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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Age-related psychology. Preschool childhood (from 3 to 6-7 years) (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 7. PRESCHOOL CHILDHOOD (from 3 to 6-7 years old) 7.1. Social situation of development Preschool childhood covers the period from 3 to 6-7 years. At this time, the child is disconnected from the adult, which leads to a change in the social situation. The child for the first time leaves the world of the family and enters the world of adults with certain laws and rules. The circle of communication is expanding: a preschooler visits shops, a clinic, begins to communicate with peers, which is also important for his development. The ideal form with which the child begins to interact is the social relations that exist in the world of adults. The ideal form, according to L.S. Vygotsky, is that part of objective reality (higher than the level at which the child is), with which he enters into direct interaction; this is the realm the child is trying to enter. At preschool age, the world of adults becomes such a form. According to D.B. Elkonin, the entire preschool age revolves, as if around its center, around an adult, his functions, his tasks. An adult here acts as a carrier of social functions in the system of social relations (an adult is a dad, a doctor, a driver, etc.). Elkonin saw the contradiction of this social situation of development in the fact that the child is a member of society, he cannot live outside society, his main need is to live together with the people around him, but he cannot do this, since the life of the child passes in conditions of indirect, and not direct connection with the world. The child is not yet able to fully participate in the life of adults, but can express his needs through the game, since only it makes it possible to model the world of adults, enter it and play all the roles and behaviors that interest him. 7.2. Leading activity The leading activity in preschool age is the game. Play is a form of activity in which the child reproduces the basic meanings of human activity and learns those forms of relationships that will be realized and carried out later. He does this by substituting some items for others, and real actions - abbreviated. A role-playing game is especially developed at this age (see 7.3). The basis of such a game is the role chosen by the child, and actions to implement this role. D.B. Elkonin argued that the game is a symbolic-modeling type of activity in which the operational and technical side is minimal, operations are reduced, objects are conditional. It is known that all types of activities of a preschooler are of a modeling nature, and the essence of modeling is the reconstruction of an object in a different, non-natural material. The subject of the game is an adult as a carrier of some social functions, entering into certain relationships with other people, adhering to certain rules in his activities. In the game, an internal plan of action is formed. It happens in the following way. The child, playing, focuses on human relationships. In order to reflect them, he needs to internally play out not only the entire system of his actions, but also the entire system of the consequences of these actions, and this is possible only when creating an internal plan of action. As shown by D.B. Elkonin, the game is a historical education, and it occurs when the child cannot take part in the system of social labor, because he is still small for this. But he wants to enter adult life, so he does it through the game, touching a little with this life. 7.3. Game and toys Playing, the child not only has fun, but also develops. At this time, the development of cognitive, personal and behavioral processes. Children play most of the time. During the period of preschool childhood, play goes through a significant path of development (Table 6). Table 6 The main stages of play activity in preschool age
Younger preschoolers play alone. The game is subject-manipulative and constructive. During the game, perception, memory, imagination, thinking and motor functions are improved. In the role-playing game, the actions of adults are reproduced, which the child is watching. Parents and close friends serve as role models. In the middle period of preschool childhood, the child needs a peer with whom he will play. Now the main direction of the game is the imitation of relationships between people. Role-playing games have different themes; certain rules are introduced, which the child strictly adheres to. The orientation of the games is diverse: family, where the heroes are mom, dad, grandmother, grandfather and other relatives; educational (nanny, kindergarten teacher); professional (doctor, commander, pilot); fabulous (goat, wolf, hare), etc. Both adults and children can participate in the game, or they can be replaced with toys. In older preschool age, role-playing games are distinguished by a variety of topics, roles, game actions, and rules. Objects can be conditional, and the game turns into a symbolic one, that is, a cube can represent various objects: a car, people, animals - it all depends on the role assigned to it. At this age, during the game, some children begin to show organizational skills, become leaders in the game. During the game, mental processes develop, in particular voluntary attention and memory. If the child is interested in the game, then he involuntarily focuses on the objects included in the game situation, on the content of the actions being played and on the plot. If he is distracted and does not properly fulfill the role assigned to him, he can be expelled from the game. But since emotional encouragement and communication with peers are very important for a child, he has to be attentive and remember certain game moments. In the process of playing activity, mental abilities develop. The child learns to act with a substitute object, that is, he gives it a new name and acts in accordance with this name. The appearance of a substitute object becomes a support for the development of thinking. If at first, with the help of substitute objects, the child learns to think about a real object, then over time, actions with substitute objects decrease and the child learns