Topic 6. EARLY CHILDHOOD (FROM 1 YEAR TO 3 YEARS)

6.1. Social situation of development

Early childhood is the period from 1 year to 3 years. At this age, changes occur in personal development, the cognitive sphere, and the social situation of development.

Neoplasms of infancy lead to the fact that the relationship between the child and the adult changes, which in turn leads to the formation of a new social situation of development, which consists in the emergence of a joint activity of the child and the adult, and also in the fact that this activity becomes objective. The essence of joint activity is the assimilation of socially developed ways of using objects, that is, an adult teaches the child to use the surrounding objects correctly, and also explains why they are needed and where they should be used. The social situation of a child's development at this age looks like this: "Child - OBJECT - adult". As can be seen from this triad, the subject is important for the child. You can be convinced of this by watching how the child plays: he constantly looks at the object he is passionate about, be it a typewriter, chair, doll, spoon, etc. You may get the feeling that he doesn’t need anything else and no one needed, his attention is focused only on the object of passion. But this is not so, because without an adult, a child cannot master human ways of using objects.

Joint activity becomes objective, because the motive of this activity lies in the object itself and the way it is used. Communication at this age takes the form of organizing objective activity. In other words, it occurs at the moment of explaining the correctness of the use of one or another object. Communication develops intensively and becomes verbal, because mastering objects using only emotional coloring cannot be effective.

6.2. The development of the cognitive sphere of the child

At this age, perception, thinking, memory, speech develop. This process is characterized by the verbalization of cognitive processes and the emergence of their arbitrariness.

Development of perception is determined by three parameters: perceptual actions (the integrity of the perceived object), sensory standards (the emergence of sensation standards: sound, light, taste, tactile, olfactory) and correlation actions. In other words, the process of perception consists in highlighting the most characteristic qualities, features, properties for a given object or situation; drawing up on their basis a certain image; correlation of these standard images with objects of the surrounding world. So the child learns to divide objects into classes: dolls, cars, balls, spoons, etc.

From the year the process of cognition of the surrounding world begins to actively develop. A child from one to two years old uses different options to perform the same action, and from one and a half to two years old he has the ability to solve a problem by guessing (insight), i.e. the child suddenly finds a solution to this problem, avoiding trial and error method.

From the second year of life, the perception of the child changes. Having learned how to influence one object on another, he is able to foresee the outcome of the situation, for example, the possibility of dragging a ball through a hole, moving one object with the help of another, etc. The child can distinguish between such shapes as a circle, oval, square, rectangle, triangle, polygon; colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet.

Thanks to the development of perception, by the end of an early age, the child begins to develop mental activity. This is expressed in the emergence of the ability to generalize, to transfer the experience gained from the initial conditions to new ones, to establish a connection between objects through experimentation, memorizing them and using them in solving problems. A one and a half year old child can predict and indicate the direction of movement of an object, the location of a familiar object, overcome obstacles on the way to achieving the desired goal. And after a year and a half there is a reaction of choosing an object according to the most striking and simple features: shape and color.

Continues in early childhood development of thinking, which from visual-effective gradually turns into visual-figurative, i.e. actions with material objects are replaced by actions with images. The internal development of thinking proceeds in this way: intellectual operations develop and concepts are formed.

Visual-effective thinking arises by the end of the first year of life and remains leading up to 3,5-4 years. At first, the child can abstract and highlight the shape and color, therefore, when grouping objects, he first of all pays attention to the size and color of the object. At the age of about two years, he identifies objects based on essential and non-essential features. At 2,5 years old, the child distinguishes objects according to essential features: color, shape, size.

A feature of thinking in early childhood is syncretism. Syncretism means indivisibility: the child, solving a problem, does not single out individual parameters in it, perceiving the situation as a complete picture. The role of an adult in this case is to isolate from the situation and analyze individual details, from which the child will then highlight the main and secondary ones.

Visual-figurative thinking arises at 2,5-3 years and remains leading until 6-6,5 years. The formation of this thinking is associated with the formation of elementary self-consciousness and the beginning of the development of the ability for arbitrary self-regulation, accompanied by a developed imagination.

