theory X and theory Y.

Theory X is based on an authoritarian type of government that involves direct regulation and tight control.

In accordance with it, people do not like to work, and they must be forced to work, constantly monitored.

Theory Y is based on democratic principles of delegation of authority, on improving relationships, recognizing that a complex set of needs and expectations determines the motivation of people.

It is assumed here that work is the natural state of man and should not be forced to do so.

A. Maslow considered external factors of motivation: salary, relationships in the team, behavior of managers, etc. These are factors that cause a certain strategy of employee behavior.

In his opinion, external factors do not always contribute to the motivation of employees, but only minimize the likelihood of a feeling of job dissatisfaction.

A. Maslow put forward a managerial function, called "management". The essence of this function is to create conditions under which the worker, making efforts to achieve his personal goals, achieves the goals of the organization.

One of the main merits of Western theorists is the proof that high wages do not always lead to high labor productivity.

No less important factors are the quality of relationships between people working in the same team, their needs, which can only indirectly be satisfied with the help of money.

45. THE THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION D. MCKLELAND

David McClelland believed that there are three top-level needs. They can motivate employees. He referred to them:

1) the need to achieve the goal;

2) the need for connection;

3) the need for power.

Let's take a closer look at these needs.

1. The need for achievement, or the need for success, lies somewhere between the need for respect and the need for self-expression. The employee must set certain goals for himself, for the implementation of which he makes certain efforts.

For him, the result is important. D. McClelland notes that an important indicator of success is the availability of money in a person.

To motivate an employee who has a need for success, it is necessary to set a clear task for him and regularly encourage him in accordance with the results of his work.

If there is a need to motivate people with a need for success, then first of all it is necessary to set them a task with a moderate degree of difficulty.

2. The need to join, or the need to belong, reveals the person's need to work with the team.

The need to join according to McClelland has common features with the social need according to A. Maslow. Here a person appreciates the relationships that he has with other people.

These include communication in a team, friendship, support and mutual assistance.

Work carried out by an employee in a team united by certain common goals is the most effective.

For an employee who needs to join, the main factors will be the presence of a friendly atmosphere in the team and the possibility of easy communication.

3. The need for power is expressed in the desire to lead, to influence other people in any way. Such people most often manifest themselves as frank and energetic personalities.

People with a need for power are not always careerists.

Analyzing ways to satisfy the need for power, McClelland noted that people with a need for power must be prepared in advance for occupying senior leadership positions, since it is in this area that a person will be able to work most effectively.

It is necessary to enable the employees themselves to make responsible decisions on their own and set goals that will be relevant for the entire team.

46. THE THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION F. HERZBERG

Frederik Herzberg in the second half of the 1950s using the semi-structured interview method, he was able to identify factors that affect job satisfaction, as a result of which he created a motivation model based on human needs.

F. Herzberg singled out two large categories of factors, calling them "hygienic factors" and "motivation".

F. Herzberg referred to hygienic factors such as:

1) company policy and administration;

2) working conditions;

3) earnings;

4) a guarantee of work as the presence or absence of confidence in the future;

5) interpersonal relationships both horizontally and vertically;

6) the degree of direct control over the work.

According to F. Herzberg, motivation included:

1) success;

2) achievements in work, promotion, opportunities for creative and business growth;

3) responsibility as the degree of control over one's work and the manifestation of power over other employees;

4) recognition and approval of the results of work. Hygienic factors are inextricably linked to the environment in which work is carried out. Motivation is related to the very nature and essence of the work. According to F. Herzberg, with an insufficient degree or no hygienic factors at all, a person becomes dissatisfied with his work.

These factors correspond to physiological needs, safety needs. However, A. Maslow considered hygienic factors as a strategy of behavior.

F. Herzberg put forward the theory that the process of gaining satisfaction and the process of growing dissatisfaction are not opposite processes, since when the factors that cause dissatisfaction are eliminated, satisfaction will not necessarily come. And vice versa, if any factor contributed to the growth of satisfaction, this does not mean at all that in the absence of this factor, dissatisfaction will arise.

As a result, it was concluded that the factors that caused job satisfaction and those that cause job dissatisfaction are completely different factors, that is, the concept of satisfaction and the concept of dissatisfaction are not directly opposite to each other.

Thus, the lack of satisfaction is the opposite of the feeling of satisfaction, and the lack of dissatisfaction is the opposite of the feeling of dissatisfaction.

47. THE THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION A. MASLOW

A significant contribution to the theory of motivation was made by Abraham Maslow, who developed the hierarchy of human needs, thanks to which it became known about the complex structure of human needs and their direct impact on motivation. Working on his theory of motivation in the 1940s, A. Maslow determined the sequence of their occurrence, i.e., the hierarchy.

Physiological needs come first. Such needs are necessary for the survival of the individual. These include the needs for food, water, rest, etc.

Needs for security and confidence in the future are in second place. These include the need for protection from physical and psychological dangers from the outside world, as well as confidence in the ability to satisfy physiological needs in the future.

Social needs take the third place.

They include a sense of belonging to someone (something).

Esteem needs are in fourth place. These include the need for self-esteem, competence, respect from others, recognition, etc.

Needs for self-expression are in fifth place. This refers to the realization of their potential and growth as a person.

This broad distinction of needs was made in view of one important feature, which is that a person gives preference to the satisfaction of primary needs.

It is quite natural that the satisfaction of secondary needs is carried out only after the primary needs are satisfied.

This principle of satisfying needs is called the principle of hierarchy, or dominance.

This theory has made a great contribution to understanding what underlies the desire of people to carry out labor activity.

In order to properly and successfully motivate an employee, the manager must provide him with the opportunity to satisfy his most important need in such a way as to achieve the goals of the organization.

Working with the confidence that he is safe, feeling protected, a person will certainly strive for vigorous activity and social contacts, for respect from others.

Feeling the internal satisfaction and respect of others, a person will receive an incentive to grow his capabilities in proportion to his needs.

48. COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENT

Communication (from the English communicate - "transmit, report") is something in which each of us participates daily, but only a few do it in concert.

It is almost impossible to overestimate the role of communication in management.

Communication is also defined as the transfer of information from one person to another.

Communication is a direct process of exchanging information, experience, any information.

Communication is an integral part of the functioning of any enterprise.

The manager spends on it from 50 to 90% of his working time.

Communications allow you to control activities both within the enterprise and in the external environment.

Communications in the enterprise (or internal communications) are divided into two types: vertical and horizontal.

Vertical, in turn, are divided into ascending and descending.

Horizontal communication is the process of exchanging information between employees of the same level.

Such communications take place in order to exchange the results of work, experience and personal information.

Vertical communications are the exchange of information between employees of different ranks, for example, between a manager and a subordinate.

Upward communication is the process of transferring any information from performers to the leader. This type of information transfer is most often carried out in the form of any reports.

Downward communication is the process of transferring information from a manager to subordinates, for example, sending instructions to employees.

With external communications - here the exchange of information takes place between the enterprise and the external environment. The success of the company depends on the effectiveness of the organization of this process. The better such a structure is debugged at the enterprise, the more productive this enterprise works. In addition to the division into internal and external, communications are divided into verbal and non-verbal.

Non-verbal communication is communication through facial expressions, gestures, and glances. Such methods of communication by themselves are used quite rarely, especially when it comes to some kind of business negotiations.

But a good psychologist will always be able to read his interlocutor's real attitude to the issue under discussion by the expression on his face. Very often, in the process of communication, non-verbal symbols can be supplemented by verbal ones.

Verbal communication is the process of communication that we are most familiar with. The process of communicating using words, which can be either written or spoken.

During the operation of the enterprise, the written form, the so-called do-

49. COMMUNICATION PROCESS, TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS

The communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people.

The main goals of the communication process is to ensure the understanding and transfer of information that is the subject of communication.

But the very fact of information exchange does not guarantee the effectiveness of communication between people participating in such an exchange. It is practically impossible to understand the process of information exchange and the conditions for its effectiveness without understanding the participants, stages and elements of the communication process.

Currently, there are four basic elements in the process of information exchange:

1) sender - a person who collects information and transmits it;

2) message - the actual information itself;

3) channel - a means of transmitting information;

4) recipient - the person to whom the information is intended.

In the process of information exchange, the sender and recipient go through several interrelated stages:

1) the birth of an idea;

2) coding and channel selection;

3) transfer;

4) decoding.

Communication is carried out equally when sending a message to someone, and when receiving it.

When sending a message, we try to put a certain meaning into the words. When receiving a message, everyone understands it in their own way and, in accordance with this, we give an appropriate response.

It is believed that communication was carried out effectively if the interlocutors who discussed a particular topic or situation came to an understanding and made common conclusions.

The very birth of an idea is the initial stage of the communication process. It is here that the sender of information decides that an idea or some message needs to be made the subject of an exchange.

At this stage, great importance is given to the formation and formulation of the message.

Communications in the enterprise are divided into two types: vertical and horizontal, and vertical, in turn, into ascending and descending.

Horizontal communication is the process of exchanging information between employees of the same level, such as line managers, who do not report to each other.

Horizontal communications occur with the aim of exchanging the results of work, experience and personal information.

Upward communication is the process of transferring information from performers to the leader. Downward communication is the process of transferring information from a leader to subordinates.

The communication process is very important for the effective operation of any organization, and communication skills are an integral part of a professional manager.

50. CONTROL IN MANAGEMENT

Control is the main function of management, which is perceived as coercion and restriction. The function of control that a manager performs is to enforce obedience to someone or something.

