LECTURE No. 20. Argument in logic

1. Dispute. Dispute types

In order to be able to reveal the essence of the dispute, it is necessary to say a little about the evidence. Without them, our world is unthinkable, every judgment requires proof. Otherwise, whatever the person said would be true. Exclusion of evidence in the absolute plan will lead the human world to chaos. Proof is necessary, because it is through it that we determine whether this or that proposition is true or not.

The thought for which proof is constructed to substantiate the truth or falsity is called the thesis of the proof [18]. This is the ultimate goal of the discussion.

Thesis in proof can be compared to the king in a chess game. A good chess player should always have the king in mind, no matter what move he is planning. Likewise, a good participant in a discussion or just a conversation: no matter what he talks about in the proof, he always ultimately has one main goal - the thesis, its statement, proof or refutation, etc. [19]

Therefore, the main thing in the dispute can be called the clarification of the controversial thought, the identification of the thesis, that is, you need to penetrate into its essence and understand it so that it becomes completely clear in meaning. This saves a lot of time and guards against a lot of mistakes.

There are three questions that need to be resolved when considering the thesis in order to be able to talk about a thorough study of the subject - whether all the words and expressions of the thesis are clear, whether their meaning is known. It is necessary to clarify each concept of the thesis until complete clarity is achieved.

It is also necessary to accurately be aware of how many subjects are mentioned in the asserted judgment-thesis. Here, for clarity of thought, it is necessary to know whether we are talking about one object, about all objects of a given class, or about some (most, many, almost all, several, etc.).

Often, when expressing his thoughts, an opponent in a dispute uses vague judgments - those in which it is impossible to understand, for example, how many objects are being discussed. The refutation of such theses is problematic, however, and simple at the same time. It is necessary to point out to the opponent his mistake.

Then we need to find out what kind of judgment we consider the thesis to be true, reliable, false, or probable to a greater or lesser extent, or refutable. For example, a thesis seems to us only possible: there are no arguments for it, but there are no arguments against it either. Depending on all this, it is necessary to give various methods of proof, each of which plays its role only in certain cases, without touching the scope of others.

It is these nuances that are most often overlooked when determining the asserted judgment. Since their value seems low, they are discarded as unnecessary. This cannot be done. In order to understand the meaning of seemingly unimportant information, one can turn to judicial practice, in which the outcome of a case often depends on one word.

There are three types of dispute: scientific and business discussion and controversy. In the first case the purpose of the dispute is to solve some practical or theoretical problem that arises within the framework of a particular science.

The second is aimed at reaching agreement on the main provisions put forward by the parties, finding a solution that corresponds to the real state of affairs. And the last kind of dispute, controversy, serves to achieve victory. In the most general form, we can say that this is an argument for the sake of an argument. However, a clear distinction between polemics and the two previous types of dispute cannot be drawn: every dispute, when conducted according to the rules of logic and without the use of unacceptable techniques, leads to the achievement of truth, no matter in what area it is started.

The dispute can take place with the public, whose presence the parties to the dispute have to take into account, and without it.

Disputes in public, especially as a demonstration of oratory skills, are more characteristic of Ancient Greece than of the present time. Then the sophist philosophers and adherents of the emerging logic deliberately and publicly staged disputes. This teaching method was used, for example, by Socrates in his school.

Behind the scenes dispute, or an argument without spectators or listeners, has always been common. This is how, for example, deputies can argue before or after the adoption of a bill on its main points. Scientists can argue this way when discussing a new discovery or nuances of their work.

The dispute may take place with or without an arbitrator. The role of arbitrator may be performed by the public when the dispute is public, but more often an individual is appointed to the role of judge. This is done because several people cannot always come to an unambiguous agreement themselves, and a dispute between two opponents can give rise to a dispute between the public, which does not have a very good effect on the efficiency of the dispute. The person who is elected as a judge, of course, must have a good knowledge of logic.

dispute called a dispute between two people in which the public is present.

In order for the dispute to proceed as calmly as possible, and the parties to be able to offer their arguments consistently, the order in which issues are discussed is often agreed in advance. The parties explain which theories they will appeal to.

It must be said that such a "field of argumentation" is not always developed. Often the parties prefer to have an "ace in the hole" as a means to reach the truth. Many disputes also a priori begin not for the sake of truth, but to achieve certain goals. It goes without saying that the general course of such a dispute cannot be determined, since each of the parties can hide some particularly valuable material and use it at a decisive moment to turn the dispute in its favor.

The dispute for the sake of achieving true knowledge is called dialectical. This name comes from ancient Greece, where dialectics was understood as the art of deducing the truth in a conversation with an opponent. Based on the foregoing, it can be summarized that discussion is always a dialectical dispute, while polemics and disputes are not.

