Table of contents (expand)
- Introduction to Logic Course
- Logics. The main stages of the development of science (Logic of the Ancient World. Ancient India and Ancient China. Ancient Greece. Medieval logic)
- Logic of the Renaissance and Modern Times (Logic of the Renaissance. Logic of the New Time)
- Subject of logic (Sensation, perception and representation as forms of cognition of the surrounding world. Abstract thinking: concept, judgment and inference. The importance of thinking in achieving truth. Logical forms)
- Concept as a form of thinking (General characteristics of concepts. Types of concepts)
- Education of concepts, their content and scope (Logical techniques for the formation of concepts. Content and scope of concepts)
- Relationships between concepts (General characteristics of the relationships between concepts. Compatible concepts. Incompatible concepts)
- Generalization and limitation; definition of concepts (Generalization and limitation of concepts. Definition. Rules for definition)
- Division of concepts (General characteristics. Rules for dividing concepts. Dichotomy)
- Judgment (General characteristics of judgments. Linguistic expression of judgments)
- Simple judgments. Concept and types (The concept and types of simple judgments. Categorical judgments. General, particular, individual judgments)
- Complex judgments. Formation of complex judgments (The concept of complex judgments. Expressing statements. Denial of complex judgments)
- Truth and modality of judgments (Modality of judgments. Truth of judgments)
- logical laws (The concept of logical laws. The law of identity. The law of non-contradiction. The law of excluded middle. Sufficient reason)
- Conclusion. General characteristics of deductive reasoning (The concept of inference. Deductive inferences. Conditional and disjunctive inferences)
- Syllogism (The concept of syllogism. Simple categorical syllogism. Complex syllogism. Abbreviated syllogism. Abbreviated complex syllogism)
- Induction. Concept, rules and types (The concept of induction. Rules of induction. Types of inductive inferences)
- Methods for establishing cause-and-effect relationships (The concept of cause-and-effect relationships. Methods for establishing cause-and-effect relationships)
- Analogy and hypothesis (The concept of inference by analogy. Analogy. Scheme of inference by analogy. Types and rules of analogy. Hypothesis)
- Argument in logic (Dispute. Types of dispute. Dispute tactics)
- Argumentation and proof (Proof. Argumentation)
- Rebuttal (The concept of refutation. Refutation through arguments and form)
- Sophistry. Logical paradoxes (Sophisms. Concept, examples. Paradox. Concept, examples)
LECTURE No. 3. The logic of the Renaissance and the New Age
1. Logic of the Renaissance
A characteristic feature of the Renaissance is the ever-increasing importance of science. This is a time of scientific and geographical discoveries and an increase in the influence of mathematics. The logic of this time is characterized by the strengthening of empirical tendencies.
One of the scientists working during the Renaissance was Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who is considered to be the founder of English materialism. He made a significant contribution to the development of the materialistic logical approach. F. Bacon believed that the only correct approach to the study of the subject is not only the collection of information, but also its intellectual processing and, thus, the creation of scientific theories. The main achievement of F. Bacon is his work "New Organon", which was intended to replace the “Organon” (means of knowledge), written by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. F. Bacon's work discusses issues of induction, methods for determining the causal relationship between objects and phenomena (similarities and differences of accompanying changes, residues and the combined method of similarities and differences).
It should be noted that F. Bacon studied the works of Aristotle in translations and revisions of medieval scholars, as a result of which he was unfair to his Organon.
In the Renaissance, other scientists also dealt with questions of logic, among which the French philosopher is especially famous. Rene Descartes (1596-1650). He formulated four rules for the correct approach to scientific research. R. Descartes created a scientific work "Logic, or the art of thinking", the main idea of which was the liberation of Aristotle's logic from the changes introduced by medieval scientists.
2. The logic of modern times
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a famous scientist of the modern period, proposed the division of logic into two types - formal and transcendental. Ordinary logic deals with the study of concepts, judgments and inferences. Transcendental logic examines the forms of thinking, and considers knowledge as prior to experience and independent of it.
A priori (a priori - “from previous”) knowledge, thus, is a condition of experimental knowledge that gives it a formalized, universal and necessary character. A priori forms of logical knowledge, according to I. Kant, are designed to organize the chaos of sensations and provide complete and reliable information.
I. Kant distinguished logical causes and effects from real causes and effects, which is an important contribution to the theory of science.
I. Kant considered judgment as an expression of knowledge and divided the latter into two types: analytical and synthetic.
Analytical judgments do not create new knowledge, but only define what already exists.
Synthetic judgments can be a posteriori (a posteriori - “from what follows”), which are placed in direct dependence on experience, originating from it, and a priori, independent of experience and, moreover, even preceding it. From this it is clear that these two types are opposite to each other. It should be noted that even today among logicians and philosophers there is no unity of opinion regarding the a priori judgments of I. Kant.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) is considered the most famous German philosopher of the classical school. He, relying on an objective-idealistic foundation, developed a systematic theory of dialectics. The main concept of this theory is development, which is understood as a characteristic of the activity of the world spirit (absolute). The Absolute is characterized by a supertemporal movement in the realm of pure thought in an ascending series of increasingly concrete categories (being, nothingness, quality, quantity, measure, etc.).
G. Hegel identifies logic with dialectics. In this regard, formal logic is not only criticized by scientists, but also denied by them. This relation can be seen in the work of the scientist "Science of Logic". G. Hegel also criticizes the views of I. Kant.
Author: Shadrin D.A.
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