Topic 1. AGE PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

1.1. The subject and tasks of developmental psychology

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the regularities of the stages of mental development and personality formation throughout human ontogenesis from birth to old age.

The subject of developmental psychology is the age-related dynamics of the human psyche, the ontogeny of mental processes and personality traits of a developing person, and the patterns of development of mental processes.

Developmental psychology studies age-related features of mental processes, age-related opportunities for acquiring knowledge, leading factors in personality development, age-related changes, etc.

Age-related changes are divided into evolutionary, revolutionary and situational. Evolutionary changes include quantitative and qualitative transformations that occur in the human psyche during the transition from one age group to another. Such changes occur slowly but thoroughly, and cover significant periods of life, from several months (for infants) to several years (for older children). They are due to the following factors:

a) biological maturation and psychophysiological state of the child’s body;

b) its place in the system of social relations;

c) level of intellectual and personal development.

Revolutionary changes are carried out quickly, in a short time, they are deeper than evolutionary ones. These changes occur at the moment of the crisis of age development, which occurs at the turn of the ages between relatively calm periods of evolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior.

Situational changes are associated with the impact on the child's psyche of a particular social situation. These changes reflect the processes taking place in the psyche and behavior of the child under the influence of education and upbringing.

Age-related evolutionary and revolutionary changes in the psyche and behavior are stable, irreversible, and do not require systematic reinforcement. They transform the psychology of a person as a person. Situational changes are unstable, reversible and require consolidation in subsequent exercises. Such changes are aimed at transforming private forms of behavior, knowledge, skills and abilities.

The theoretical task of developmental psychology is to study the laws of mental development in ontogeny, to establish periods of development and the reasons for the transition from one period to another, to determine development opportunities, as well as age-related characteristics of mental processes, age-related opportunities for acquiring knowledge, leading factors in personality development, etc.

The object of study is a child, a teenager, a young man, an adult, an elderly person.

1.2. Factors that determine the development of developmental psychology

Child psychology as a science of the mental development of a child originated at the end of the 1891th century. The beginning of this was the book of the German scientist-Darwinist W. Preyer "The Soul of a Child" (St. Petersburg, XNUMX). In it, Preyer described the results of daily observations of the development of his daughter, paying attention to the development of the senses, motor skills, will, reason and language. Preyer's merit lies in the fact that he studied how the child develops in the earliest years of life, and introduced into child psychology a method of objective observation, developed by analogy with the methods of the natural sciences. He was the first to make the transition from an introspective study of the child's psyche to an objective one.

The objective conditions for the formation of child psychology, which had developed at the end of the XNUMXth century, should first of all include the rapid development of industry and, accordingly, a qualitatively new level of social life. This entailed the need to reconsider approaches to the upbringing and education of children. Parents and teachers stopped considering physical punishment as an effective method of education - more democratic families and teachers appeared. The task of understanding the child has become one of the priorities. In addition, scientists came to the conclusion that only through the study of the psychology of the child is the way to understand what the psychology of an adult is.

Like any field of knowledge, child psychology began with the collection and accumulation of information. Scientists simply described the manifestations and further development of mental processes. The accumulated knowledge required systematization and analysis, namely:

▪ search for relationships between individual mental processes;

▪ understanding the internal logic of holistic mental development;

▪ determining the sequence of development stages;

▪ research into the causes and ways of transition from one stage to another.

In child psychology, knowledge of related sciences began to be used: genetic psychology, which studies the emergence of individual mental functions in an adult and a child in history and ontogenesis, and educational psychology. Increasing attention has been paid to the psychology of learning. An outstanding Russian teacher, the founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia, K.D. Ushinsky (1824-1870). In his work "Man as an Object of Education", he wrote, addressing teachers: "Study the laws of those mental phenomena that you want to control, and act in accordance with these laws and those circumstances to which you want to apply them."

The development of developmental psychology was facilitated by the evolutionary ideas of the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882), which served as the basis for understanding the reflex essence of mental factors. The Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905). In the classic work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1866), he gave a complete scientific substantiation of the reflex theory.

At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, methods of experimental research into the mental development of children began to be introduced into practice: testing, the use of measuring scales, etc. Child psychology becomes a normative discipline that describes the achievements of the child in the process of development.

Over time, scientists came to the conclusion that it is necessary to distinguish the stages of personality development in ontogeny. This problem was dealt with by K. Buhler, Z. Freud, J. Piaget, E. Erickson, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky and others. They tried to comprehend the patterns of changing periods of development and analyze the cause-and-effect relationships in the mental development of children. All these studies have given rise to many theories of personality development, among which are, for example, the theory of three stages of child development (K. Buhler), the psychoanalytic concept (S. Freud), and the cognitive theory (J. Piaget).