The dispute begins to achieve victory.

The parties to the dispute are called differently, but most often - opponents. The term "proponent" is sometimes used.

Proponent name the side that put forward the thesis for refutation by the other side. The latter is called the opponent. Also use the concept of "opponent". Basically, this is the name of the participants in the dispute aimed at achieving victory.

Depending on the type of dispute, one or another strategy and tactics of argumentation and criticism are used.

Strategy - this is a predetermined scheme, a plan for constructing an argument, proof or refutation.

The strategy is to do the following:.

1. Logically flawless formulation of the thesis (the thesis must be consistent, clear, etc.).

2. Bringing arguments in defense of the thesis, criticism of competing concepts.

3. Logical assessment of the thesis in the light of the arguments found.

This strategy is the simplest, although its use requires certain skills of the opponent and listeners. It happens that a thesis is formulated, arguments are given, but there is no conclusion about how much the arguments support the thesis.

Sometimes discussions are held in the form of a round table. Basically, this is how the discussion of scientific and some other problems is organized.

It is advisable to conduct such discussions in cases where it is necessary to discuss an “undeveloped” problem. A leader or presenter is appointed to conduct the round table, as well as a person who formulates the problem, if it is not known to everyone. Then solutions or solutions are proposed [20], the preferences of which are justified as theses of the argument.

It is also worth mentioning such a type of dispute as business meeting. It is held as a round table, which was already mentioned above, and as a dispute between the parties - two or more people. In the second case, the existence of an already developed solution is assumed with the aim of improving or convincing those present of its truth.

As the name implies, a business meeting is most often held to solve problems that arise in the course of the activities of any entity, whether it be an organization, body, government institution or their structural subdivisions.

When conducting business meetings, in many cases it is important to comply with the regulations and maintain protocol, as well as to involve as participants persons who have the appropriate knowledge, are familiar with the problem statement in advance and are authorized to make appropriate decisions [21].

2. Tactics of the dispute

The tactics of arguing, arguing, proving one's own theses and refuting the opponent's judgments have been studied quite well. Often it consists in the application of techniques developed over several thousand years. These techniques themselves originated much earlier than the science of logic. However, some of them were in their infancy, and some were subsequently recognized as incorrect and even unacceptable ways of conducting a dispute.

All techniques can be conditionally divided into general techniques, which are also called general methodological, as well as logical and psychological (socio-psychological). This group also includes rhetorical tricks.

The basis for the allocation of types of tactical techniques are aspects of argumentation, one of which is moral. Probably there is no absolute criterion according to which methods would be accepted from the point of view of morality or, on the contrary, rejected.

General methodological tactics are: delay of expression, concealment of the thesis, prolongation of the dispute, as well as divide and conquer, placing the burden of proof on the opponent, cunctation, chaotic speech, Thomas' trick, ignoring intellectuals and simple speech.

Each of these methods is discussed separately below.

Pulling an expression occurs when a person who is arguing in a discussion suddenly finds himself in a difficult position in answering a question or selecting evidence arguments. However, he understands (or believes) that arguments exist and can be found, provided that he can buy time for reflection.

Then you can ask your opponent to wait. Taking advantage of the respite, it is necessary to repeat the arguments that have already been given in the process of proof and refutation, to recall the main points that are worth paying attention to when considering this issue. Instead of asking the opponent to wait, sometimes they resort to a slight distraction, speaking not directly on the topic, but on the subject. This gives you more time to think. Relatively calm reflection after asking for a little time is still preferable.

Concealment of the thesis is inextricably linked to the rule of clear definition. It says that a participant in a discussion, a lecturer speaking at a meeting, rally, conference, etc., must clearly formulate each thesis with its subsequent justification. This rule is intended to create comfortable conditions for those who are intended for the transmitted information (students, work colleagues, partners, etc.), as it contributes to the correct expression of thoughts, allows you to focus the attention of those present on the speaker and his thoughts. Argumentation can then proceed more easily, since its process is transparent.

In some cases, it makes sense to reverse actions. First, the arguments are formulated clearly and correctly. Then you need to ask the opponent to express their attitude towards them. If he agrees, a thesis can be deduced from the stated judgments. And it is not necessary to do so. For example, if the thesis is obvious enough, you can provide its formulation to the opponent.

In doing so, you can use additional means of persuasion - from the arguments expressed, one can conclude a false thesis, which clearly does not correspond to the general course of reasoning, and allow the opponent to independently find an error, having come to the correct conclusion. This will give him a sense of involvement in the proof and will involuntarily force him to treat the thesis as true, proven on his own.