to act with real objects. There is a smooth transition to thinking in terms of representations. In the course of the role-playing game, imagination develops. From the substitution of some objects for others and the ability to take on various roles, the child proceeds to the identification of objects and actions with them in his imagination. For example, six-year-old Masha, looking at a photograph showing a girl who propped her cheek with her finger and looks thoughtfully at a doll sitting near a toy sewing machine, says: "The girl thinks that her doll is sewing." According to this statement, one can judge the way of the game peculiar to the girl. The game also affects the personal development of the child. In the game, he reflects and tries on the behavior and relationships of significant adults, who at this moment act as a model of his own behavior. The basic skills of communication with peers are being formed, feelings and volitional regulation of behavior are being developed. Reflective thinking begins to develop. Reflection is the ability of a person to analyze his actions, deeds, motives and correlate them with universal human values, as well as with the actions, deeds and motives of other people. The game contributes to the development of reflection, because it makes it possible to control how the action that is part of the communication process is performed. For example, playing in the hospital, the child cries and suffers, playing the role of a patient. He gets satisfaction from this, because he believes that he played the role well. There is an interest in drawing and designing. At first, this interest manifests itself in a playful way: the child, drawing, plays out a certain plot, for example, the animals drawn by him fight among themselves, catch up with each other, people go home, the wind blows away the apples hanging on the trees, etc. Gradually, the drawing is transferred to the result of the action and a drawing is born. Learning activity begins to take shape within play activity. Elements of learning activity do not appear in the game, they are introduced by an adult. The child begins to learn by playing, and therefore treats learning activities as a role-playing game, and soon masters some learning activities. Since the child pays special attention to the role-playing game, we will consider it in more detail. Role-playing game is a game in which the child performs the role he has chosen and performs certain actions. Plots for games children usually choose from life. Gradually, with a change in reality, the acquisition of new knowledge and life experience, the content and plots of role-playing games are changing. The structure of the expanded form of the role-playing game is as follows. 1. Unit, the center of the game. This is the role that the child chooses. In the children's game there are many professions, family situations, life moments that made a great impression on the child. 2. Game actions. These are actions with meanings, they are pictorial in nature. In the course of the game, values are transferred from one object to another (an imaginary situation). However, this transfer is limited by the possibilities of showing the action, since it obeys a certain rule: only such an object can replace an object with which at least a picture of the action can be reproduced. The symbolism of the game is of great importance. D.B. Elkonin said that abstraction from the operational and technical side of objective actions makes it possible to model a system of relations between people. Since the system of human relations begins to be modeled in the game, it becomes necessary to have a comrade. One cannot achieve this goal, otherwise the game will lose its meaning. The meanings of human actions are born in the game, the line of development of actions goes as follows: from the operational scheme of action to human action that has meaning in another person; from a single action to its meaning. 3. Rules. During the game, a new form of pleasure arises for the child - the joy of the fact that he acts as required by the rules. Playing in the hospital, the child suffers as a patient and rejoices as a player, satisfied with the performance of his role. D.B. Elkonin paid great attention to the game. Studying the games of children aged 3-7 years, he singled out and characterized four levels of its development. First level: 1) actions with certain objects aimed at an accomplice in the game. This includes the actions of the "mother" or "doctor" directed at the "child"; 2) roles are defined by action. The roles are not named, and the children in the game do not use the real relationships that exist between adults or between an adult and a child relative to each other; 3) actions consist of repetitive operations, for example, feeding with the transition from one dish to another. Apart from this action, nothing happens: the child does not lose the process of cooking, washing hands or dishes. Second level: 1) the main content of the game is an action with an object. But here the correspondence of the game action to the real one comes to the fore; 2) roles are called children, and a division of functions is outlined. The execution of a role is determined by the implementation of the actions associated with this role; 3) the logic of actions is determined by their sequence in reality. The number of actions is expanding. Third level: 1) the main content of the game is the performance of actions arising from the role. Special actions begin to stand out that convey the nature of relations with other participants in the game, for example, an appeal to the seller: "Give me bread," etc.; 2) the roles are clearly delineated and highlighted. They are called before the game, determine and guide the child's behavior; 3) the logic and nature of actions are determined by the role taken on. Actions become more diverse: cooking, washing hands, feeding, reading a book, putting to bed, etc. There is specific speech: the child gets used to the role and speaks as required by the role. Sometimes, during the game, real-life relationships between children can manifest themselves: they begin to call names, swear, tease, etc .; 4) the violation of logic is protested. This is expressed in the fact that one says to the other: "This does not happen." The