Developmental psychology has risen to a new level with the introduction of the formative experiment method developed by the Russian psychologist L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934). This method made it possible to determine the patterns of development of mental functions. Its use has also given rise to a number of theories of personality development. Let's consider some of them.

Cultural and historical concept of L.S. Vygotsky. The scientist argued that the interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. The emergence and development of higher mental functions is associated with the use of signs by two people in the process of their communication. Otherwise, the sign cannot become a means of individual mental activity.

Theory of activity A.N. Leontiev. He believed that activity first acts as a conscious action, then as an operation, and only then, as it forms, does it become a function.

The theory of the formation of mental actions P.Ya. Galperin. In his opinion, the formation of mental functions occurs on the basis of an objective action: it begins with the material performance of the action, and ends with mental activity, affecting the speech function.

The concept of educational activity - research by D.B. Elkonin and V.V. Davydov, in which a strategy for personality formation was developed not in laboratory conditions, but in real life - through the creation of experimental schools.

The theory of "initial humanization" by I.A. Sokolyansky and A.I. Meshcheryakov, in which the initial stages of the formation of the psyche in deaf-blind-mute children are noted.

1.3. Research methods in developmental psychology

The complex of research methods used in developmental psychology consists of several blocks of techniques borrowed from general, differential and social psychology.

Methods for studying the cognitive processes and personality of the child are taken from general psychology. They are adapted to the age of the child and explore perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech. Using these methods, one can obtain information about the age-related characteristics of the cognitive processes of children and the transformations of these processes as the child grows up, that is, about the specifics of the transition from one age group to another.

Methods for studying individual and age differences in children are borrowed from differential psychology. The so-called "twin method", which studies the similarities and differences between homozygous and heterozygous twins, is very popular. Based on the data obtained, conclusions are drawn about the organic (genotypic) and environmental conditioning of the child's psyche and behavior.

Social psychology has provided developmental psychology with methods to study interpersonal relationships in various children's groups, as well as relationships between children and adults. These methods include: observation, survey, conversation, experiment, sectioning method, testing, questioning, analysis of activity products. All these methods are also adapted to the age of the child. Let's consider them in more detail.

Observation - the main method when working with children (especially preschool age), since tests, experiments, surveys are difficult to study children's behavior. It is necessary to begin observation by setting a goal, drawing up an observation program, and developing an action plan. The purpose of observation is to determine why it is being carried out and what results can be expected as a result.

In order to obtain reliable results, monitoring must be carried out regularly. This is due to the fact that children grow up very quickly and the changes that occur in the behavior and psyche of the child are just as fleeting. For example, the behavior of an infant changes before our eyes, therefore, missing one month, the researcher is deprived of the opportunity to obtain valuable data on his development during this period.

The younger the child, the shorter the interval between observations should be. In the period from birth to 2-3 months, the child should be monitored daily; at the age of 2-3 months to 1 year - weekly; from 1 to 3 years - monthly; from 3 to 6-7 years - once every six months; at primary school age - once a year, etc.

The method of observation when working with children is more effective than others, on the one hand, because they behave more directly and do not play the social roles characteristic of adults. On the other hand, children (especially preschoolers) have insufficiently stable attention and can often be distracted from their work. Therefore, whenever possible, covert surveillance should be carried out so that children do not see the observer.

Interview may be oral or written. When using this method, the following difficulties may arise. Children understand the question they are asked in their own way, that is, they put a different meaning into it than an adult. This is because the system of concepts in children differs significantly from that used by adults. This phenomenon is observed in adolescents. Therefore, before getting an answer to the question being asked, it is necessary to make sure that the child understands it correctly, explaining and discussing the inaccuracies, and only after that interpret the answers received.

Experiment is one of the most reliable methods of obtaining information about the behavior and psychology of the child. The essence of the experiment is that in the process of research the mental processes of interest to the researcher are evoked in the child and the conditions necessary and sufficient for the manifestation of these processes are created.

The child, entering an experimental game situation, behaves directly, emotionally responding to the proposed situations, and does not play any social roles. This allows you to get his true reactions to the influencing stimuli. The results are most reliable if the experiment is carried out in the form of a game. At the same time, it is important that the direct interests and needs of the child are expressed in the game, otherwise he will not be able to fully demonstrate his intellectual abilities and the necessary psychological qualities. In addition, being included in the experiment, the child acts momentarily and spontaneously, so throughout the experiment it is necessary to maintain his interest in the event.

slices - Another method of research in developmental psychology. They are divided into transverse and longitudinal (longitudinal).

The essence of the cross-sectional method is that in a group of children (a class, several classes, children of different ages, but studying in the same program), some parameter (for example, intellectual level) is studied using certain methods. The advantage of this method lies in the fact that in a short time it is possible to obtain statistical data on age-related differences in mental processes, to establish how age, gender, or another factor affects the main trends in mental development. The disadvantage of the method is that when studying children of different ages it is impossible to obtain information about the process of development itself, its nature and driving forces.