Preliminary control is carried out before the start of the work performed (checking the quality of raw materials, equipment readiness, etc.). Identification and elimination at the initial stage of a significant mass of obstacles in the future helps to reduce the number of defects in production. There are three areas of preliminary control:

1) when recruiting, when the employer puts forward a number of strict requirements that the candidate must meet. This concerns, first of all, professional skills (qualifications);

2) when developing the material and technical base, when the work is based on existing standards (GOSTs, OSTs, TUs, etc.) for the quality of raw materials, products and technical characteristics of equipment;

3) when solving financial issues, when the budget of the enterprise is drawn up, indicating all income and expenses, as well as a business plan based on the current activities of the enterprise.

Current control is carried out during the execution of work (in the production process). Such control is carried out in order to identify shortcomings in the process of work performed and allows you to eliminate emerging shortcomings and the causes that cause them.

The disadvantage of this type of control is its high cost, which can lead to an increase in the price of finished products.

The final control is carried out according to the results of the enterprise. Its main purpose is to identify substandard products at the stage of their final production in order to prevent substandard products from entering the market.

All of the above types of control are carried out in three stages.

1. Establishment of planned indicators. This is the stage of control, at which certain goals and tasks are set, which must be solved in order to achieve a particular goal.

2. Comparison of planned results with actual ones. At this stage, the planned indicators are compared with those actually obtained as a result of the completion of the work.

If the compared indicators do not match, the level of deviations from the specified parameters is determined, which can be negative and positive.

3. The process of implementing corrective actions. This is the final stage of control, at which work on errors is carried out. A number of actions are being taken to improve the specific indicator in the future.

51. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Business communication is, first of all, communication that generates the process of direct or indirect interaction of participants in communication. From this we can conclude that at first there is an interaction, then - social and psychological relations between people. Therefore, it is necessary to choose and use the means of communication correctly, as well as to overcome communication barriers of misunderstanding.

There are three fairly common ways of knowing the interlocutor in communication:

1) identification - identification, which involves assimilation of oneself to the interlocutor and an attempt to look at the situation as if through his eyes;

2) sympathy - empathy, i.e. understanding the interlocutor based on feelings;

3) reflection (turning back) is the knowledge and understanding of the interlocutor.

There are forms of business communication.

1. Business conversation - verbal contact between interlocutors. The functions of a business conversation include solving problems, communication between employees of the same business environment, maintaining and developing business contacts.

2. Business correspondence. The main form is a business letter, it can be in the form of an official document, request, offer, etc.

When compiling a business letter, the main requirement is relevance. It should be short, logical, convincing, without excessive solidarity.

3. A business meeting is a discussion with the aim of resolving organizational problems, includes the collection and analysis of information.

There are the following types of business meetings:

1) according to the form of organization:

a) discussion meeting - free exchange of information;

b) a dictatorial conference;

c) behind-the-scenes is a continuation of another meeting;

2) by target installation:

a) creative, carried out in order to search for new ideas;

b) informational - a report on current activities.

The positional approach is associated with the presence of two alternatives for the interlocutors: to yield and not to yield.

A principled approach involves the desire of participants to compromise and mutual benefit.

Public speaking is communication with a large audience in order to convince them of any ideas put forward by the speaker.

Public speaking is divided into three types:

1) informational;

2) inciting (for example, a rally);

3) persuasive - this is a solemn speech in honor of something.

Public speaking is one of the most important and effective forms of business communication. The speaker must not only have a well-structured speech, but also be a good psychologist, clearly monitor facial expressions,

52. ESSENCE AND CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

A person can be called a manager when he makes organizational decisions or implements them through other people. Decision making is an integral part of any managerial function.

A managerial decision is a certain step (part of the manager's activity), the result of which is the implementation of an action to achieve the goal of the enterprise. This concept is considered as:

1) a fixed management act, resolution, order, etc.;

2) the process of developing and implementing a solution to solve the problem;

3) the choice of an alternative when solving a problem. The object of management decisions may be problems associated with the resolution of any theoretical or practical issues.

There are requirements applied to management decisions - comprehensive validity of decisions; legitimacy; consistency; timeliness; availability of resources; clarity and conciseness.

Almost all management decisions can be considered according to several main criteria:

1) by scale:

a) global (binding decisions);

b) local (affect specific structural divisions of the enterprise);

2) by the duration of the implementation period:

a) short-term (period less than 1 year);

b) medium-term (period from 1 year to 5 years);

c) long-term (a period of 5 years or more);

3) according to the direction of impact:

a) external

b) internal;

4) according to the degree of influence on the future of the organization:

a) strategic (define common goals, further development of the organization);

b) tactical - development of certain methods for achieving long-term goals;

5) by functional purpose:

a) regulatory (method of performing certain actions);

b) coordinators concentrate their efforts around the problem;

c) controlling;

6) according to the obligation to fulfill:

a) directive (subject to mandatory execution and accepted only by the management of the company);

b) advisory (they are not binding, as they are accepted by the company's advisory bodies);

7) according to the degree of programming:

a) programmed (accepted on the basis of existing experience);

b) unprogrammed (there is no specific template when making such a decision);

8) by area of implementation:

a) in the field of research;

b) in the sphere of production;

c) in the field of trade;

d) in the service sector;

e) in the field of personnel management;

9) according to the methods of acceptance:

a) intuitive;

b) adaptive;

53. ALGORITHM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT, ADOPTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

A managerial decision is an activity that requires the manager to be responsible, have professional knowledge and skills, and be aware of new technologies. The effectiveness of the entire enterprise depends on the results of the decision made.

Decisions are based on an analysis of the current activities of the organization, highlighting areas that require changes. In such a process, the essence and relevance of the problem to be solved are determined. As a result of the analysis, a problem is formulated with a list of reasons that caused this problem. Only after this is the setting of a goal that involves solving the problem that has arisen. Next, several possible solutions to the problem are developed. In this case, the main principle is to achieve the maximum result at the lowest cost.

Every decision is a kind of compromise, as a change in the situation can never be all-round positive. The shortcomings of the decisions made can even be very significant, but given the current situation and the final result, they are the most appropriate, so the manager must be able to eliminate them.

Determining the cause of a predicament is already half the solution. Criteria are developed depending on the situation that has arisen, the financial capabilities of the enterprise, potential obstacles and consequences that arise after the decision is made. The development of such criteria, as it were, protects the organization from making decisions that will be impossible to implement.

After analyzing the situation, it is necessary to develop the largest number of possible solutions to a similar problem and compile a kind of database from them. Such a process allows us to find an optimal and objective way out of the current situation in a shorter time.

There are decision-making methods:

1) individual (decisions are made only by the responsible person, i.e. the head);

2) collective (decisions are made during the meeting).

The choice of any alternative should be agreed with the performers and people interested in a positive outcome of the case. Once a decision has been made and made, it is implemented. To do this, a detailed program for the implementation of decisions should be drawn up, which determines the timing, means, and sources of these funds. Control allows you to monitor the execution process and make any changes to it. To maximize its effectiveness, a clear feedback between the management and the performers is necessary.

54. QUALITY OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

A managerial decision is, in general, the result of a manager's activity. The effectiveness of a management decision is defined as the ratio of results to the costs of its implementation. And the effectiveness of the manager, in turn, determines the quality. The quality of management decisions is evidenced by the characteristics that play a certain role in the management process.

In accordance with the essence and purpose, several quality characteristics are distinguished:

1) validity lies in the level of knowledge and use of actually operating laws and principles, it is on their basis that the organization develops;

2) timeliness implies that the greater the need for a given decision at the time of its adoption, the higher the degree of its effectiveness;

3) authority significantly improves the quality of management decisions;

4) rationality - a characteristic of the quality of management decisions in terms of minimizing the investment in its development and implementation;

5) brevity of presentation and understandability for the performer lies in the brevity and clarity of the decision;

6) the consistency of the decisions made with the already existing decisions and regulatory documents regulating the activities of the organization.

In the process of developing management decisions, the following factors should be taken into account:

1) characterization of the problem in terms of its complexity;

2) the development of the problem (determined by the availability of methods, programs and skills for its implementation);

3) information characteristics;

4) limited resources: temporary, labor, financial, logistical, etc.;

5) organizing the development of solutions;

6) competence of managers;

7) subjective factors! such as the ability of team members to work together, their cohesion, etc.;

8) information technologies, with the help of which the collection, analysis and processing of information is carried out.

The high quality of managerial decisions is ensured in the case of a systematic approach to solving the problem. Here, evidence-based methods and models for their implementation should be used. The quality of managerial decisions is enhanced by the use of newer information technologies. The personnel of the organization, its qualitative composition, has a huge influence on the decision made.

The management decision should be as flexible as possible, so that the enterprise had the opportunity to apply the methods and technologies for its implementation with minimal losses.

Despite the fact that the quality of a management decision (efficiency) is its main characteristic, determining its level is associated with a number of difficulties.

55. ESSENCE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RESOURCES

Human resources are such a part of the country's population that has certain qualitative skills and indicators. These qualities include the ability of people to work, which turns them into labor resources.

Labor resources are the totality of the entire able-bodied population of the country, both employed and not employed in economic activity. According to the legislation, labor resources include the population of working age, i.e. it is:

1) men aged 16 to 59;

2) women aged 16 to 54 years. The personnel of the company are all people employed, with the exception of management.