rules of conduct that children must obey are defined. The incorrect performance of actions is noticed from the side, this causes grief in the child, he tries to correct the mistake and find an excuse for it. Fourth level: 1) the main content is the performance of actions related to the attitude towards other people, the roles of which are performed by other children; 2) the roles are clearly delineated and highlighted. During the game, the child adheres to a certain line of behavior. The role functions of children are interconnected. Speech is clearly role-playing; 3) actions occur in a sequence that clearly recreates the real logic. They are varied and reflect the richness of the actions of the person portrayed by the child; 4) violation of the logic of actions and rules is rejected. The child does not want to break the rules, explaining this by the fact that it really is, as well as by the rationality of the rules. During the game, children actively use toys. The role of the toy is multifunctional. It acts, firstly, as a means of the child's mental development, secondly, as a means of preparing him for life in the modern system of social relations, and thirdly, as an object that serves for fun and entertainment. In infancy, the child manipulates the toy, it stimulates him to active behavioral manifestations. Thanks to the toy, perception develops, that is, shapes and colors are imprinted, orientations to the new appear, preferences are formed. In early childhood, the toy plays an autodidactic role. This category of toys includes nesting dolls, pyramids, etc. They contain the possibility of developing manual and visual actions. While playing, the child learns to distinguish sizes, shapes, colors. The child receives many toys - substitutes for real objects of human culture: cars, household items, tools, etc. Thanks to them, he masters the functional purpose of objects, masters tool actions. Many toys have historical roots, such as bow and arrow, boomerang, etc. Toys, which are copies of objects that exist in the everyday life of adults, introduce the child to these objects. Through them, there is an awareness of the functional purpose of objects, which helps the child psychologically enter the world of permanent things. Various household items are often used as toys: empty reels, matchboxes, pencils, shreds, strings, as well as natural material: cones, twigs, slivers, bark, dry roots, etc. These items in the game can be used in differently, it all depends on its plot and situational tasks, so in the game they act as polyfunctional. Toys are a means of influencing the moral side of a child's personality. A special place among them is occupied by dolls and soft toys: bears, squirrels, bunnies, dogs, etc. First, the child performs imitative actions with the doll, i.e., does what the adult shows: shakes, rolls in a stroller, etc. Then the doll or soft toy acts as an object of emotional communication. The child learns to empathize with her, patronize, take care of her, which leads to the development of reflection and emotional identification. Dolls are copies of a person, they are of particular importance for a child, as they act as a partner in communication in all its manifestations. The child becomes attached to his doll and, thanks to her, experiences many different feelings. 7.4. Mental development of a preschooler All mental processes are a special form of objective actions. According to L.F. Obukhova, in Russian psychology there has been a change in ideas about mental development due to the separation of two parts in action: indicative and executive. Research by A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonina, P.Ya. Galperin made it possible to present mental development as a process of separating the orienting part of the action from the action itself and enriching the orienting part of the action due to the formation of ways and means of orientation. The orientation itself is carried out at this age at different levels: material (or practical-active), perceptual (based on visual objects) and mental (without relying on visual objects, in terms of representation). Therefore, when talking about development perceptions, mean the development of methods and means of orientation. At preschool age, orientation activity develops very intensively. Orientation can be carried out at different levels: material (practically effective), sensory-visual and mental. At this age, as studies by L.A. Wenger, there is an intensive development of sensory standards, i.e. colors, shapes, sizes, and the correlation (comparison) of objects with these standards. In addition, there is an assimilation of the standards of phonemes of the native language. About phonemes D.B. Elkonin said the following: "Children begin to hear them in a categorical manner" (Elkonin D.B., 1989). In the general sense of the word, standards are the achievements of human culture, the "grid" through which we look at the world. When a child begins to master the standards, the process of perception acquires an indirect character. The use of standards allows the transition from a subjective assessment of the perceived world to its objective characteristics. Thinking. The assimilation of standards, changes in the types and content of the child’s activities lead to a change in the nature of the child’s thinking. By the end of preschool age, there is a transition from egocentrism (centration) to decentration, which also leads to the perception of the world around us from a position of objectivity. The child's thinking is formed in the course of the pedagogical process. The peculiarity of the development of the child lies in the active mastery of the methods and means of practical and cognitive activity that have a social origin. According to A.V. Zaporozhets, mastering such methods plays a significant role in the formation of not only complex types of abstract, verbal-logical thinking, but also visual-figurative thinking, characteristic of preschool children. Thus, thinking in its development goes through the following stages: 1) improvement of visual and effective thinking on the basis of developing imagination; 2) improvement of visual-figurative thinking based on voluntary and indirect memory; 3) the beginning of the active formation of verbal-logical thinking through