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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Logics. Subject of logic (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 4. The subject of logic 1. Sensation, perception and representation as forms of knowledge of the surrounding world The subject of logic is understood differently by different scientists. Some indicate reasoning as the subject [2], others adhere to a broader interpretation and call thinking as the subject [3]. However, on the main points of this issue, the views of scientists coincide. Let's move on to a more specific consideration of this problem. The subject of logic is inextricably linked with such concepts as cognition, thinking, logical forms and logical laws. Logic is a science that studies the methods and principles of cognitive activity, its means. Such a study is impossible without defining two levels of knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Empirical level has the object of reality, directly reflected by the human senses. In relation to it, observation is possible, influence on its characteristic features through experiments, experiments. Thus, empirical knowledge provides information about the subject through observation, experience, experiment. Theoretical way of knowing often studies objects and phenomena that are inaccessible to direct sensory reflection. Human thinking arises only on the basis of knowledge and is impossible without it. Human knowledge does not exist without the mediation of sensations. Any information that a person receives comes from the outside world. Thus, the only source of information is the sense organs. It is through these organs that we become aware of the properties of the surrounding world. Each item has not one, but several properties (for example, weight, size, shape, texture, etc.). The sense organs, like the human brain, are amenable to training and, depending on training, provide more or less information for cognition. The training of the brain is characterized by its ability for a more fruitful process of thinking. Through sensations, the connection of consciousness with the outside world is carried out more fully, the more sense organs are involved at a given moment. There are cases when one or more of a person’s senses are damaged or do not function at all. Then the sensitivity of the others is heightened and even, to one degree or another, fills in the functions of those who are missing. Feeling - this is a reflection of the individual properties of the object at the time of its direct impact on the senses. Perception - this is a holistic image of the totality of the properties of an object that arises at the moment of the direct impact of the latter on the senses. Human perception is manifested in determining the specific properties of an object and their expression. In other words, a person pays attention to a specific property of an object (shape, color, smell, taste, etc.), as well as the degree of this property (round or oval, more or less sweet, heavy or light). From this we can conclude that perception is individual for each person. It depends on the characteristics of his senses and the experience acquired by a person; his education and attitude to the subject, mood. Thus, an electric discharge (artificial lightning) will be perceived differently by a person not involved in science, a physicist and, for example, an artist. An “ordinary” person will simply be impressed by the beauty of the spectacle; the artist will note the riot of colors and the polymorphism of the discharge. A physicist will be most interested in the readings of instruments. The connection between perception and human experience can be illustrated by the example of I. A. Krylov’s fable “The Monkey and the Glasses.” At the instigation of others, Monkey purchased several glasses in order to improve her vision. Then, not knowing the use of this item and based on her life experience, Monkey unsuccessfully tried to find a use for the glasses, using them as decoration. The following phrase highlights this situation very clearly: Unfortunately, this is what happens to people: // No matter how useful a thing is, without knowing its value, // The ignoramus turns his understanding of it for the worse... From sensations and perceptions, an idea is formed, an image of an object that is not perceived at the moment, but was previously perceived in one way or another. Representation is divided into reproducing and creative. reproducing - this, as the name implies, is an idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXba object or phenomenon that was previously perceived by the human senses directly and remembered. creative performance based on stories, descriptions of an object or phenomenon. Such an idea can also arise in the imagination of a person. For example, the image of a non-existent person or animal that arises in the process of the artist's activity. Or a geographical place where a person has never been can be recreated by him from eyewitness accounts. Also, there may be an idea about the appearance of a person. An example would be a stereotype. For example, if a person is asked to imagine a top model, he will immediately remember a number of features characteristic of top models. We cognize with the help of sensory perception only the external characteristics of the object, but not its essence. For a deep knowledge of objects and phenomena, one sensory perception is not enough. A more complex form of cognition is needed - abstract thinking. It reflects the surrounding world and its processes much deeper. If sensory cognition reflects facts, then abstract thinking makes it possible to determine laws. 2. Abstract thinking: concept, judgment and conclusion Abstract thinking has several forms and these forms are concepts, judgments and inferences. Concept is a form of thinking that reflects an object or a group of objects in one or more essential features. In colloquial speech, a concept can be expressed in one or several words. For example, "horse", "tractor" or "worker of a research institute", "explosive bullet", etc. Judgment - this is a form of thinking containing an affirmation or denial about the world, its objects, patterns and relationships. Judgments are simple and complex. The difference between them is that a complex proposition consists of two simple propositions. Simple judgment: "The karateka strikes." Complicated proposition: "The train has departed, the platform is empty." As you can see, the form of judgment is a declarative sentence. Inference - this is a form of thinking that allows one or more interconnected judgments to draw a conclusion in the form of a new judgment. An inference is made up of several propositions that Example of a judgment. All trees are plants. Maple is a tree. Maple is a plant. Concept, judgment and inference - these are categories that are unthinkable without reference to everyday life and human activities. They are only tested in practice. Practice is a daily social, material, industrial and other human activity under certain conditions. It can be in the field of politics, law, industry, agriculture, etc. In other words, practice is