Memory development. By the age of two, a child develops working memory. Easy logic and thematic games are available to him, he can draw up an action plan for a short period of time, and does not forget the goal set a few minutes ago.

The development of speech. By the age of one year, a child can already call things by their proper names. He has a wealth of experience in understanding the world around him, he has formed an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bparents, food, the environment, toys. And yet, of the many qualities contained in a word as a concept, the child first assimilates only individual properties characteristic of the object with which this word was initially associated in his perception.

A one-year-old child reacts to words as to the situation as a whole. The word turns out to be associated with the situation, and not with the object representing it. The child carefully observes the facial expressions and gestures of the speaking adult, catching on them the meaning of what is being said.

From 11 months, the transition from pre-phonemic to phonemic speech and the formation of phonemic hearing begins, which ends by two years, when the child can distinguish words that differ from each other by one phoneme. The transition from prephonemic to phonemic speech lasts 3 years and ends in the fourth year of life. At the age of 3, the child learns to use cases correctly, first begins to use one-word sentences, then, at the age of 1,5 to 2,5 years, he can combine words, combining them into two-three-word phrases or two-word sentences, where there is also a subject and predicate. Then, thanks to the development of the grammatical structure of speech, he masters all cases and is able to build complex sentences with the help of function words. At the same time, there is a conscious control over the correct pronunciation of speech statements.

After 1,5 years, the activity of independent speech and verbal communication is noted. The child begins to ask for the names of objects or phenomena that interest him. At first, he uses the language of gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes or a pointing gesture, and then a question expressed in verbal form is added to the gesture. The child learns to control the behavior of other people with the help of speech. But a child between the ages of 2,5 and 3 years cannot follow the instructions of adults, especially when it is necessary to choose one action from several; he will be able to make this choice only closer to 4 years.

During the second year of life, the child begins to learn the verbal designation of surrounding objects, and then the names of adults, the names of toys, and only then - parts of the body, i.e. nouns, and by the age of two, with normal development, understands the meaning of almost all words related to the surrounding reality . This is facilitated by the development of the semantic function of children's speech, i.e., the definition of the meaning of the word, its differentiation, clarification and assignment to words of generalized meanings that are associated with them in the language.

By the age of 2, children have a clear understanding of the purpose of the household and personal hygiene items around them. They understand general questions that require a yes or no answer.

At about 3 years old, the child begins to listen carefully to what adults are talking about, loves when stories, fairy tales, and poems are read to him.

Up to 1,5 years, the child learns from 30 to 100 words, but rarely uses them. By the age of 2, he knows 300 words, and by 3 - 1200-1500 words.

The following stages were identified in the development of speech:

1) syllables (instead of words);

2) sentence words;

3) two-word sentences (for example, "mom here");

4) sentences of three or more words;

5) correct speech (grammatically consistent sentences).

The main trends in the development of the speech of a young child are as follows.

▪ Passive speech is ahead of active speech in development.

▪ The child discovers that every object has its own name.

▪ At the border between the 2nd and 3rd years of life, the child intuitively “discovers” that the words in a sentence are related to each other.

▪ There is a transition from the polysemy of children's words to the first functional generalizations built on the basis of practical actions.

▪ Phonemic hearing is ahead of the development of articulation. The child first learns to listen to speech correctly and then to speak correctly.

▪ Mastery of the syntactic structure of the language is carried out.

▪ Speech functions develop, a transition occurs from the indicative (indicative) to the nominative (denoting) functions of speech.

6.3. Personal formations

In early childhood, along with the development of the cognitive sphere, personal development also takes place. First of all, the child's personal socialization takes place, because, observing adults, he tries to imitate them: to do as they do, to behave as they behave in certain situations. The process of imitation goes through communication and interaction between an adult and a child. Thus, observing the behavior of people and imitating them becomes one of the main sources of personal socialization of the child. In the development of personality, an important role is played by the feeling of attachment, which is formed in the child by the end of the first year of life and continues to develop in early childhood. The reason for attachment may lie in the fact that adults satisfy the basic needs of the child, reduce their anxiety, provide a safe environment for existence and active study of the surrounding reality, form the basis for normal relationships with people at a more mature age.

