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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Logics. Concept as a form of thinking (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 5. The concept as a form of thinking 1. General characteristics of concepts Concept - this is a form of thinking that reflects objects and phenomena in their essential features. As mentioned above, a person perceives this or that object, highlighting the characteristic properties (signs) of the latter (recall that sensation, perception and representation serve these purposes). It is due to these properties that we put objects either in one row, that is, we generalize them, or, conversely, we single out an object from a mass of homogeneous ones with different properties. For example, we all know that sugar is sweet and free-flowing, and salt is free-flowing, but salty. On the basis of flowability, we combine sugar with salt, but on the basis of taste we separate from each other. Features can be properties of an object that unite or separate objects from one another. In other words, evidence - These are the properties of objects in which they are similar to each other or differ. Any properties, features, state of an object that in one way or another characterize the object, distinguish it, help to recognize it among other objects, constitute its characteristics. Signs can be not only properties belonging to an object; an absent property (trait, state) is also considered as its sign [4]. Any object has a set, a whole complex of features that define it. Such signs can determine the properties of only this object and be single or reflect the characteristic features of a number of objects. Such signs are called by common. To confirm these words, the following example can be given: each person has a number of characteristics that characterize him, some of which characterize only him. These are facial features, physique, gait, facial expressions, as well as signs defined by law enforcement officials as “special features” and other striking signs. Other signs characterize an entire community of people and distinguish this community from the totality of other communities. Such characteristics include profession, nationality, social affiliation, etc. Here it is necessary to mention the characteristics that characterize all people and at the same time separate representatives of the human race from other living beings. They are inherent in every person. This is the ability for abstract thinking and articulate speech [5]. In addition to single (individual) and general features, logic distinguishes between essential and non-essential features. Signs that are characterized by mandatory belonging to an object (i.e., necessarily inherent in it) and express the essence of this object are usually called essential. They can be both general and individual. Thus, concepts that reflect a variety of objects include common essential features (the ability to express the thinking process in language and the thinking process itself). Concepts reflecting one subject include both general essential and individual characteristics. For example, the concept “Aniskin” includes general essential features (person, policeman) and individual features characteristic only of this person. Features that may or may not belong to the subject and which do not express its essence are called insignificant. The concept qualitatively differs from the forms of sensory knowledge, that is, sensations, perceptions and ideas. These forms exist in the human mind in the form of visual images that reflect individual objects or their properties. In other words, sensation It is a form of sensory knowledge. It, like representation, through perception forms a sensually visual image of an object or phenomenon. There is no visibility in the concept. In this way, notion - this is a form of thinking that reflects objects on an abstract basis, based on their essential features. This approach makes the concept a very convenient tool for scientific knowledge and therefore is widely used in various fields and branches of science, and also plays a huge role in building the educational process. This is true for both the natural sciences and the humanities. In the process of forming the concept, science reflects in the concept the objects and phenomena studied by it. It should be noted that concepts are characterized by a certain sensory poverty. Resorting to fixing only the essential features of objects and phenomena, generalizing them, concepts lose a significant number of individual features inherent in the object under consideration. From this point of view, the concept is much less saturated with sensory attributes. However, in return, concepts provide an opportunity for a deeper study of the surrounding world, its objects, processes, phenomena and allow you to reflect the information received with greater completeness compared to sensory cognition. Concepts have a linguistic expression and are inextricably linked with the main language unit - In short. Concepts are expressed both through the latter (words) and through phrases (word groups). It goes without saying that without words and phrases it is impossible to construct concepts or operate a name (words and phrases united by some meaning and denoting an object). It is necessary to mention special cases that sometimes cause confusion or misunderstanding. Words with ambiguous meanings can lead to such results. Homonyms (from the Greek homos - “same” and onyma - “name”) - different, but identical sounding and spelling units of language (words, morphemes, etc.) [6]. These are words that have the same sound, but different meanings (expressing different objects, processes or phenomena). For example, the word "onion", depending on the context, can mean an edible plant or small arms. Everyone knows the proposition "Peace to the world!". It contains two meanings of the word "world". There are many homonymous words in Russian, for example, the words "lynx", "bridge", "spit", "key" have several meanings at once. By devoting time to studying homonym words, you can sometimes get up to five or six meanings. However, it is unacceptable to take for homonyms concepts that include a separate word denoting similar phenomena, processes or objects. For example, the word "network" can be used in different expressions, such as "computer network", "electrical network"; "fishing net", "volleyball net", etc. In these examples, the word "net" is used in various combinations that change the context of its use, but not the semantic meaning. Recall that homonymous words have different meanings provided they sound the same. Synonyms (from the Greek synonymos - "of the same name") - these are words that differ in sound, but are identical or close in meaning, as well as syntactic and grammatical constructions that coincide in meaning. Synonyms are complete, for example, “linguistics” - “linguistics”, and partial, for example, “road” - “path” [7]. An example of the use of synonyms in context is the following sentences: “They had a long road ahead of them” - “There was a long road ahead”; “The severe frost chilled the travelers to the bones” - “It was January cold outside.” In connection with the foregoing, it should be noted that the ambiguity of words, the fuzziness of their semantic content can lead to errors in the definition of concepts, the construction of conclusions. Therefore, it is necessary to choose words with the clearest meaning, excluding duality and errors in reasoning. Terms are meant to be such words. Term (from Latin terminus - "border", "limit") - a word or phrase used with a touch of special scientific meaning. Thus, the term denotes a strictly defined concept and is characterized by unambiguity, at least within the framework of a particular science or group of sciences. 