the use of speech as a means of setting and solving intellectual problems. In his research, A.V. Zaporozhets, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A. Wenger and others confirmed that the transition from visual-active to visual-figurative thinking occurs due to a change in the nature of orienting-research activity. Orientation, based on the method of trial and error, is replaced by a purposeful motor, then visual and, finally, mental orientation. Let us consider the process of development of thinking in more detail. The emergence of role-playing games, especially with the use of rules, contributes to the development of visual-figurative thinking. Its formation and improvement depend on the imagination of the child. First, the child mechanically replaces some objects with others, giving the substitute objects functions that are not characteristic of them, then the objects are replaced by their images, and the need to perform practical actions with them disappears. Verbal-logical thinking begins its development when the child knows how to operate with words and understands the logic of reasoning. The ability to reason is found in the middle preschool age, but is very clearly manifested in the phenomenon of egocentric speech, described by J. Piaget. Despite the fact that the child can reason, illogicality is noted in his conclusion, he is confused when comparing size and quantity. The development of this type of thinking takes place in two stages: 1) first, the child learns the meaning of words relating to objects and actions, and learns to use them; 2) the child learns a system of concepts denoting relationships and learns the rules of the logic of reasoning. With the development of logical thinking, the process of forming an internal plan of action takes place. N.N. Poddyakov, studying this process, identified six stages of development: 1) first, the child manipulates objects with the help of his hands, solves problems in a visual-effective way; 2) continuing to manipulate objects, the child begins to use speech, but so far only for naming objects, although he can already verbally express the result of the performed practical action; 3) the child begins to mentally operate with images. There is a differentiation in the internal plan of the final and intermediate goals of the action, i.e., he builds a plan of action in his mind and, when executed, begins to reason aloud; 4) the task is solved by the child according to a pre-compiled, thought-out and internally presented plan; 5) the child first thinks out a plan for solving the problem, mentally imagines this process, and only then proceeds to its implementation. The purpose of this practical action is to reinforce the answer found in the mind; 6) the task is solved only internally with the issuance of a ready-made verbal solution, without subsequent reinforcement by actions. N.N. Poddyakov made the following conclusion: in children, the stages passed and achievements in the improvement of mental actions do not disappear, but are replaced by new, more advanced ones. If necessary, they can again join in solving the problem situation, i.e., visual-effective, visual-figurative and verbal-logical thinking will begin to work. It follows that in preschoolers the intellect already functions according to the principle of systemicity. At preschool age, concepts begin to develop. At 3-4 years old, the child uses words, sometimes not fully understanding their meanings, but over time, a semantic awareness of these words occurs. J. Piaget called the period of incomprehension of the meaning of words the stage of the speech-cogitative development of the child. The development of concepts goes hand in hand with the development of thinking and speech. Attention. At this age, it is involuntary and is caused by externally attractive objects, events and people. Interest comes to the fore. A child fixes attention on something or someone only during the period of time in which he retains direct interest in the person, object or event. The formation of voluntary attention is accompanied by the appearance of egocentric speech. At the initial stage of the transition of attention from involuntary to voluntary, the means that control the child's attention and reasoning aloud are of great importance. Attention during the transition from younger to older preschool age develops as follows. Younger preschoolers look at the pictures they are interested in, can engage in a certain type of activity for 6-8 seconds, and older preschoolers - 12-20 seconds. At preschool age, different degrees of stability of attention are already noted in different children. Perhaps this is due to the type of nervous activity, physical condition and living conditions. It has been observed that nervous and sick children are more likely to be distracted than calm and healthy ones. Memory. The development of memory goes from involuntary and immediate to voluntary and indirect memorization and recollection. This fact was confirmed by Z.M. Istomina, who analyzed the process of formation of voluntary and indirect memorization in preschool children. Basically, in all children of early preschool age, involuntary, visual-emotional memory predominates, only in linguistically or musically gifted children does auditory memory prevail. The transition from involuntary memory to voluntary memory is divided into two stages: 1) the formation of the necessary motivation, i.e. the desire to remember or remember something; 2) the emergence and improvement of the necessary mnemonic actions and operations. Various memory processes develop unevenly with age. Thus, voluntary reproduction occurs earlier than voluntary memorization, and involuntarily precedes it in development. The development of memory processes also depends on the interest and motivation of the child in a particular activity. The productivity of memorization in children in play activities is much higher than outside the game. At the age of 5-6 years, the first perceptual actions aimed at conscious memorization and recall are noted. These include simple repetition. By the age of 6-7, the process of arbitrary memorization is almost completed. As a child grows older, the speed of retrieving information from long-term memory and transferring it to operational memory