When the mother is near the child, he is more active and prone to exploring the environment. A positive assessment of the actions and personal qualities of the child by the parent forms in him a sense of self-confidence, faith in his abilities and capabilities. If a child is attached to his parents and they pay him the same, then he is more obedient and disciplined. If parents are friendly, attentive and strive to meet the needs of the child, then he develops a personal, personal attachment.

If a child is deprived of constant positive emotional contact with his mother or loved ones, then he will have problems in the future in establishing normal, trusting relationships with others.

Self-awareness develops in early childhood. The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation of self-esteem (for details, see 3.6). The development of independence is noted. The phrase "I myself" is the best way to describe its manifestation. The child does not always want to be helped. Having mastered walking, he finds himself obstacles, obstacles and tries to overcome them. All this gives the child pleasure and indicates that he begins to develop such qualities as willpower, perseverance, determination.

At this age, many children show disobedience. When they are told that it is impossible to do this, they continue to do it their own way. Often this is due to the desire of children to know the world around them as quickly as possible.

From the age of 1,5, the child begins to realize his abilities and his own personality traits. A two-year-old child understands that he can influence people and achieve the desired goal.

Children begin to develop empathy - understanding the emotional state of another person. One can observe how a one and a half year old child strives to console an upset person: he hugs him, kisses him, gives him a toy, etc.

The child has a need to succeed. This need is being built up in stages. First, the child begins to realize his successes and failures, then he can explain the successes and failures of other people, then he acquires the ability to distinguish tasks according to the degree of difficulty and evaluate the degree of development of his own skills necessary to complete this task, and, finally, he can evaluate his abilities and the applied efforts.

Table 5

The main achievements in the mental development of a child from 1 to 3 years

In table. 5 shows the achievements of the mental development of the child, with which he approaches the crisis of three years.

6.4. Crisis of three years

The crisis of three years is characterized by the fact that the personal changes that occur with the child lead to a change in his relationship with adults. This crisis arises because the child begins to separate himself from other people, realizes his possibilities, feels himself a source of will. He begins to compare himself with adults, and he involuntarily has a desire to perform the same actions that they do, for example: "When I grow up, I will brush my own teeth."

At this age, the following traits appear: negativism, stubbornness, depreciation, obstinacy, self-will, protest-rebellion, despotism. These characteristics were described by L.S. Vygotsky. He believed that the emergence of such reactions contributes to the emergence of the need for respect and recognition.

Negativism is manifested in a negative reaction to the demand or request of an adult, and not to the action itself. For example, a child ignores the demands of one family member or teacher, while others obey. It was also noted that negativism is mainly manifested in relationships with relatives, and not with strangers. Perhaps, subconsciously, the child feels that such behavior towards relatives will not bring him serious harm. Therefore, we must remember that negativism and disobedience are two different things.

Another characteristic of the three-year crisis is stubbornness. Its reason is not in the child's desire to get what he wants or needs at all costs, but in the fact that his opinion is taken into account. It doesn't matter to the child whether he gets this thing or not, he needs to establish himself in his "adulthood", in the fact that his opinion also means something. Therefore, a stubborn child will insist on his own even if he does not really need this thing.

The next characteristic - depreciation - is inherent in all crises. It manifests itself in the fact that all the habits and values ​​\uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbthat used to be dear begin to depreciate. For example, a child may throw and even break a favorite toy in the past, refuses to follow previously accepted rules of behavior, now considering them unreasonable, etc.

Obstinacy is directed against the accepted norms of behavior in the family and is similar to negativism and stubbornness. For example, if it is customary in the family to have dinner together, then the child begins to refuse to eat at this particular time, and then he develops an appetite.

Self-will is expressed in the desire of the child to do everything himself. If in infancy he strove for physical independence, now his behavior is aimed at independence of intentions and plans. Such behavior is manifested not only in the actions offered by adults, for example: "Do it yourself", "You are already big and you can do it", etc., but also in a stubborn desire to do this and not otherwise. This feeling captures the child to such an extent that he openly opposes his desires to the expectations of others. The manifestation of independence is reflected in relationships with adults. When a child realizes that he can do something himself, he does not need the help of adults. They should understand this and try to avoid negative statements about this, not to criticize the child, but to allow him to show independence.