2. Types of concepts In modern logic, it is customary to divide concepts into: clear and blurry; single and general; collective and non-collective; concrete and abstract; positive and negative; non-relative and correlative. Let's move on to consider each type of concept separately. Clear and blurry. Depending on the content of concepts, they can reflect reality more or less accurately. It is this quality that forms the basis for the division of concepts into clear and vague. As you might guess, the clarity of reflection is much higher for clear concepts, while blurred ones often reflect the subject with insufficient completeness. For example, the clear concept of “inflation” contains in its characteristics a fairly clear indication of the degree of economic destabilization in the country. In various branches of science (mainly the humanities), concepts with a vague content (perestroika, glasnost) are used, which is often negative. This is especially true for law enforcement activities, in the course of which the lack of certainty of legal norms can lead to their free interpretation by subjects of law. Obviously this is unacceptable. Single and general concepts. This division is related to whether they involve one element or several. As you might guess, concepts in which only one element is implied are called singular (for example, “Venice”, “J. London”, “Paris”). Concepts in which several elements are thought of are called by common (for example, "country", "writer", "capital"). General concepts can be registering and non-registering. They differ in that in registering concepts many implied elements can be taken into account and can be recorded. Non-registering concepts are characterized by the fact that many of their elements cannot be counted; they have an infinite volume. Collective and non-collective concepts. Concepts containing signs of a certain set of elements included in one complex are usually called collective. As an example of collective concepts, we can cite the concepts of “team”, “pack”, “squad”. It should be noted that the content of a single concept cannot be attributed to a separate element included in its scope, since it applies to all elements at once. Collective concepts can be general (“team”, “flock”) and individual (“Team “Falcon””, “Team “Alpha””). Concepts containing signs not of the whole set, but of individual elements, are called non-collective. If the use of such a concept in speech refers to each of the elements that make up its volume, such an expression is called dividing. If all the elements are mentioned in a complex (totality) and without regard to each of the elements taken separately, such an expression is called collective. Concrete and abstract concepts. This division of concepts depends on the subject reflected in the content of the concept. This may be an object, or a certain set of objects, or a sign of this object (the relationship between objects). Accordingly, the concept, the content of which is information about the attribute of an object or the relationship between objects, is called abstract concept. On the contrary, the concept of an object or a set of objects is called specific. The main feature, the feature by which the division of concepts into concrete and abstract is carried out, is the ratio of the subject and its features. In other words, although the attributes of an object cannot exist without the latter, as a result of the logical method of "abstraction" they are distinguished into an independent object of thought and are considered without regard to their object. Accordingly, the concept is called abstract. We must not forget that specific and singular concepts are not synonymous, just as abstract ones must be separated from general ones. Thus, general concepts can be both concrete and abstract. For example, the concept of "merchant" is general and specific, while the concept of "mediation" is general and abstract. Positive and negative concepts. The classification of these concepts is based on the properties of an object, phenomenon or process. The type of concept here is made dependent on the presence or absence of characterizing properties of the object. In other words, a concept is called positive if it contains an indication of the presence of properties inherent in the object. In contrast to positive ones are negative concepts, which imply the absence of such properties. Thus, the positive concept will be “strong”, and the negative concept will be “weak”; positive - “calm”, negative - “restless”. Non-relative and correlative concepts. This classification is based on the presence or absence of a connection between the object that makes up the scope of the concept and other objects of the material world. Thus, concepts that exist separately from each other and do not have a significant impact on the existence of each of them will be irrelevant. Such concepts, for example, could be “nail” and “button”. Each of these objects exists separately and independently of the other. Based on the above, we can define correlative concepts as having a connection with each other, embedded in the features of the objects that make up their volume. Such concepts will be: "suzerain" - "vassal" or "brother" - "sister". The classification of concepts is inextricably linked with their logical characteristics. Determining the type of a particular concept, we thereby draw a conclusion regarding it, characterize it from the point of view of logic as a science. A logical characteristic helps to determine the content and scope of concepts and allows you to make as few mistakes as possible in the process of reasoning and use one or another concept with maximum efficiency in the process of proof. Author: Shadrin D.A. << Back: Subject of logic (Sensation, perception and representation as forms of cognition of the surrounding world. Abstract thinking: concept, judgment and inference. The importance of thinking in achieving truth. Logical forms) >> Forward: Education of concepts, their content and scope (Logical techniques for the formation of concepts. Content and scope of concepts)
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