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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Age-related psychology. Periodization of mental development (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 4. PERIODIZATION OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT 4.1. Approaches to the periodization of mental development in developmental psychology There are different points of view on the process of child development as a whole. Some scientists believe that this process is continuous, others consider it discrete. Supporters of continuous development argue that the process goes on without stopping, without accelerating or slowing down; There are no boundaries separating one stage from another. According to the adherents of discrete development, it is uneven, sometimes accelerating, sometimes slowing down, and has the main, leading factor of development. That is why it is necessary to single out the stages and stages of development, which will be qualitatively different from each other. It is believed that children consistently go through all stages of development, not missing a single stage and not looking ahead. Currently, preference is given to a discrete position in the development of children, so we will consider it in more detail. There are two approaches to periodization of development: spontaneous and normative. Proponents of the spontaneous approach believe that the development process develops spontaneously, under the influence of many random factors and circumstances that occur in the lives of children. An ideal development process is considered normative, taking into account all influencing factors with the correct organization of training and education. According to L.S. Vygotsky, all periodizations can be divided into three groups. The first group of includes periodizations built on the basis of an external criterion associated with the development process. It includes periodization created according to the biogenetic principle, periodization by K. Buhler, the author of the theory of three stages of development (instinct, training (skills), intellect), who believed that a child begins to realize something after preschool age. The French psychologist R. Zazzo built his periodization in such a way that the systems of education and training coincide with the stages of childhood: 0-3 years - early childhood; 3-5 years - preschool childhood; 6-12 years - primary school education; 12-16 years old - education in secondary school; 17 years and older - higher and university education. Many scholars have proposed to single out some feature when constructing periodization, for example, P.P. Blonsky proposed to build a periodization according to the change of teeth: toothless childhood, milk teeth, the period of permanent teeth. Ко second group include periodizations based on one internal criterion chosen arbitrarily. Here is some of them. 3. Freud built a periodization taking into account puberty and proposed the following stages: oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital, corresponding to asexual, neutral-sex, bisexual and sexual childhood. The American psychologist L. Kohlberg (1927-1987) emphasized moral development and singled out the following three levels. 1. Fear of punishment (up to 7 years): fear of the right to power, fear of being deceived and not receiving benefits. 2. Shame in front of other people (13 years old): in front of comrades, inner circle; shame of public condemnation, negative assessment of large social groups. 3. Conscience (after 16 years): the desire to comply with their moral principles, their own system of moral values. E. Erickson's periodization includes eight stages: 1) trust - distrust (1 year); 2) achieving balance: independence and indecision (2-4 years); 3) enterprise and guilt (4-6 years); 4) skill and inferiority (6-11 years; 5) identification of personality and confusion of roles (12-15 years old - girls and 13-16 years old - boys); 6) intimacy and loneliness (beginning of maturity and family life); 7) general humanity and self-absorption (mature age); 8) integrity and hopelessness. At each stage, a new quality necessary for social life, opposite character traits, is formed, and preparations are underway for the next life stage. J. Piaget took intellectual development as the basis of his periodization and identified the following four stages: 1) sensorimotor stage (from birth to 18-24 months); 2) preoperative stage (from 1,5-2 to 7 years); 3) the stage of specific operations (from 7 to 12 years); 4) the stage of formal operations (from 12 to 17 years). The third group allocates periods of development on the basis of essential criteria, signs. This group includes the following periodizations. Periodization L.S. Slobodchikov: Stage 1 - revitalization (from birth to 1 year); Stage 2 - animation (from 1 year to 5-6 years); Stage 3 - personalization (from 6 to 18 years old); Stage 4 - individualization (from 17 to 42 years). A. Diesterweg established three age stages: Stage 1 - the dominance of sensation: Stage 2 - the dominance of memory; Stage 3 - the dominance of the mind. The problem of identifying the main age periodization is still relevant, since none of the proposed periodizations has been confirmed in the specific results of the study of human mental development. L.S. Vygotsky, working on the problem of periodization, wrote: "Only internal changes in development itself, only fractures and turns in its course can provide a reliable basis for determining the main epochs in the construction of a child's personality" (Vygotsky L.S., 1991). When creating periodization, he suggested using an analysis of the social situation of a child's development and mental neoplasms, taking into account transitional critical periods of development from birth to adolescence. This problem was also of interest to A.N. Leontiev, who in the article "On the theory of the development of the child's psyche" introduced the concept of "leading type of activity". He pointed out that with age, the place of the child in the system of social relations changes, which is accompanied by the activity of the child, which is decisive in its development. Ideas L.S. Vygotsky and A.N. Leontiev served as the basis for the creation of D.B. Elkonin of the age periodization of the development of the child, which is now considered generally accepted in developmental psychology (Table 3). Elkonin proceeded from the following provisions: ▪ age-related development is a general change in personality, the formation of a new plan of reflection, a change in activity and life position, the establishment of special relationships with others, the formation of new motives of behavior and value systems; ▪ development is a dialectical process, determined by internal contradictions, purposeful, uneven, with critical periods; ▪ the nature of childhood should be considered in its specific historical understanding; ▪ periodization is based on the patterns of development of activity and a growing person. All mental activity of a person is considered as a process of continuous change of activity. The leading activity and neoplasms of this age are distinguished. Table 3 Age periodization according to D.B. Elkonin