Personnel are employees who are officially on the staff of the organization. For convenience, these concepts are combined into one - "staff", it is characterized by the number and structure. The headcount is the number of employees who are employed or should be employed in a given enterprise (firm). It can be planned (normative) and list (actual).

There are categories of payroll number of employees:

1) permanent - accepted by the enterprise without limitation of the period of work;

2) temporary - accepted by the enterprise for a period of up to 2 months or to replace an absent employee for a period of up to 4 months;

3) seasonal: arranged for seasonal work for up to 6 months.

The classification of employees is as follows:

1) leaders. They form the administration and are divided into managers of the entire enterprise (top level), heads of departments (middle level), managers working with direct executors (lower level);

2) specialists. The most actively involved in the development of instructions given by managers (economists, accountants, engineers, lawyers, etc.);

3) other employees. Engaged in the preparation, processing, accounting, control and archiving of documents. These are assistant secretaries, cashiers, etc.

The personnel structure is characterized by professional and qualification structure and competence.

Profession (specialty) is a set of knowledge and skills acquired in the process of special training and allowing to perform the relevant activities.

The value of human resources lies in the presence of indicators such as profession, qualifications and competence.

A profession is a set of knowledge and skills acquired in the process of special training in an educational institution.

Qualification is the amount of certain knowledge and experience that allows a person to perform a certain level of work.

Competence is the degree to which a person possesses professional skills.

56. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Human resource management is a complex system that includes interrelated structures and subsystems for the creation, use and development of labor resources.

The goals of the subsystem for managing the formation of human resources are as follows:

1) providing the enterprise with appropriate personnel;

2) creation of conditions for the maximum realization of the abilities of employees.

The tasks of the subsystem for managing the formation of human resources are:

1) forecasting and planning the need for employees;

2) analysis of supply and demand in the labor market;

3) attraction, selection and selection of personnel;

4) raising the efficiency of the work performed;

5) improving the quality of the activities of employees and the organization as a whole;

6) a constant increase in the standard of living of workers. The essence of the management subsystem is to develop a targeted development program. Such a program covers all personnel and is an integral part of the organization's development program.

The main guarantee of achieving the goals facing the organization is the effective use of the resources at its disposal, including human resources. This can be achieved by bringing employees' performance goals closer to corporate goals.

A manager must be guided by a number of conditions for successful human resource management. These include:

1) validity, clarity and reality of the goals set;

2) an integrated approach to the analysis of human resource management;

3) the interconnectedness of the various stages of the organization's work;

4) availability of types of resources;

5) compliance of the level of qualification and professionalism of employees with the work performed;

6) control by the head of the implementation of the strategic plan;

7) introduction and use of modern technologies;

8) correct delegation of authority;

9) creation of more flexible working conditions. The following factors stand out! allowing to evaluate the professionalism of human resource management:

1) professional training of employees;

2) competence and motivation of professional activity;

3) organizational environment for the implementation of professionalism.

Currently, the issue of improving the system of training leaders, creating conditions for the manifestation of professionalism is relevant.

57. HUMAN RESOURCE PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

The efficiency of the enterprise is not only in the number of human resources, but also in the correspondence of the qualifications and abilities of employees to their positions. For more efficient work, it is necessary to form personnel in accordance with the following indicators:

1) the actual number of employees, it includes permanent and temporary employees;

2) the composition of employees by the nature of the activities performed, i.e. the main, auxiliary, administrative;

3) the composition of employees according to socio-demographic characteristics:

gender, age, religious denomination, nationality and other indicators;

4) qualification level of human resources.

The effectiveness of the use of human resources can be assessed by the following indicators:

1) the volume of production per worker;

2) labor productivity per unit of time, both in kind and in value terms;

3) the time spent on the production of a unit of output;

4) undesirable staff turnover;

5) the ratio of working time lost by employees to the total number of working hours for a certain period;

6) lost productivity (the product of value added per hour by which

the number of hours lost due to the absence of employees at their workplaces);

7) shares of labor costs in total costs;

8) costs per employee, i.e. the ratio of the share of labor costs to the number of employees in the enterprise for a certain period of time;

9) labor costs for one productive hour, i.e., the ratio of total labor costs to the total number of working hours. In order to increase the efficiency of the use of human resources, especially in large enterprises, a special personnel department is being created, which is directly involved in the development of emerging needs for workers, their recruitment and selection.

The most common method for evaluating the effectiveness of human resources is cost analysis. With this approach, it is possible to use the concept of initial and recovery costs.

Initial costs include the costs of finding, attracting and adapting new personnel. Recovery costs are the current costs of improving the level of skills, competence, motivation of employees and replacing some employees with others.

Periodic professional development of personnel is an integral factor in the successful operation of the enterprise.

The greatest efficiency in the use of human resources is determined by the content of a better information base, the inherent competence of employees and the direct awareness of the importance of this issue by the management of the enterprise.

58. QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR PERSONNEL

As a result of forecasting supply and demand, any organization is able to calculate the number of people it needs now or will need in the future, their level of qualification for more efficient work and staffing.

Any enterprise should have a coordinated personnel policy that deals with the system of recruitment, training, improvement and remuneration of personnel. In the process of selecting the right person for a particular position, there can always be some difficulties. A great danger to the organization is the lack of awareness of the person who is engaged in the selection of personnel and may simply not know what kind of specialist is required. This makes the selection process inefficient and leads to large losses.

Initially, in the formation of personnel, the following indicators are fundamental:

1) the number of employees that the company currently needs;

2) the composition of employees by the nature of the work performed;

3) the composition of employees according to socio-demographic characteristics;

4) qualification and competence of the employee. The selection of a person for a specific position is a multi-stage process that requires an employee of the personnel service to have extensive knowledge of the field of activity for which the recruitment is carried out. As in the implementation of any other type of activity, there is always the possibility of making a mistake - inefficient selection.

Effective selection is the selection of personnel selected to fill a specific vacancy that meets the necessary qualification requirements.

The key to effective selection is to determine the characteristics of the job, which must be fully met by a person applying for this vacancy.

Qualification requirements are a set of requirements that an employee must meet: physical data; intelligence; capabilities; qualification; interests; character.

Physical data includes information about a person's height, physique, health status, speech characteristics of the candidate, gender.

Qualification data contains information about the level of education, the presence of any qualification, the specific professional training required, the presence of other skills and knowledge.

Intelligence is considered in terms of the level of mental abilities, determined using the proposed tests.

Ability can be viewed from different perspectives. There may be technical abilities, mathematical, communication skills, analytical skills.

Character is judged in terms of the presence of certain traits that can help to achieve success.

All requirements must be specific so that you can immediately get a complete picture of the candidate for the vacant position.

59. THE CONCEPT OF THE WORK COLLECTIVE. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

The labor collective is a small group of people who perform certain functions aimed at achieving common goals.

Depending on the number of people working in the enterprise, there are:

1) small enterprises - the number of employees reaches 50 people;

2) medium-sized enterprises - the number of employees is from 50 to 100 people;

3) large enterprises - the number of employees exceeds 500 people.

The composition of any team includes the following categories of workers:

1) permanent employees. Such people form the basis of the labor collective;

2) temporary workers. Such people are hired for a short period of time (no more than 2 months);

3) seasonal workers. The company hires such people for any period of the year; this is especially common in agriculture.

The process of forming a labor collective is rather complicated. It includes 3-4 main stages of development.

1. Grinding is the stage at which the labor collective does not represent a non-cohesive group of people.

2. Experimentation is the stage at which the labor collective functions quite effectively, its potential is constantly increasing. At this stage, the goal of the manager becomes the development of certain methods of leadership, which would be fully aimed at unlocking the potential of the team.

3. Efficiency is a stage at which people have already received certain professional skills and experience.

In any labor collective there is a leader, who is the leader.

The leader of the team must know the individual abilities of each employee of his team, try to create opportunities for growth and development of stronger sides, be able to form a team when bringing together a large number of people and teach them effectively.

In order for the team to successfully pass all these stages of formation, it is necessary to plan its development. The program for creating a team includes the following points:

1) identifying the main goals of the organization;

2) a clear statement of certain tasks, the solution of which will achieve the goals;

3) planning the time frame required to complete each of the tasks;

4) creation of a certain system of personnel motivation;

5) establishing a suitable delegation of authority program;

6) continuous analysis of the process of team formation.

60. CONFORMISM, ITS ESSENCE AND ROLE IN TEAM MANAGEMENT

Conformism (from Latin conformis - "similar", "similar") is the acceptance of an already existing state of affairs and the rejection of one's own point of view, thoughts and actions.

Conformism plays a big role in the activities of members of the organization. Conformism is based on group unanimity, which involves the suppression of a person's individuality, his own views in order to support a common opinion. In this way, a kind of Pink Floyd stuffing is formed, from which it is easy to create performers who perform any commands. In this case, the entire responsibility lies with the leader.

The degree of conformity of an individual depends on a number of circumstances:

1) on the nature of interpersonal relations (both friendly and conflict);

2) from the need and ability to make independent decisions;

3) on the size of the team itself (the smaller it is, the stronger the conformism);

4) from the presence of cohesion of the group, influencing the other members of the team;

5) on the status of a person in a group (the higher the status, the less the manifestation of conformism). Conformity also has the following positive features:

1) forms a team united by common ideas and goals;

2) turns the labor collective into a single mechanism;

3) reduces the period of adaptation of a person in a team;

4) facilitates the organization of joint activities of people;

5) allows you to develop certain patterns of action in standard situations and anticipate the occurrence of non-standard ones;

6) contributes to the emergence of ease of exit from crisis situations. The conformism of the members of the team is formed under the influence of the prevailing norms of behavior. These include any unwritten rules about what and how to do (or not to do).