Due to its rather high efficiency, this technique is used when the opponent is not interested in proving the thesis.

It is impossible to deny the opinion that emotions in a dispute on scientific topics, especially in the fundamental sciences, are excluded, since the theses that require proof or refutation are in this case strongly abstracted from the sensory side of human cognition. They belong more to the realm of the mind and do not affect the interests of people. Therefore, it is considered that the opponents remain impartial.

However, it should be said that a subject that is important for a person, a subject to which he has devoted many years to the study, cannot but excite him, especially when an opposite point of view is expressed. This leads to the emergence of heated discussions and disputes regarding issues that, it would seem, cannot in any way affect such aspects of a person as his sensory sensations. In addition, many people simply have a disposition to get into arguments on any topic, whether that person is knowledgeable on a particular subject or not.

It is necessary to mention the inertia of the mind of many people (probably, it is inherent, if not in all, then in most representatives of the human race). When a person has convinced himself of some fact, on which (if it concerns a scientist) he builds his concept, it is very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to make him believe that this fact is false.

In such cases, the method of "hiding the thesis" can help to find the truth.

The next method of discussion is prolongation of the dispute. This technique is used when the opponent cannot answer the objection, especially when he feels that he is wrong on the merits. Then he asks you to repeat your last thought, to formulate your thesis again. The only way to combat this type of dispute is to point out the incorrectness of the technique to the opponent, the arbitrator, and sometimes to the public.

Cunctation (from lat. cunctator - "slow") lies in the fact that the opponent tries to take a wait-and-see position in the discussion in order to check his arguments, decide on the "aces in the hole" that should be held until the best moment, decide where to start the speech, and discard weak arguments. The goal is to speak in such a way as not to give the opponent the opportunity to object due to lack of time.

Divide and Conquer is one of the hardest tricks. Its goal is to weaken the opponent in the event of a collective offensive, i.e., when the forces are unequal and one opponent has several opponents at once. To achieve this goal, differences in the opinions of the collective opponent are used, which are identified, put on public display (sometimes with exaggeration), and then one part of such an opinion is opposed to another.

If the goal is achieved and a dispute arises within the group of opponents, you can proceed to the second part, namely, to invite the members of the group to digress from minor disagreements and defend the main idea, that is, their thesis. If there is no way to defend it even in this case, another statement can be proposed as the main idea, on which agreement has been reached among all members.

Putting the burden of proof on the opponent due to the fact that in most cases it is easier to refute the argument of the opposite side than to substantiate your thesis. Therefore, the opponent using this technique tries to take as few steps as possible to substantiate the question put forward by himself, but to demand proof of the opponent's thesis.

A lesser known and less commonly used name for this technique is "the truth is in silence".

The trick called "Foma's Trick", has a number of disadvantages, but can sometimes have the necessary effect and contribute to the speedy achievement of results. The meaning of this technique comes down to denial. This technique is sometimes used out of conviction, and sometimes with the goal of remaining victorious in an argument.

In the first case, the application of the technique is associated with ignorance or denial of the philosophical doctrine of the relationship between absolute and relative truths. This is due to the division of areas of science. They can be expressed as relative or absolute truth. The relativity of a doctrine means that it contains statements that are refuted in the process of developing its ideas. Absolute knowledge implies that the teaching contains statements that cannot be refuted in the future.

When the denial is based on the fact that relative knowledge contains a number of contradictions, and the significance of these contradictions is clearly exaggerated, one can speak of agnosticism (from Greek - "inaccessible to knowledge"). The denial of absolute knowledge leads to dogmatism.

Chaotic speech implies the use by an opponent who proposes a thesis to substantiate (many public people and authors of scientific works sin this), incoherent, ornate, complex speech. This is done when the thesis put forward cannot withstand the onslaught of the opponent, i.e. the arguing is not able to substantiate the defended opinion. Speech in this case abounds in place and out of place with the use of special terms, long and complex phrases, sometimes it is even characterized by the disappearance of the thread of thought. In other words, speech that seems normal at first glance, upon closer examination, turns out to be a set of words that do not express anything by and large.

Ignoring intellectuals - this, as the name implies, is a way of expressing one's opinion, in which no attention is paid to inaccuracies in speech that can be revealed by the people present. This does not confuse the opponent, he can put forward inaccurate information about events, talk about the subject, incorrectly indicating dates, etc.

simple speech at first glance, it is similar to ignoring intellectuals, but it is fundamentally different from the latter. The essence of this technique is the use of simple sentences, breaking the complex into parts, a detailed explanation, using examples to achieve the main goal - bringing to people who do not have, say, a special education, the intricacies of a particular issue.

Author: Shadrin D.A.

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