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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Logics. Analogy and hypothesis (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 19. Analogy and hypothesis 1. The concept of inference by analogy A significant characteristic of inference as one of the forms of human thinking is the conclusion of new knowledge. At the same time, in the inference, the conclusion (consequence) is obtained in the course of the movement of thought from the known to the unknown. This movement of human thought includes deduction and induction. Along with them, there are other types of inferences, one of which is analogy. Analogy (Greek analogia - "similarity", "correspondence") is a similarity, similarity of objects (phenomena) in any properties, features, relationships. For example, the chemical composition of the Sun and the Earth is similar. Therefore, when the element helium, still unknown on Earth, was discovered on the Sun, by analogy they concluded: there is such an element on Earth. Inference by analogy is based on a number of undoubted data that science has at its disposal under specific historical conditions. It represents the movement of thought from the commonality of some properties and relations of compared objects (or processes) to the commonality of other properties and relations. Analogy plays an essential role in the natural and human sciences. Many scientific discoveries have been made by researchers through its use. For example, the nature of sound was established by analogy with a sea wave, and the nature of light - by analogy with sound. The analogy has its own specifics. So, it represents a certain likelihood of the object (or phenomenon) under study and expresses knowledge with an internally hidden probability. The process of formation and wide dissemination of the analogy began with everyday consciousness, and it is directly related to the daily life of people. The conclusions of the analogy are ambiguous, usually they do not have probative force. Therefore, one should move from a conclusion by analogy to a conclusion by necessity. Any apparent analogy needs to be verified through actual proof [17]. This requirement is due to the fact that it is possible to obtain a false conclusion, although it is constructed in accordance with the requirements of analogy. Diagram of inference by analogy. A has attributes a, b, c, d. B has features a, b, c. It is probable that B has feature d. 2. Types and rules of analogy Inferences by analogy can be divided into two groups. The first can be represented as an analogy of properties and qualities, or an analogy of relationships. In the first case, objects are considered - single or classes. The attributes of the analogy are the properties of these objects. Property analogy diagram. Object x has properties a, b, c, d, e, f. The object y has properties a, b, c, d. Probably the object y has the properties e, f. The basis of the analogy of properties is the relationship between the features of an object. Each object, having many properties, is an internal, interdependent unity in which it is impossible to modify some essential property without affecting its other features. The second kind is the analogy of relations. This is a conclusion in which not the objects themselves are considered, but their properties. Suppose there is a relation (aXb) and a relation (cX1b). The relations X and X1 are analogous, but not analogously with; b is not the same as d. second group analogies can be divided into two types - strict and non-strict analogy. A strict analogy contains a connection between common features and a transferred feature. The strict analogy is as follows. The object X has features a, b, c, d, e. Object Y has features a, b, c, d. From the set of signs a, e, c, d, an analogy necessarily follows. Strict analogy finds application in scientific research, as well as in mathematical proofs. The modeling method is based on the properties of inference by strict analogy. Modeling - this is a kind of analogy in which one of the similar objects is examined as an imitation of another. These objects are called the model and the original. The knowledge gained about the model is transferred to the original. At the same time, the model is both an object of study and a means of cognition. Non-strict analogy does not give a reliable, but only a probabilistic conclusion. This is due to the fact that the difference between the model and the original is not only quantitative, but also qualitative, and there are great differences between laboratory and natural conditions. In order to increase the degree of reliability of the hypothesis, it is necessary to observe a number of rules. first is a comprehensive study of objects and their properties. Second - identification of similar features between the objects under consideration. The third - identifying relationships between objects in order to find a transferable property between them. 3. Hypothesis Hypothesis called an assumption about any object or phenomenon, its causes, relationships, laws of nature, society and the state, based on scientific data. Proven hypotheses based on scientific knowledge can be called scientifically sound. Hypotheses not justified in this way should not be taken into account. Among such unfounded hypotheses, one can single out the hypotheses false. They can be created intentionally or out of ignorance. All hypotheses can be divided into general, particular and singular. General hypotheses are used to explain, to cover the whole class of phenomena. An example of a general hypothesis can be, for example, the hypothesis of the origin of life or the emergence of the world, Charles Darwin's hypothesis of the origin of man. Once proven, a hypothesis becomes a theory. Private hypotheses unlike the general ones, they do not cover the entire class of homogeneous objects, but only a part of it. At the same time, the object of interest is singled out from the entire class of homogeneous objects and is further considered separately from this class. Single hypotheses affect only one subject of a homogeneous class, the rest are excluded from consideration (it must be taken into account that the entire class can consist of only one subject). Such hypotheses arise when the object itself is single or it is necessary to consider its properties without taking into account the influence of objects of the same class. As an example of a single hypothesis, one can cite scientifically based assumptions about the phenomenon of the Tunguska meteorite and other similar phenomena. It is also necessary to mention such a type of hypotheses as working hypotheses. Their totality represents an intermediate stage between hypothesis and theory. That is, the construction of working hypotheses is used to prove the main hypothesis. Most often, working hypotheses arise at the beginning of the study. They do not have a very great depth of research, do not cover the entire range of issues, but they allow you to obtain the necessary information and establish some of the properties and connections of the subject. Working hypotheses are not final and in the process of work can be changed and replaced by others or simply discarded. It is also necessary to mention a special kind of hypotheses - false hypotheses. They can be created due to lack of information, unintentionally, or to achieve their goals, with intent. If a probabilistic conclusion is raised to the rank of a hypothesis, it can turn out to be either true or false, depending on whether the conclusion is true or false. Despite the fact that a false hypothesis conveys incorrect information about the subject under consideration, it cannot be said that it has a fairly large cognitive value. For example, a false hypothesis, if it contains a sound grain, can direct research in a new direction, add, so to speak, fresh blood to stagnant research and thereby lead to a scientific discovery. Also, a false hypothesis, when proven false, shows researchers (especially the next generation) a direction in which they definitely should not go. That is, new researchers are spared the need to test the guess underlying a false hypothesis. Author: Shadrin D.A. << Back: Methods for establishing cause-and-effect relationships (The concept of cause-and-effect relationships. Methods for establishing cause-and-effect relationships) >> Forward: Argument in logic (Dispute. Types of dispute. Dispute tactics)
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