The attitude of different people to conformism is far from the same. Some accept the norms of behavior unconditionally and strive to fulfill them, while others fulfill them only for the sake of maintaining the goodwill of the team. Still others generally accept them on the internal level, do not follow them externally, etc.

In any team there is a system of social control, which generally maintains conformity at the required level. This can include such measures of influence as persuasion, prescription, prohibition, recognition of merit, etc.

Through these measures, the behavior of employees is brought into line with the organizational culture, work standards, job descriptions and goals of the organization.

61. FACTORS DETERMINING THE STATION OF A PERSON IN ORGANIZATION

In an organization, human behavior can be represented from two perspectives:

1) from the standpoint of human interaction with the organizational environment;

2) from the position of the organization, which includes a large number of employees. The first of these models can be described in more detail differently, it looks like this:

1) a person receives a stimulating effect from the environment, i.e. speech and written signals, actions of other people;

2) any actions carried out by a person lead to the performance of certain work by him and at the same time affect the organizational environment. These actions include thinking, speech, facial expressions and gestures.

An employee of any organization is a social person who has certain knowledge, skills and values.

Both in a formal and informal team, some roles are always distributed among its members. The same role can be performed by several employees at once (these are performers or assistants). Conversely, one person may well perform several roles at once.

The role performed by a person in a team determines his status. Status is formal and informal.

The formal status is determined only by the official position of a person, the level of his salary and the amount of responsibility.

Informal status depends on the personal qualities of a person, his skills and ability to influence other people. This contributes to the development of his authority. Authority can arise under the influence of spontaneous conditions, but it can be created and maintained intentionally. If a person has the same formal and informal status, this means that he is an ideal employee for the organization.

Among all the roles, the specialists identified the following:

1) idea generator. This role can be filled by people who have a high creative potential, which allows them to successfully put forward creative ideas and various problem-solving methods;

2) performer. The person who performs this role constantly needs support and control. This is due to the fact that he is engaged in the implementation of instructions received from the leader, that is, he is engaged in the implementation of other people's ideas;

3) assistant. Such a person is characterized by a lack of ideas and thoughts, his main job is to help other people achieve their goals.

One of the main guarantees of effective operation and further successful development of the organization is the qualitative performance of each of the above roles.

62. ESSENCE AND PRINCIPLES OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT

Financial management is a type of activity that is aimed at managing the financial and economic side of the company.

Financial management includes:

1) development of the financial policy of the enterprise;

2) information support based on financial statements;

3) assessment and formation of investment projects, capital costs, financial planning and control;

4) organization of the structure-management of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise. Financial management helps to adequately assess the risk and profitability of investing, the very efficiency of the company, the rate of capital turnover, productivity.

The management of the financial system uses a number of principles.

1. Planned and systematic. The basis of the principle is the need to compare the processes of development of the enterprise's activities in all areas with the process of its financing.

2. Target orientation. The principle is that funds should be used to achieve the specific goals of the organization.

3. Diversification. This principle involves the expansion of the range of products manufactured by the enterprise, which allows expanding the markets for products. This will lead to an increase in the competitiveness of the enterprise, therefore, to an increase in its profitability and a decrease in the risk of bankruptcy.

4. Strategic orientation. This principle suggests that financial management should be consistent with the long-term strategy developed by the enterprise.

If, for some reason, an enterprise cannot develop a clear strategy for its development and does not take into account the current situation on the market, then it will not soon be able to take a firm position on it.

Taking into account the cyclical life of the product, the following financing principles were developed: advanced management and the ratio of current financing and capital accumulation.

Forward management is more suitable for activities aimed at the development of an organization that provides an opportunity for greater profits in the future.

The ratio of current financing and capital accumulation is a particularly important principle in financial management, according to which an enterprise is able to autonomously determine the amount of funds allocated for its development, to the payroll, etc.

63. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT TOOLS

Financial management tools are the methods and approaches used in practice in the field of enterprise financial management.

When managing finances, it is possible to use various tools that can be classified into three main areas:

1) according to the form of application:

a) direct, administratively restricting the amount of loans;

b) indirect, creating favorable conditions for achieving goals;

2) by objects of influence:

a) supply and demand for money

b) selective;

c) general;

3) by terms of exposure:

a) short term

b) long-term.

The establishment of direct quantitative restrictions is a kind of administrative tool for financial management.

The composition of such an instrument includes limits on the total value; fines may be levied for non-compliance.

The open market policy is based on transactions for the sale and purchase of securities sold by the central bank and indirectly affecting the financial system. The cost of credit and the demand for money change as a result of the central bank's involvement in the operation.

on the money market, which has a significant impact on the volume of own reserves of commercial banks.

Currency regulation contains tools that are used in the stable functioning of monetary circulation.

The level of the exchange rate can be regulated with the help of currency and credit restrictions.

Supervision and control over the activities of commercial banks and the implementation of measures to maintain payment and settlement relations of the Central Bank provide reliable protection for depositors and reduce systemic risks to maintain stability in the financial market.

The establishment of direct quantitative restrictions is an administrative tool for managing finances, including limits on the total amount of loans or their growth rates, for non-compliance with which fines may be levied. In most cases, obligations are used to hold part of the assets in the form of government securities or securities issued by special credit institutions.

The state has a huge set of tools with which it manages financial activities.

All of the above tools are effective only in a certain situation and are not universal.

64. THE ROLE OF CENTRAL BANKS IN MONETARY MANAGEMENT

Currently, central banks (CB) are an integral part of monetary relations.

When conducting monetary policy, the Central Bank uses the following tools:

1) attracting bank deposits for various periods;

2) changes in the rates of the Central Bank on its operations;

3) interventions in the foreign exchange market.

The Central Bank has the right to issue banknotes, which gives them the ability to control cash.

Commercial banks, which have limited amounts of own and borrowed funds provided by the Central Bank, are directly involved in the deposit issue.

The Central Bank influences the money supply in circulation by its control of the monetary base, but it cannot influence it directly, which is connected with its interactions with the population and commercial banks. This dependence is represented by the money multiplier effect:

m = (1 + d) / (r + d),

where m is the money multiplier;

d is the ratio of cash to deposits;

r is the ratio of bank reserves to deposits.

In accordance with this, the Central Bank can exercise control only over the very process of issuing banknotes.

For the effectiveness of the management of the monetary sphere, various ways of reforming the Central Bank were proposed. There is a real project on the basis of which it is proposed to separate the functions of regulating the monetary system from control over the activities of commercial banks. But there is a concept that rejects increased attention to the activities of the monetary system. It involves the creation of special conditions for the practical activities of the Central Bank, which completely excludes any interference from the government.

For the implementation of monetary policy, the so-called intermediate goals are set. They can be established for a period of 1 year or more.

The following requirements may apply to intermediate goals:

1) consistency with strategic goals;

2) full measurability and timeliness;

3) development based on reliable information;

4) full controllability.

Such goals cannot always be achieved with the funds at the disposal of the Central Bank. Because of this, the Central Bank has to develop operational targets: they react more quickly to the influence of monetary policy instruments, but despite this, their use is sometimes risky, as it may well lead to inflation.

65. CONCEPT AND ROLE OF CONFLICT

The word "conflict" in Latin means "collision". This is the lack of agreement between some parties and the presence of conflicting positions between them for some reason. The emergence of a conflict can occur where different desires, interests, behaviors collide.

The purpose of the conflict is an opportunity to defend one's opinion, to ensure that a certain point of view is taken into account.

The subjects of the conflict are the participants in the conflict themselves. Some certain individuals, groups of people and even organizations act as them.

The object of the conflict is what the attention is focused on and what the actions of each of the parties involved in the conflict are aimed at.

Disagreements between some persons endowed with a certain responsibility can cause undesirable phenomena in their activities.

The emergence of conflict situations is especially undesirable for leaders and managers.

Conflicts! are of two types, as follows:

1) functional, i.e., having a certain direction to improve the efficiency of the organization;

2) dysfunctional. Such conflicts can lead to a decrease in personal satisfaction, the effectiveness of the organization. The role of the conflict depends on how effectively it is managed.

Almost everyone has the opinion that conflict is a negative, undesirable phenomenon, which should be avoided if possible.

Conflict has its downsides. They are as follows:

1) the conflict may interfere with the satisfaction of the needs of an individual;

2) the conflict can interfere with the achievement of the goals of both the individual and the organization as a whole;

3) the conflict is almost always accompanied by threats, hostility and misunderstanding.

Conflict also has the following positive features:

1) provides an opportunity to express their thoughts;

2) reveals a variety of points of view and a greater number of alternatives or problems;

3) gives additional information.

If properly managed, conflict can be used to the benefit of the organization.

From this we can draw a kind of conclusion that the conflict is the struggle of competitors, which arises due to a lack of power or means necessary to satisfy values.

However, one must distinguish between:

1) conflict as a means of achieving a certain result;

2) conflict as an end in itself.

66. CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT

The very basis of conflict situations is a negative clash between oppositely directed interests, goals, completely different ideas about the way to clarify them and successfully achieve them.

Reasons for conflicts can be based on:

1) factors that prevent people from achieving:

a) the purpose of labor activity;

b) secondary goals of labor activity;

2) inconsistency of any actions of a person with the norms and life values, customs accepted in his team.