a test of theoretical knowledge in terms of their applicability in the real world. Any product passes such check before the start of operation. Trains, cars, planes are being tested. Theories and concepts are tested. Definitions are also tested in practice (recall the case of "Plato's man"). All these difficulties are necessary to achieve real knowledge, truth. Truth - knowledge that adequately reflects in the human mind the phenomena and processes of the surrounding world. In addition to abstract thinking, sensations, perception, and representation can provide truth, but their level of knowledge is often not enough. Abstract thinking thus enables us to grasp the deeper layers of truth. Abstract thinking is the most important tool in the hands of a person, allowing to know the unknown, separate the truth from lies, create a work of art and make a discovery. This is a very significant phenomenon, and therefore it has characteristic features: 1) reflects the features of the surrounding world without the direct impact of any phenomena on the senses. In other words, a person does not always need direct contact with an object or phenomenon to obtain new information. He comes to this result, relying on his knowledge gained earlier (a student of a mathematical institute, solving an unfamiliar problem, applies the knowledge gained earlier when solving similar problems), on experience (an old hunter participating in a raid guesses which way he will go beast), on the imagination (a person who has never been to the Hawaiian Islands makes up an idea about them according to the description of the interlocutor); 2) it is always a generalization of the phenomena of reality in order to identify existing patterns. Any person instinctively strives to simplify the process of thinking, which increases its speed and efficiency. This is the result of the generalization. Information about an object or phenomenon is compressed, as it were, access to it is accelerated due to the connections formed in the brain. In other words, finding in the process of thinking something in common between different objects, a person, as it were, puts these objects in one row. Thus, he does not need to remember all the data about one object from a series, but only its characteristic features. The common thing for all these items needs to be remembered only once. To confirm, you can give an example with a car. If you ask a person to imagine a car, an object will appear in his imagination, just characterized by common features - four wheels, several doors, a hood, a trunk, etc. Further, it is only necessary to specify the brand, type, belonging of the car; 3) it is impossible without a direct connection with the linguistic expression of thought. The process of thinking can be conditionally divided into two types - thinking without the mediation of language and "internal conversation", that is, proceeding in the form of communication with oneself. Be that as it may, it should be noted that most of the information, especially complex information (created not on the basis of sensory reflection), a person receives through communication, through books, magazines, and the media. All this is carried out mainly through spoken (written) language. Thus, a situation is created when a person receives information from the outside world, processes it, creating something new, and reinforces it again. Therefore, language acts not only as a means of expression, but also as a means of fixing information. 3. The value of thinking in reaching the truth. Logic forms Thinking - it is always an active process, as it is aimed at achieving a certain result, awareness, change, addition of information. Abstract thinking - this is a means of cognition, with the help of which logical science considers and studies the phenomena of the surrounding world, which are often impossible to know in any other way, and this shows the degree of necessity. To increase the efficiency of the thinking process, the concept of logical forms is used. These are the forms in which logical knowledge proceeds. They characterize the method of connection of the constituent parts of thought, its structure. Such a structure exists objectively, that is, it does not depend on a particular person, but characterizes the features of the surrounding world. Giving a definition to logical forms, it is necessary to say about such concepts as a quantified word, a connective, a subject and a predicate. Subject - this is a category that gives the concept of the subject of judgment, the logical form of which must be determined. Predicate - gives the concept of the sign of the subject. Bunch represented by the word "is" and may be absent. In this case, a dash is used instead. quantifier word is the word "everything". Thus judgments are expressed in forms like "All (quantifier) S (subject) is (copy) P (predicate)". As an example of a logical form "all S are P" the following judgments can be made: "All caterpillars are pests", "All people are mammals", etc. Perhaps the main thing in the process of thinking of each person, if he, of course, does not want to make logical errors, is the knowledge and correct application of logical laws. Compliance with these laws is the key to achieving the truth: 1) the law of identity; 2) the law of non-contradiction; 3) the law of the excluded middle; 4) the law of sufficient reason. It should also be mentioned that human thinking, in addition to formal logical laws, is subject to the general laws of dialectics: the laws of negation, the mutual transition of quality and quantity, the unity and struggle of opposites. These laws, like logical forms, have an objective character, that is, they do not depend on the will of man and exist independently of him. Therefore, even a person who has never studied logic and has not the slightest idea of the existence of its laws thinks on their basis, relying on common sense. This is typical not only for our time, but also for other historical eras. The significance of logical forms lies in the fact that they are used to achieve the truth of propositions, which can be either true or false. Truth and falsity - indicators of the specific content of a certain judgment. However, regardless of the truth of the judgments that act as premises, the conclusion, that is, the judgment derived from these premises, may be false. Reasoning as a process of obtaining a conclusion from the initial premises can only be right or wrong, but not false or true. It obeys the rules of logic and acts on their basis. It must be remembered that compliance with the rules of logic in reasoning is necessary, since if they are neglected, it is possible to obtain a false judgment even from true premises. There are also cases when, if one or more premises are false and the rules of logic are observed, the conclusion drawn can be true, as well as if the rules of logic are not observed if the premises are true. Author: Shadrin D.A. << Back: Logic of the Renaissance and Modern Times (Logic of the Renaissance. Logic of the New Time) >> Forward: Concept as a form of thinking (General characteristics of concepts. Types of concepts)
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