When using the method of longitudinal (longitudinal) sections, the development of a group of the same children can be traced for a long time. This method allows you to establish qualitative changes in the development of mental processes and personality of the child and identify the causes of these changes, as well as to study development trends, minor changes that cannot be covered by cross sections. The disadvantage of the method is that the results obtained are based on the study of the behavior of a small group of children, so it seems incorrect to extend such data to a large number of children.

The test is allows you to identify the level of intellectual abilities and personal qualities of the child. It is necessary to keep children interested in this method in ways that are attractive to them, such as encouragement or some kind of reward. When testing children, the same tests are used as for adults, but adapted for each age, for example, the children's version of the Cattell test [1], Wexler test [2] and more

Conversation - this is obtaining information about the child during direct communication with him: the child is asked targeted questions and expect answers to them. This method is empirical. An important condition for the effectiveness of the conversation is a favorable atmosphere, goodwill, tact. Questions must be prepared in advance and the answers recorded, if possible without attracting the attention of the subject.

Questionnaires is a method of obtaining information about a person based on his answers to pre-prepared questions. Questioning can be oral, written, individual or group.

Product Analysis - this is a method of studying a person by analyzing the products of his activity: drawings, drawings, musical works, essays, study books, personal diaries, etc. Thanks to this method, you can get information about the inner world of the child, his attitude to the surrounding reality and people, about features of his perception and other aspects of the psyche. This method is based on the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, according to which the child's psyche is not only formed, but also manifested in activity. Drawing or creating something, the child provides researchers with the opportunity to reveal aspects of his psyche that would be difficult to learn with the help of other methods. Based on the drawings, one can study cognitive processes (sensations, imagination, perception, thinking), creativity, personal manifestations, and the attitude of children to people around them.

1.4. Historical analysis of the concept of "childhood"

Childhood is the term for the initial period of ontogeny, from birth to adolescence. Childhood covers infancy, early childhood, preschool age and primary school age, that is, it lasts from birth to 11 years.

Surely, for some, childhood is associated with carelessness, carelessness, games, pranks, study, while for others, childhood is a time of active development, change and learning. In fact, childhood is a period of paradoxes and contradictions, without which there can be no development. So, what is this period characterized by?

It has been observed that the higher a living being ranks among the animals, the longer his childhood lasts and the more helpless this being is at birth. Undoubtedly, man is the most perfect being in nature. This is confirmed by its physical structure, organization of the nervous system, types of activity and methods of its regulation. However, when born, a person is endowed with only the most elementary mechanisms for maintaining life. He is helpless and cannot stand up for himself, he needs care, which is carried out for a long time. This is one of the paradoxes of nature that predetermines the history of childhood.

Many scholars have paid attention to childhood stories. An outstanding specialist in the field of child and educational psychology D.B. Elkonin wrote: “Throughout human history, the starting point of child development has remained unchanged. The child interacts with some ideal form, that is, with the level of development of the culture achieved by the society in which he was born. This ideal form is constantly developing and developing spasmodically, i.e. it changes qualitatively" (Elkonin D.B., 1995). His words are confirmed by the fact that people of different eras are not similar to each other. Consequently, the development of the psyche in ontogenesis must also change radically.

Time does not stand still. With the development of scientific and technological progress, the life of society becomes more complicated and, accordingly, the position of the child in it changes. Previously, children mastered primitive tools of labor, helping their parents to work the land; they learned this from adults, watching them and repeating their actions. With the development of scientific and technological progress and the emergence of new production relations, tools of labor became more complex, and observation of adults alone was not enough to master them. Therefore, it became necessary to first study the process of mastering these tools and only then proceed to their use. Consequently, a new stage of learning was due to the complexity of tools.

D.B. Elkonin connected the periods of child development with the periodization of the development of society (Table 1)

Table 1

Periods of child development according to D.B. Elkonin

It is possible that in the near future it will become mandatory for the development of society that everyone have a higher education. This is due primarily to the development of computer technology. But it is impossible to expand the age limits of childhood indefinitely, therefore, pedagogical and developmental psychology will most likely face the task of improving teaching methods in order to reduce the time for mastering the school curriculum.

It turns out that the duration of childhood is directly dependent on the level of material and spiritual development of society and even its individual strata. In many ways, the duration of childhood also depends on the material well-being of the family: the poorer the family, the earlier the children begin to work.

Authors: Marina Khilko, Maria Tkacheva

>> Forward: Theories of mental development (Biogenetic and sociogenetic concepts. The theory of convergence of two factors of child development. Psychoanalytic theories of child development. Epigenetic theory of personality by Erik Erikson. Theory of social learning. The problem of the development of thinking in the early works of Jean Piaget. The theory of cognitive development (the concept of Jean Piaget). Cultural-historical concept. Concept of mental development of a child by D.B. Elkonin)

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