The conflicts that have arisen in the labor process are caused by factors that prevent people from achieving the main goal of labor activity, namely, the direct receipt of the planned results.

Such factors include the following:

1) a technological process during which the activity of one of the employees directly affects the efficiency of the activity of another employee;

2) the absence or partial absence of the performance of functional duties in the "management - subordination" system. Important causes of conflicts caused by the psychological characteristics of human relationships are:

1) the mutual connection of people, during which the result of the actions of one depends on the actions of another;

2) unresolved issues, due to which there are disagreements between the direct executors;

3) violations in the "management - subordination" system, which are a barrier to achieving the goals of both managers and their subordinates.

The list of reasons is not final, and one should not forget about the so-called communication barriers encountered in the organizational process and causing resentment from one side or the other.

There are also interpersonal conflicts, examples of which are the likes and dislikes of people, leading to compatibility or complete incompatibility.

There is no list of reasons that can cause conflict situations, including in labor activity.

Sometimes situations arise when a person sees a non-existent conflict or, conversely, when there is already a conflict, but no attention is paid to this fact. The conflict can be understood adequately (when the conflict situation exists objectively), inadequately (when the conflict situation is quite real and all parties are fully aware of this, but their understanding does not coincide with reality) and falsely (when the conflict situation itself is absent, but the parties perceive their relationship as a conflict).

67. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Currently, there are a number of ways to manage a conflict situation. These methods have shown their effectiveness.

They can be divided into two categories: structural and interpersonal.

Due to the fact that conflicts negatively affect the organization and activity of the company's personnel, they must be resolved. This process is divided into six stages, such as:

1) determination of the main cause of the conflict. This consists in identifying the prerequisites and factors that served for its occurrence;

2) the definition of secondary causes of the conflict in itself implies that after clarifying the main problem, it is necessary to identify the cause;

3) mandatory search for ways to resolve the conflict;

4) a joint decision to exit the conflict is to develop a compromise solution for all participants in the conflict;

5) conflict resolution is carried out by eliminating the causes of the conflict situation. It is in this process that it is important that the parties to the conflict have no doubts about each other's sincerity;

6) assessment of the effectiveness of the efforts made to resolve the conflict. It is by its final results that a conclusion is made about the degree of resolution of the problem.

There are several strategies for the behavior of opponents in a conflict situation. Their main types are:

1) peaceful coexistence. It is used in cases where the parties involved in the conflict have little interest in resolving it. Such a strategy is effective if the conflict is based on subjective reasons, because only here can there be various opportunities to analyze the situation;

2) fixture. Usually used in such a conflict where the higher side does not take part;

3) power solution. It is applied if one of the parties to the conflict occupies a higher position. The result of this strategy is the suppression of the weaker side;

4) search for a compromise. This can be successfully used if the forces of the parties to the conflict are approximately equal, they depend on each other;

5) final resolution. It consists in eliminating its causes by opponents. This strategy makes it possible to eliminate the inevitable losses in a compromise. It is applicable only if the parties involved in the conflict are reasonable and at the same time initially treat each other well.

68. CONCEPT AND ESSENCE OF STRESS

Stress is a psychological state of a person.

In this state, he feels a strong tension, pressure, suffering.

Stress significantly reduces the effectiveness of a person’s work, and therefore an important element for a manager is to create such working conditions in which his employees will feel calm and confident.

Stress cannot be avoided by any person, which is why it carries a kind of danger.

There are the following main factors that cause stress:

1) factors related to human work. These include:

a) organizational factors (overload, unemployment, etc.);

b) uninteresting work for a person;

c) unsuitable working conditions;

d) poor communication and motivation;

2) personal factors. These are individual properties of the human nervous system. Stressful situations arise due to:

1) inability to concentrate on work;

2) abuse of bad habits;

3) lack of sense of humor;

4) fatigue that does not pass under any conditions;

5) health problems;

6) excitability and touchiness;

7) frequent mistakes;

8) problems with memory.

These symptoms may appear individually or all together. Their appearance can lead to quite serious problems, which eventually end in a nervous breakdown. He is able to take an employee out of a working state for a long time. The manager should be more attentive to all his subordinates in order to prevent undesirable consequences that could cause a failure in the efficiency of the organization.

Today, experts distinguish five types of stress, such as:

1) physiological stress, which appears from physical overwork;

2) psychological stress caused by unfavorable relationships with others, uncertainty about the future;

3) emotional stress, which occurs due to excessively strong feelings of fear, joy, etc.;

4) information stress that occurs in a person who has a certain amount of information;

5) managerial stress that occurs when the responsibility for actions or the risk of decisions being made is too great and does not correspond to this person's position. There are two ways to properly adapt to stress:

1) a method that is associated with a change in the methods, organization, technology and structure of production and other conditions;

2) a way that is directly related to stress, it is to try

69. ESSENCE OF INNOVATION MANAGEMENT

Innovation management is a relatively new concept for the Russian scientific community. Currently, Russia is going through a period of innovation. In such conditions, almost all organizations are engaged in innovative activities.

Innovation management is one of the areas of strategic management. This direction determines the main ways in the scientific, technical and production activities of the organization, this occurs in the development and introduction of some new products into production, improvement of existing products and, ultimately, the removal from production and sale of obsolete products. The development of innovative management takes place on the basis of marketing research, financial analysis, etc. On this basis, more profitable and suitable areas of activity in the market are determined, and thus innovations are created - ideas.

Only after their evaluation begins the direct process of creating a new product or introducing an improved technology.

After that, the product or technology is brought to a narrow segment of the market in order to test them, as a result of which an important decision is made to launch them into mass production.

Innovation management covers the following areas of activity: 1) organizational and personnel training of personnel and production;

2) technological;

3) material;

4) design;

5) introduction of new technologies;

6) analysis of the results obtained and making adjustments to these activities. The main goals of innovation management are the development and production of new types of products.

Innovation management is a special art of introducing a new idea into the production process. The main element of innovation management is a clearly defined organization of the SONT cycle (creation and development of new technology).

Innovation activity is characterized by the following principles:

1) low percentage of successful innovations;

2) the need for a separate budget;

3) use of criteria for innovative activity;

4) systematic and planned liquidation of obsolete methods and technologies;

5) lack of feedback from results to costs;

6) the correct choice of the moment of termination of work.

Unfortunately, this theory of management has not yet adapted very well in our country. In this regard, Russian organizations are significantly behind foreign competitors.

70. ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS AND RESOURCE PROVISION OF SYSTEMS OF INNOVATIVE TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT

The orientation of socio-economic systems to an innovative type of development is of great practical importance for the effective operation of the organization.

Such a system is carried out with the help of measures that consist of:

1) structural restructuring of the organization itself, which includes the decentralization of all managerial powers, as well as the creation of economic zones on a scientific and production basis;

2) universalization of science-intensive technologies that make it possible to manufacture products using easily controlled technological chains;

3) creation of enterprises that are engaged in scientific research in the most promising areas of activity;

4) interaction with other organizations to conduct research work, as well as the creation of new firms involved in the development of large-scale innovative projects;

5) the development of a democratic style of management and the integration of organizational and managerial activities, which will ultimately lead to the disclosure, and in the future to the development of the abilities of employees;

6) creation of information and analytical departments or centers, whose tasks include the direct development of strategic decisions that relate to the entire cycle of innovation;

7) organization and maintenance of foreign economic relations in the field of scientific activity.

Resource support for such activities is a serious problem. It requires considerable costs and is based on the use of almost all resources, their full compliance in quality and quantity, as well as the ability of managers to use traditional types of resources in a new meaning.

Various sources are used to finance innovation activities, but among all the most significant are own and borrowed funds.

Resource support for almost all types of activities requires considerable costs. The basis of resource provision is the integrated use of all resources.

For the effective transition of a company to an innovative type of development, certain sets of conditions are created, such as:

1) organizational;

2) labor;

3) resource;

4) financial;

5) socio-psychological.

The creation of complex scientific and technical centers (STC) leads to an effective solution of such problems. STCs are enterprises that should be of equal importance and independent in conducting research. One of the main advantages of the STC is the possibility of obtaining highly professional research work and resources in those areas of the organization's development that are more promising.

71. ESSENCE AND FUNCTIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

Organizational culture is a system of values, patterns, principles, norms of behavior that have been adopted within the enterprise, as well as its structural unit in the process of carrying out professional activities.

The main carrier of organizational culture in the organization is the labor collective.

Organizational culture is also the lifeblood of any successful organization.

Organizational culture consists of subcultures of divisions and departments (here employees may well develop or destroy it), as well as subcultures of areas of activity that were once chosen by this enterprise.

The classification of organizational culture according to the degree of its influence on the economic entity is as follows:

1) indisputable culture. It includes a small number of values and norms and provides for their clear and precise implementation.

A feature of culture is the aggravation of conflict and unsatisfactoriness of the organization's personnel. Such a culture is adopted in organizations where there is a strict adherence to the charter;

2) weak culture. It does not imply common values and norms of behavior among employees, which introduces some contradictions into their activities;

3) strong culture. She pays great attention to changes in the external and internal environment.

Organizational culture at the enterprise performs functions such as:

1) security - the creation of original barriers;

2) integrating - creating an employee's sense of belonging to the organization;

3) regulatory - maintaining certain rules and norms of behavior both within the team and outside it, which significantly reduces the likelihood of conflicts;

4) adaptive - a function that ensures the cohesion of employees;

5) orienting - corrects the further activities of the organization in accordance with established standards;

6) motivational - such a system of measures helps to create incentives for work in the organization;

7) image formation - here there is a focus on creating an image of the organization.

72. COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

Cultural analysis is the most complex and responsible from the point of view of the organization.

The purpose of cultural analysis is to solve the problem of optimally efficient operation of the company, taking into account the characteristics of the national culture.

A Russian international manager needs to go through 3 stages of cultural education, which include:

1) a deep understanding of the main world cultures;

2) familiarity with the characteristics of this cultural segment;

3) in-depth penetration into a given national culture.

Many approaches have been developed for the analysis of culture, which are based on the systematization of various variables that experts offer. There are several elements of systematization.

1. The family system. With the help of such a system, people educate and bring their children into society. It is in the family that a person can receive certain norms, principles of behavior, which in the future he needs to perform various functions in the organization.

2. The education system is a system that provides a person with the necessary knowledge and professional skills.

3. An economic system is a system responsible in society for the production and distribution of goods and services.

4. The political system, it includes certain legislative norms that are used to maintain order.

5. A religious system is a system that determines morality and fundamental values in a society.

6. The system of socialization is a system of social grouping.

Communication is one of the complex problems of cultural interaction in the system of international management. The practice of international business allows us to identify several fundamental problems that a manager faces in his daily work. Their occurrence depends on the cultural background. These include:

1) language barrier;

2) non-verbal communication;

3) perception is the consideration of all possible nuances through the prism of another culture;

4) stereotypes are the rejection of objective perception and analysis of information, which gives rise to national stereotypes;

5) circumstances of time and place, which are divided into the following points:

a) the meaning of the plan and communication procedures;

b) the place of contact under certain circumstances;

c) punctuality;

d) ethics;

6) information in the control system. For example, the management structures in the firms of the Arab countries are deprived of any information exchange, and the Chinese management systems are strictly hierarchical, have clearly dosed and fully controlled information under conditions of strict centralized management of it.

73. ESSENCE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT

International management is a special kind of management. Its main goals are the formation, development and use of the competitive advantages of the company through knowledge of the economic, social, demographic and other features of these countries and interstate interaction.

International management is based on the following principles:

1) relative advantages;

2) absolute advantages;

3) international product life cycle;

4) foreign direct investment.

The structure of international management is very similar to the structure of the national, it includes such problems that cover five main areas of corporate business management:

1) research, analysis and assessment of the external environment of the business and the internal environment of the organization;

2) communication and decision-making processes. These include models and methods;

3) basic management functions are strategic planning and implementation of strategies;

4) issues of group dynamics and leadership - this is leadership, work in groups;

5) questions of the effectiveness of the enterprise's activities - this is the management of personnel, production, as well as all productivity in general.

Within each of the structural parts there are differences with the national model.

When choosing a host country, investors pay attention to the following indicators:

1) economic growth rates. These include the level of wages, all kinds of transportation costs, bank interest rates, gross national product (GNP), etc.;

2) production costs of goods and services;

3) development of the legislative framework;

4) political and macroeconomic stability. These are all kinds of political events that have an impact on decision-making in international business.

The basic difference is the content, role and specifics of the external environment of the business, since we are talking about its exit from the national border.

International business management

significant scale requires an information base, as well as overcoming the language barrier and professional support for management decisions.

Categories such as purpose, structure, division of labor do not imply much difference, but questions of needs, perception, cultural factors are related to the internal environment of the company.

The main features of communications determine the national and cultural specifics of decision-making, because if in one culture something is a rational decision-making model, then in another it can be considered unreasonable behavior of a leader.

74. STRUCTURE OF THE ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL CRITERIA

Analysis of external criteria is a necessary procedure before an enterprise enters the world market. It arises due to the fact that when entering the world market, the organization finds itself in an unfamiliar economic, political, social and cultural environment. A comprehensive analysis of the external environment is one of the important stages in the preparation and development of a strategy. At this stage, an analysis of the internal environment of the organizational environment is carried out. Based on a comprehensive analysis of the external environment, the main goals and missions of the organization are determined, a certain strategy of behavior in the market is developed. The goal (or mission) of the organization is the desired result that the company strives for and plans to achieve after a certain period of time. The mission of the organization is expressed both in certain volumes of production and sales of products, and in profit volumes.

Complex analysis is based on several elements.

1. Analysis of the economic external environment:

1) the size of the market and the rate of its growth;

2) unemployment rate;

3) the value of the gross national product;

4) inflation rates;

5) behavior and requests of consumers;

6) competitors, including evaluation of such aspects as:

a) current strategy;

b) market share analysis;

c) analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of competitors;

d) anticipation of their future actions;

7) trends in the development of the external environment:

a) economic;

b) demographic;

c) technological;

8) the place that the country occupies in terms of economic growth, foreign trade turnover;

9) population of the country;

10) the structure of society and the proportion of individual social strata;

11) resources of the main types of interest to the company, ranked by availability in the country and regions, valuation, scarcity level;

12) levels and systems of remuneration existing in certain areas of business;

14) the degree of development of industries of potential competitors, industries of probable suppliers and probable consumers;

15) elements of trade and export-import restrictions in the country;

16) the development of scientific, technical and research activities in the country.

2. Analysis of the political external environment - analysis of the stability of the political situation.

3. Legal analysis - analysis of the legislative framework:

1) regulation of export and import transactions;

2) regulation and regulation of the entry and exit of individuals;

3) the degree of development of legislation relating to the protection of private property and individual rights.

4. Cultural analysis - analysis of national traditions and customs. All of these factors, to some extent, can represent either a threat to the organization or a new opportunity to improve its activities.

75. CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS

Investments are cash, securities, property rights and other rights that have a monetary value. Investments are made in objects of entrepreneurial and other activities with the aim of making a profit.

Currently, there are three main forms of investment.

1. Direct investments are investments in the authorized capital of any economic entity for the purpose of making a profit. Direct investment has two components:

1) investment in fixed assets. This is the acquisition of production equipment;

2) investment in inventory. This is the accumulation of certain stocks of raw materials that are to be used in the production process.

Foreign direct investment is carried out in two ways: the creation of new enterprises and the absorption of existing companies.

2. Portfolio investment is a kind of portfolio formation through the acquisition of securities.

A portfolio is a set of investment values that are tools for achieving a specific investment goal.

Investments are classified according to criteria according to the areas of investment, according to terms, according to the nature of use.

1. By directions of capital investment:

1) investments in property are investments that participate in the production process (investments in equipment, buildings, stocks, materials);

2) financial investments are investments made in financial property;

3) intangible investments are investments in intangible values.

2. By the nature of use:

1) initial investments made when establishing or purchasing a company;

2) investments to expand the production potential;

3) investments to replace old equipment with new ones;

4) investments directed to the modernization of technological equipment;

5) investments aimed at changing the production technology;

6) investments in expanding the range of products and organizing new sales markets;

7) investments directed to personnel training, advertising.

3. By term:

1) urgent:

a) short-term (from 1 day to 180 days);

b) medium-term (from 180 days to 1 year);

c) long-term - (from 1 to 3 years);

2) perpetual.

Portfolio investment is a source of funds for financing shares issued by enterprises and private banks.

The purpose of portfolio investment is to invest investors' funds in the securities of the most efficient enterprises.

Intermediaries in foreign portfolio investments are investment banks - they are a kind of intermediary organizations in the securities market that deal with fi-

76. SELECTION OF ACTIVITIES IN THE FOREIGN MARKET

Choosing a field of activity in a foreign market is a complex matter, it requires certain practical knowledge and detailed information about the market situation, the product.

Such information can be obtained through marketing research.

In the foreign market, all industries can be divided into two groups:

1) multinational, which serve national markets;

2) global, which serve the world market.

To effectively manage their foreign affiliates, international companies use a global strategy. It helps to maintain the level of competitiveness on a global scale.

Such companies try to locate their research institutes in the countries where the busiest markets are located.

Marketing research is a set of activities that are aimed at collecting information necessary for more efficient operation of the organization in the foreign market.

Strategy is the formation and implementation of the goals and objectives of the enterprise in the field of production and sale of goods on the world market. Depending on the time for which the strategy is being developed, the following are distinguished:

1) long-term;

2) medium-term;

3) short-term.

All possible conditions of entrepreneurial activity can be evaluated not only from one point of view, but from several sides.

1. Corporate structure and strategy of competitors' enterprises.

Here, first of all, the overall position of the international company in the chosen field of activity is assessed, comparing it with more suitable national enterprises and foreign firms.

2. Terms of production and provision of services.

Here, the sectors of the economy that have the most pronounced comparative advantages of the host country are subjected to analysis; it is established whether there are underdeveloped areas in the economy of the host country and whether it is possible to fill them with the activities of foreign investors.

3. Terms of sale.

This category is determined by the degree of complexity of requests from national consumers. This is where distribution channels differ.

4. Related industries and sub-suppliers. Here, an international company is interested in such information as the presence in the host country of larger consumers, customers, product intermediaries.

An essential factor in choosing the field of activity of a foreign branch of a transnational corporation is the technical level of local firms.

77. STRATEGIES FOR ENTRY TO FOREIGN MARKET

The choice of a strategy for entering a foreign market is carried out on the basis of information obtained as a result of marketing research.

There are 3 main strategies for entering the foreign market: export, joint venture, direct investment.

1. An export strategy is one of the easiest ways to enter a foreign market.

The advantage of this strategy is that it requires minimal changes in the firm's product mix, requires little to no changes in the firm's structure, and high capital costs.