The protest riot is expressed in frequent quarrels between children and their parents. According to L.S. Vygotsky, "the child is at war with others, in constant conflict with them" (Vygotsky L.S., 1991).

The manifestations of despotism are as follows: the child begins to dictate to everyone around him how to behave, and strives to be obeyed and act as he says. Such behavior can be observed when the child is alone in the family or the last in a row.

6.5. Leading activity in early childhood

In early childhood, the subject activity becomes the leading one, which affects both mental development and communication with adults.

In infancy, activity is manipulative in nature: the child can repeat the actions shown by adults, transfer the learned action to another object, and master some of his own actions. But in manipulating, the child uses only the external properties and relations of objects. In early childhood, objects become for the child not just an object, but a thing that has a specific purpose and a specific way of using it. The child tries to master more and more new actions of the subject, and the role of an adult is to mentor, cooperate, and help in difficult situations.

By manipulating an object at the end of infancy and early childhood, the child will never be able to understand its function. For example, he can open and close a closet door an infinite number of times, but he will never understand its functional purpose. Only an adult can explain why this or that thing is needed.

Assimilation of the purpose of the object does not guarantee that the child will use it only for its intended purpose, but the important thing is that he will know how, when and where this should be done. For example, having learned that pencils are needed for writing and drawing, a child can still roll them around the table or build something with them.

At first, the action and the object in the understanding of the child are closely related. An example of this is the following fact: he cannot comb his hair with a stick or drink from a cube. But over time, there is a separation of the object from the action.

There are three phases in the development of the connection between an action and an object:

1) any actions can be performed with the object;

2) the item is used only for its intended purpose;

3) the free use of an object is possible, but only if its true purpose is known.

D.B. Elkonin singled out two directions for the development of objective activity:

1. Development of action from joint with an adult to independent performance.

The path of action development from joint to independent was studied by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov. They showed that at first the orientation, execution and evaluation of the action are in the hands of the adult. This is manifested, for example, in the fact that an adult takes the child's hands and performs actions with them. Then a partial or joint action is performed, i.e. the adult starts it, and the child continues. Then the action is performed on the basis of the display and, finally, on the basis of the verbal indication.

2. Development of means and methods of orientation of the child in the conditions of the implementation of the action. It goes through several stages. The first stage consists of:

a) in the non-specific use of tools (manipulation of objects);

b) using an object when the methods of its use have not yet been formed, for example, the child understands what a spoon is for, but takes it very low when eating;

c) mastering a specific way of using.

The second stage occurs when the child begins to perform actions in an inadequate situation. In other words, there is a transfer of action from one object to another, for example, a child, having learned to drink from a mug, drinks from a glass. There is also a transfer of action according to the situation, for example, having learned to put on shoes, the child tries to pull them on the ball.

The third stage is accompanied by the emergence of a game action. Here the adult does not tell the child what to do, how to play or use the object.

Gradually, the child begins to correlate the properties of objects with operations, i.e., learns to determine what can be done best with an object, which operations are most suitable for a particular object.

The stages of formation of such fastenings were identified by P.Ya. Galperin. He believed that at the first stage the child varies his actions based not on the properties of the tool with which he wants to get the object he needs, but on the properties of the object itself. He called this stage "targeted trials". At the second stage - "waiting" - the child finds an effective way of acting with the object and tries to repeat it. At the third stage - the "stage of obsessive intervention" - he tries to reproduce an effective method of influence and master it, at the fourth stage he discovers ways to regulate and change the action, taking into account the conditions in which it will have to be performed.

Correlative and instrumental actions are significant for mental development.

Correlating actions consist in bringing several objects into certain spatial interactions - for example, folding pyramids from rings, using collapsible toys, etc.

Instrumental actions are actions in which one object is used when acting on other objects. The child masters instrumental actions in the process of learning under the guidance of an adult.

It was found that gun actions can be an indicator of the intellectual development of children, and subject actions indicate the degree of their learning, the breadth of contacts with adults.

By the end of early childhood, play and productive activities are born in object-tool activity.

Authors: Marina Khilko, Maria Tkacheva

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