4.2. The concept of age The concept of age is closely related to the psychological development of children. R.S. Nemov defined age as a qualitatively unique period of physical, psychological and behavioral development, characterized by its own characteristics. According to L.S. Vygotsky, age is a relatively closed cycle of child development, which has its own structure and dynamics. In psychology, age is divided into physical (chronological) and psychological. Physical age is the time of a child's life in days, months, years that have passed since his birth. It can be called an external grid, against which the process of the mental development of the child takes place, the formation of his personality. Psychological age, according to Vygotsky, is a qualitatively unique period of mental development, characterized primarily by the appearance of a neoformation prepared by the entire course of previous development. In other words, it indicates the level of psychological development achieved by a certain age. Sometimes it happens that a child is physically five years old, and in terms of psychological development it corresponds to a six- or seven-year-old, and it happens vice versa, but here we will talk about mental retardation. Age is a temporary characteristic of human ontogenetic development. B.G. Ananyev, considering the “age factor,” pointed to the unity of the influences of growth, general somatic and neuropsychic maturation in the process of upbringing and human life. Individual development of a person occurs over time. Therefore, age is not only the number of years lived, but also the inner content, the spiritual development of a person, the changes in his inner world that have occurred over these years. It is the inner world that people differ from each other, thanks to which we can talk about the dissimilarity, uniqueness and originality of people. Both a person as a whole and his temporal characteristics (meaning age) are an interpenetration of nature and history, biological and social. Therefore, age-related changes in individual properties of a person are both ontogenetic and biographical. 4.3. Age Options Among the parameters of age, two groups are distinguished: the foundations of development and the results of development. Development bases include: ▪ social development situation; ▪ circle of relationships; ▪ leading type of activity; ▪ sensitivity. Development results include: ▪ personality developments; ▪ forms of communication; ▪ emotional-volitional sphere; ▪ communication abilities; ▪ new type of activity. Compiling a description of a person, taking into account these parameters, you can get a complete description of her age. 4.4. The concept of sensitivity. Critical and crisis periods Sensitivity is a characterological feature of a person, manifested in increased sensitivity to events happening to him; usually accompanied by increased anxiety, fear of new situations, people, all kinds of trials, etc. Many scientists have paid attention to the features of the sensitive period (see 2.8). So, C. Stockard believed that during the embryonic development of animals and humans there are periods of increased growth and increased sensitivity of individual organs and systems to external influences. And if, for some reason, development slows down, this leads to its slowdown in the future. According to this point of view, if some function does not develop during the sensitive period in childhood, then its correction in the future is impossible. MM. Koltsova, D.B. Elkonin, B.G. Ananiev hold the opposite point of view. In their opinion, it is possible to catch up during the sensitive period at a later age, although this will have to face some difficulties. B.G. Ananiev in laboratory conditions established favorable periods for the development of attention, thinking, various types of memory and motor functions in children and adults. They have a wave-like character, i.e., periods of active development are replaced by a slight decline. L.S. Vygotsky introduced the concept of "critical period" into psychology. Under it, he understood global restructuring at the level of the individual and personality, occurring at a certain time. The critical period is calm in development (lysis) and critical (crisis). L.S. Vygotsky noted that these periods act as "turning points in child development, sometimes taking the form of a crisis ... development sometimes acquires a stormy, impetuous, sometimes catastrophic character" and believed that "development here, in contrast to stable periods, is more destructive than creative work" (Vygotsky L.S., 1991). But he also noted positive trends in development, which constitute the main and basic meaning of any critical period. At the end of each transitional period, new properties and qualities are formed that were not in the previous period - they are called neoplasms. There is more than one critical period throughout a person's life. Vygotsky singled out several such periods: the neonatal period, one year, three years, six or seven years, and adolescence. Some researchers identify critical periods of adulthood. In physiology, critical periods are called age-related crises. Age crisis! - these are the reactions of the human body to the restructuring of physiological processes in different age periods. These are rapid shifts, each of which marks the beginning of a new phase of the life cycle. Transitions from one age period to another are associated with a change in the physical data and psychological characteristics of the child, with a holistic restructuring of his body and behavior. The behavior of children during such a transition usually does not change for the better, many become withdrawn, irritable, which causes concern for adults. Thus, the age crisis indicates that significant changes are taking place in the body and psychology of the child, that difficulties have arisen on the path of physical and psychological development that the child himself cannot cope with. And overcoming the crisis is a confirmation that the child is already at a higher level and has moved into the next psychological age. Authors: Marina Khilko, Maria Tkacheva << Back: Psychological problems of personality development (Features of the development process. Driving forces, conditions and sources of personality development. Patterns of mental development. Mechanisms of personality development. Personal self-awareness. Structural links of self-awareness. Their genesis) >> Forward: Mental development of a newborn, baby (Newborn crisis. Mental development of a child during the newborn period. Neoplasms of the newborn period. Crisis of the first year of life. Leading activity. Neoplasms of infancy)
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