2. Joint venture activity is a strategy that is based on combining the common efforts of the firm with the commercial enterprises of the partner country to create production and marketing capacities.

The main difference between such a strategy and export is a kind of partnership formation.

3. Direct investment strategy -

This is a strategy for entering a foreign market, which ensures the most complete introduction of the company into foreign economic activity.

Using this strategy, the firm develops deeper relationships with government agencies, as well as customers, suppliers and distributors of the country in which

the market it enters. This makes it possible to more effectively introduce their products into local marketing conditions.

But the most important property of direct investment is that the firm retains full control over its capital investment.

Licensing is an activity in which a licensor enters into a specific agreement with a licensee in a foreign market, offering rights to use a manufacturing process, a trademark in exchange for a fee or a license fee.

Contract manufacturing - the conclusion of a contract with local manufacturers for the production of goods.

Contract management is characterized by the fact that the company provides a completely new foreign partner in the field of management, and he, in turn, provides the necessary capital for implementation. The firm does not export goods, but management services, which ensures minimal risk with income from the very beginning of activity.

Joint ventures are characterized by the fact that a local firm buys a share in an already existing local enterprise of a foreign company, or both parties can jointly create an entirely new enterprise.

78. MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES (MNCs). ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF OLS

Businesses that own and operate businesses overseas are called multinational corporations.

In their own right, multinational companies (MNCs) are one of the most organized forms of international business that use an international approach to finding foreign, as well as a global policy that involves business activities within the country of origin as well as outside it.

As practice shows, all multinational companies focus on the production of medicines, the production of various chemicals, and oil refining.

Modern MNCs are international financial and industrial corporations, consisting of a central company of one kind or another and numerous firms that can be located both in the country where the MNCs are located and outside it.

The structure and nature of the activities of such associations in different countries have their own specific features, which differ in the peculiarities of the formation of MNCs in one of the countries.

Most of the MNCs in the developed countries of Europe and North America are hierarchically organized. As well as the holding form of the organization.

A holding company is a type of financial or financial-industrial company. It is created for the purpose of holding blocks of shares in other firms, which may allow for business control, as well as management of their activities.

Currently, the following principles for building different forms of multinational companies are distinguished:

1) corporate integrity is a kind of principle of equity participation;

2) focus on achieving common strategic goals for companies, which is a specific solution to common strategic objectives;

3) the presence of a single management vertical (i.e., a single control center), which is presented in the form of a holding company or a group of related companies;

4) the termless nature of the existence of companies. Intermediate holding company, or

A sub-holding is a subsidiary company that is a holding company in relation to one firm or several firms at once.

In turn, there are two most common types of holding companies:

1) a financial holding company is a company that is created for the purpose of implementing the functions of financial control and management;

2) a mixed holding company is a company that is engaged in activities in a particular area, such as manufacturing or trading activities.

79. TRAINING AND SELECTION OF PERSONNEL

Nowadays, one of the modern trends in the development of enterprises is staff training. This is due to the fact that practical knowledge quickly becomes obsolete and just as quickly updated.

Organizations that engage in such activities are conditionally called learning organizations. Such organizations are a group of like-minded people whose goal is the continuous acquisition of knowledge and the satisfaction of any of their own needs. This characteristic of the organization does not depend on the type of activity in which it is engaged.

Intra-company, or corporate,

development in learning organizations is a paramount activity, the object of which is the organization as a whole.

Corporate development has its own distinctive features:

1) affects all activities and all employees of the organization, in contrast to advanced training;

2) is a motivating factor that develops in employees the desire for their own improvement;

3) is a continuous process that improves the professional and intellectual levels;

4) stimulates creative, innovative activity;

6) is a process that is easily adaptable to changing conditions;

7) has active methods of knowledge transfer.

The assessment of the professionalism of human resource management is based on:

1) professional training;

2) competence and motivation of professional activity;

3) the organizational environment for the implementation of professionalism.

Despite the visible benefits that corporate training brings, it has one significant drawback - high costs, so not every organization can afford this method of work.

New trends in the economy imply special requirements for the professionalism of management. The tasks that arise before the enterprise require a more careful selection of personnel. In our country, unfortunately, attention is only beginning to be paid to this direction.

Improving the professionalism of the management apparatus is a set of measures, which, in turn, is aimed at increasing its competence for more effective human resource management activities. Due to the fact that recently the human resource management system has been gradually expanding and becoming more complex, in our country there is an urgent need to improve the system for training the leaders themselves.

In Russian conditions, a base for the training of managerial personnel is already being formed, which is a serious prerequisite for the formation of a professional management system.

80. REAL ESTATE VALUATION

One of the main sections of business valuation is real estate valuation.

Real estate objects include:

1) land plots;

2) subsoil plots;

3) water bodies;

4) buildings that are inseparable from the land.

Their movement without any damage to their purpose is impossible.

Each item has its own individual value.

The value of a property is a certain amount of money that can be paid for this property.

Market value is a price characteristic that must be specific to a given property, under the conditions that are necessary for a fair sale.

In this case, the seller and the buyer have all the information about this property.

Costs are the same costs that are necessary to create a given object.

The price is a historically fixed fact of the sale of a particular object.

Exchange value, or fair value, may be the price that prevails in a competitive market.

Cost in use, or subjective cost, is the cost to a particular user.

The real estate market is characterized by the following features:

1) the presence of investment motivation;

2) closeness;

3) low elasticity of demand;

4) imperfection.

Valuation of the value of a property can be carried out using the following methods:

1) market - method of comparative analysis of sales;

2) profitable (capitalization);

3) costly.

The market method is used by appraisers, who proceed from the sales of similar objects that have already taken place.

Based on the received information, its verification and correction.

The cost method is based on the principle of substitution.

Under this method, an informed investor will not pay a price for a property that exceeds the cost of building a similar property.

81. FEATURES OF JAPANESE MANAGEMENT

To date, the Japanese management system has formed as a kind of fusion of national traditions along with advanced management practices. The role of national traditions is that the Japanese prefer not to adhere to certain rules. The Japanese themselves say the following: "The traditional Japanese society lacked both a universal code of ethics and categorical religious prescriptions. There was not even a clear system of ideas about sin" (M. Yoshino).

The Japanese scientist Chiye Nakane conducted a study where he put forward his main provisions of the concept of analyzing the internal structure of social groups, dividing the types of relationships established between people into horizontal as a set of individuals and vertical, in which individuals with different traits are connected by a certain social connection.

It is the second, vertical, type of relationship that is characteristic and defining for Japanese society.

The group to which the Japanese belong is as important to him as the family. In the Japanese organization, an informal atmosphere reigns and internal conflicts are minimized; only friendly relations dominate in groups.

It is generally accepted that the firm is a long-term organization, as it guarantees lifetime employment. Such relationships are enshrined in the Corporate Reorganization Law, according to which urgent reorganizations are carried out in firms that are in financial difficulties and are on the verge of bankruptcy.

What makes up the group decision-making system, according to which the entire group is responsible for the decision made? No one has the right to make any decisions alone. The essence of the Ringi system is that decisions must be made by consensus. The system requires that the decision be made by all members of the group.

The Japanese can allow uncertainty, imperfection in organizational activities, as well as many other things that are quite real.

In addition to all this, the Japanese feel much more interdependent, and therefore they are ready to take further steps that are aimed at improving the performance of people and educating the ability to work effectively with each other.

To compare the traditional "X" and "Y" model of behavior, the Japanese have developed and have been successfully using for some time the human potential model, which emphasizes the idea that people need the opportunity to use and develop their abilities, getting satisfaction from this.

82. PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT

Effective management implies the exact fulfillment of a certain range of tasks:

1) statement of the general task;

2) deep concentration of the company's attention on this task;

3) the choice of the correct course of further activity in the presence of errors. The main task here is the selection, training and promotion of managers.

Management tries to focus on getting people to do things right.

Psychology reveals exactly how you can effectively influence them in a positive way.

Managers must develop their actions in specific detail and at a certain time, plan, identify and use the psychological resources of the staff to maintain the effectiveness of the organization.

Managers build their relationships with subordinates according to the roles they play in the programmed chain.

Managers, of course, must consider all the needs of their employees, as well as the values they perceive and the emotions that drive them.

Managers should be prone to using emotions and intuition.

By controlling the behavior of their subordinates, managers ensure the achievement of the overall goals of the organization.

They try to build their relationships with subordinates on trust, motivating and inspiring them.

Managers control their decision-making efforts using:

1) professional data;

2) various abilities;

3) skills;

4) knowledge of psychology.

They are trying to find ways to somehow narrow down the set of ways to solve the problem. Such decisions are often made on the basis of past experience.

Once a problem is solved by them, managers take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems.

This is especially true in cases where there are real opportunities for obtaining appropriate remuneration.

It can be concluded that the main task of management psychology is the direct education of a manager-psychologist who will be able to identify the individual characteristics of each person and use the potential of the staff to achieve the goals of the organization.

83. PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL MANAGEMENT

Management in the social sphere from a practical point of view is based on socio-economic research.

The objectives of the studies of the conditions are to develop the problems of the social and labor sphere and the standard of living of people, their contribution to the social and economic aspects of the life of the state.

The main issues on which social management is based include the following:

1) a significant change in the composition of the population, practical ways to increase its size, optimization of age, sex, social and professional groups;

2) territorial and natural-climatic distribution of people;

3) the possibility of free movement, independence of choice of residence and work;

4) creation of favorable economic conditions that determine the availability of jobs and the possibility of earning money for the economically active population;

5) maintenance and development of the educational and cultural sphere, which includes:

a) education;

b) education;

c) creation of jobs for teachers and students;

6) finding ways to reduce general and occupational morbidity, injuries, industrial accidents within the scope of:

a) health care;

b) sports;

c) tourism;

d) labor protection;

7) a significant increase in the level of efficiency of the economy, labor and social development;

8) formation of a worldview of cohesion among people at the level of enterprises and territories. In accordance with these problems, management in the social sphere has certain areas, such as:

1) the fight against poverty;

2) social protection of the population;

3) ensuring the health of the nation;

4) development of the knowledge economy (investment in the development of human abilities);

5) ensuring employment and a decent standard of living for people at the expense of labor income. The objects of study in the social sphere are:

1) a person acting as a consumer of services and goods;

2) physical health of a person;

3) mental and any other abilities;

4) information about his social and labor activities.

84. TECHNOLOGY AND TACTICS OF MANAGEMENT OF SUBJECTS

Management technologies differ in such and factors that serve as a general guideline for decision-making.

Management technology is a kind of method of action of a manager in specific conditions under the influence of certain factors.

The manager must logically assess the activities of the subordinate, the results of this activity, since adjustments to the activities of the subject for the next period are made depending on the achievement of the planned results.

Sometimes it is necessary to focus not only on official targets, but also on personal goals that are formulated by employees together with the immediate supervisor; all this should be done taking into account personal abilities and capabilities.

The form of official relations in the management system is a kind of giving orders.

An order is a message that is transmitted by the leader to his subordinate regarding the content of his results and his activities.

Orders are written, oral, mixed.

Depending on the goals and characteristics of the situation, orders can be as follows: 1) directive. These include orders, any instructions, all kinds of decrees;

2) democratic. These include any advice, recommendation, request. There are also several forms of influence on personnel. These include:

1) persuasion is a kind of influence that ultimately must prove the truth of the state of affairs under consideration. With this form of influence, only accurate facts and evidence should be used;

2) suggestion. It is more designed for non-critical perception of words. Suggestion can be arbitrary and involuntary; direct and indirect;

3) praise. Motivates subordinates to the most active actions in relation to the achievement of any common goals for the organization. This means that praise should follow any worthy deed, even if this deed as a result gave the most insignificant results;

4) criticism is a negative assessment of the performance of an employee. The main purpose of criticism is to stimulate the employee to eliminate negative results in his work activity.

Each manager for more effective work should form in his organization an individual approach to his employees. But for this, first of all, each such manager must learn to manage himself, give orders correctly, and clearly formulate his instructions.

85. THE ROLE OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATION

The control functions involve the following: collection, processing and analysis of information on the actual results of economic activity, comparing them with planned indicators, identifying the main causes, developing any measures that contribute to the effective achievement of the goals. From this we can conclude that control should be considered not only as fixing deviations, but also as an analysis of the causes of deviations.

Economic analysis precedes decisions and actions, is a certain basis for scientific production management, ensures the objectivity of scientific production management, economic and social efficiency.

Therefore, economic analysis should be considered as a management function that ensures the effectiveness of managerial decision-making.

Economic analysis, like the management function, is closely related to the organization's planning and forecasting, since without a particularly in-depth analysis it is practically impossible to carry out such functions here.

Economic analysis is both a means of substantiating plans and a means of monitoring their implementation. Planning itself begins and ends with an analysis of the results of the enterprise. Such an analysis makes it possible to increase the level of planning more effectively and make it sound from a scientific point of view.

Economic analysis is one of the important elements in the production management system.

The role of management analysis is growing every year, which is due to many circumstances, firstly, the urgent need to improve efficiency, secondly, the gradual transition to market relations, and thirdly, the rapid development of new forms of management.

The head of the enterprise, if such conditions develop, cannot fully rely on his own knowledge.

All his managerial actions must be justified with the help of a deep economic analysis, which, in turn, must take into account all aspects of economic activity.

Very often, to assess the activities of an organization, various economic indicators are used, which can be divided into indicators that characterize the economic potential of the organization, and such indicators that characterize economic activity.

According to production costs, sources of receipt of any funds, economic activity is evaluated, which makes it possible to determine the feasibility of investments, the arising causes of debts, as well as the development of the enterprise as a whole.

86. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Environmental management is one of the types of management and occupies an important place in the management structure.

The science of "ecology" explores the laws of interaction between the biosphere and its various divisions, as well as the influence of the natural environment on man and the very attitude of people to nature.

Environmental management is a system for managing natural processes, which includes the regulation of the laws of interaction between nature and man in order to avoid an ecological crisis.

Based on this, two main areas of environmental management can be distinguished:

1) environmentally oriented strategic management;

2) environmental education.

The tasks of environmental management are:

1) the formation of a human strategy, which is designed to prevent a global environmental crisis;

2) diagnostics of the state of the environment;

3) achieving the environmental safety of society by raising the level of culture. Currently, the world, one might say, has come to an ecological crisis.

This lies in the critical state of the environment, which was caused by the misuse of natural resources, as well as pollution of the biosphere, which directly threatens the well-being of all mankind.

The data given in the statistics on environmental pollution testify to the deterioration of the natural environment.

Man in modern environmental conditions is absolutely defenseless.

Also, a considerable danger to human health is radioactivity, which is associated with the creation of nuclear weapons and the scientific and technological revolution.

For such reasons, environmental management is developing a series of measures to deal with the environmental crisis.

In our country, there are problems of environmental management, which are:

1) the absence of environmental and environmental-economic policy;

2) significant excess of the permissible anthropogenic load; these include territorial unevenness, high concentration of industry, unfavorable climatic level of preparatory processes, huge exploitation of land, water and forest resources, low efficiency in controlling the exploitation of natural resources and environmental pollution;

3) the low state of health of the population of our country.

87. GLOBALIZATION AND INTERNATIONALIZATION OF MODERN MANAGEMENT

The entire history of world trade has more than 1000 years. Since the XNUMXth century a large number of trading firms in Europe and Asia with employees at the international level.

There is one peculiarity in the trade that takes place in our time: it is an ever-increasing proportion of the products of companies that eventually crosses national borders.

Some firms are oriented to national and global markets.

This trend is associated with a large number of factors.

Accordingly, the increase in volumes in world trade is facilitated by investments in the service sector.

Such investments include financial, design, legal and many other forms of intellectual capital.

Some international organizations that conduct various referendums, seminars and introduce various laws as part of their activities contribute to the emergence of many trading companies on the world level.

Negotiations on the terms of international trade contribute to the emergence of new ways for the development of this industry.

The very activity of international institutions is aimed at developing possible processes of internationalization of the world economy.

Modern management is influenced by the trends of internationalization and globalization.

Internationalization is a kind of increase in economic activity that knows no national and geographical boundaries.

Globalization is a more advanced form of internationalization. Globalization is the process of increasing the importance of a company's international contacts, compared with internal ones. Globalization is characterized by overcoming the importance of state borders as a kind of barrier to commodity flows.

This contributes to increasing the role of management and simultaneously raising it to the level of world management.

Globalization and internationalization of management is characterized by:

1) the emergence of special systems of transnational interaction;

2) a kind of absorption of some enterprises by others;

3) creation of joint ventures. An international manager solves almost the same tasks as an ordinary manager, but it only happens at a higher level.

He has a great responsibility. The effectiveness of his decision-making depends on the activities of not only one company, but also the whole industry.

88. PUBLIC RELATIONS (PR) AS PART OF COMMUNICATIONS MANAGEMENT

As part of the management of communications between an organization and society, it is possible to consider such a structure as public relations (PR). To date, PR includes a set of tasks of the organization. Such tasks have a direct impact on the formation of a positive public opinion about its activities and on the relationship of the organization with the public.

Over time, four models of PR have developed within the framework of the organization's activities. In such models, the evolution from informing to more effective information management is considered in stages:

1) press agency;

2) public information;

3) asymmetric model;

4) bilateral asymmetric model. It is also necessary to pay special attention

to the fact that all the considered PR models represent the stages of development of PR practice used in almost every organization.

These models are discussed in more detail below.

In the activities of the press agency, all communications are aimed at organizing the public. The purpose of such organizations is general information, promotion of the activities of the organization. Eric Goldman, in a book on the dangers of PR intentions, called the era of press agencies the era of "the public being fooled." The main feature here is the constant desire to have free access to the media for their clients. Similar press agencies were established in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. in the United States at a time when business was booming. Today, most domestic and foreign PR services operate on this model.

"Public information", here the key concepts are "mutual understanding", "trust", "goodwill". Specialists of this model carry out their actions in two directions: first of all, this is the disclosure of all the positive areas of the organization's activity, as well as the positioning of this image in the minds of the public.

The disadvantage of this model is that effective mechanisms and recommendations to the management of the organization on the problem of forming public opinion about the organization have not yet been developed.

In the symmetric model, the interests of the organization prevail over the interests of the public. A feature of this model is the lack of feedback, i.e., dialogue between the organization and society;

The symmetrical model is based on the information that was obtained as a result of communication between the public and the organization. Such a model is based on such principles as mutual understanding, mutual change, and mutual adaptation.

Author: Druzhinina Z.G.

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PROmax power supplies are designed in a narrow DIN-rail housing, are highly reliable (MTBF>500000 hours) and are designed for harsh environments.

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