increases, as well as the volume and duration of operative memory. The child's ability to assess the possibilities of his memory is changing, the strategies for memorizing and reproducing the material used by him become more diverse and flexible. For example, a four-year-old child from 12 presented pictures can recognize all 12, and reproduce only two or three, a ten-year-old child, having recognized all the pictures, is able to reproduce eight. Many children of primary and secondary preschool age have a well-developed direct and mechanical memory. Children easily remember and reproduce what they saw and heard, but on condition that it aroused their interest. Thanks to the development of these types of memory, the child quickly improves his speech, learns to use household items, and is well oriented in space. At this age, eidetic memory develops. This is one of the types of visual memory that helps to clearly, accurately and in detail, without much difficulty, restore visual images of what has been seen in memory. Imagination. At the end of early childhood, when the child first demonstrates the ability to replace some objects with others, the initial stage of imagination development begins. Then it gets its development in games. How developed a child’s imagination is can be judged not only by the roles he plays during play, but also by his crafts and drawings. O.M. Dyachenko showed that imagination in its development goes through the same stages as other mental processes: involuntary (passive) is replaced by arbitrary (active), direct - mediated. Sensory standards become the main tool for mastering the imagination. In the first half of preschool childhood, the child's reproductive imagination predominates. It consists in the mechanical reproduction of the received impressions in the form of images. These can be impressions from watching a TV show, reading a story, a fairy tale, direct perception of reality. The images usually reproduce those events that made an emotional impression on the child. At the older preschool age, the reproductive imagination turns into an imagination that creatively transforms reality. Thinking is already involved in this process. This type of imagination is used and improved in role-playing games. The functions of the imagination are as follows: cognitive-intellectual, affective-protective. Cognitive-intellectual imagination is formed due to the separation of the image from the object and the designation of the image with the help of a word. The role of the affective-protective function is that it protects the growing, vulnerable, weakly protected soul of the child from experiences and traumas. The protective reaction of this function is expressed in the fact that through an imaginary situation, a discharge of the emerging tension or conflict resolution can occur, which is difficult to provide in real life. It develops as a result of the child's awareness of his "I", the psychological separation of himself from others and from the actions performed. The development of imagination goes through the following stages. 1. "Objectification" of the image by actions. The child can manage, change, refine and improve his images, i.e., regulate his imagination, but is not able to plan and mentally draw up a program of upcoming actions in advance. 2. Children's affective imagination at preschool age develops as follows: at first, negative emotional experiences in a child are symbolically expressed in the heroes of fairy tales he heard or saw; then he begins to build imaginary situations that remove threats from his "I" (for example, fantasy stories about himself as supposedly possessing especially pronounced positive qualities). 3. Appearance of substitutive actions, which, if implemented, are able to relieve the emotional stress that has arisen. By the age of 6-7, children can imagine an imaginary world and live in it. Speech. In preschool childhood, the process of language acquisition is completed. It is developing in the following directions. 1. There is a development of sound speech. The child begins to realize the peculiarities of his pronunciation, he develops phonemic hearing. 2. Vocabulary is growing. It is different for different children. It depends on the conditions of their life and on how and how much his relatives communicate with him. By the end of preschool age, all parts of speech are present in the child's vocabulary: nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, numerals and connecting words. The German psychologist W. Stern (1871-1938), speaking about the richness of the vocabulary, gives the following figures: at three years old, the child actively uses 1000-1100 words, at six years old - 2500-3000 words. 3. The grammatical structure of speech develops. The child learns the laws of the morphological and syntactic structure of the language. He understands the meaning of words and can construct phrases correctly. At the age of 3-5 years, the child correctly captures the meanings of words, but sometimes uses them incorrectly. Children have the ability, using the laws of grammar of their native language, to create statements, for example: “From mint cakes in the mouth - a draft”, “A bald head has a barefoot”, “Look how the rain has poured” (from the book by K.I. Chukovsky " two to five"). 4. There is an awareness of the verbal composition of speech. During pronunciation, the language is oriented towards the semantic and sound aspects, and this indicates that the speech is not yet understood by the child. But over time, the development of a linguistic instinct and the mental work associated with it occurs. If at first the child treats the sentence as a single semantic whole, a verbal complex that denotes a real situation, then in the process of learning and from the moment the reading of books begins, an awareness of the verbal composition of speech occurs. Education accelerates this process, and therefore, by the end of preschool age, the child already begins to isolate words in sentences. In the course of development, speech performs various functions: communicative, planning, symbolic, expressive. The communicative function is one of the main functions of speech. In early childhood, speech for a child is a means of communication mainly with loved ones. It arises out of necessity, about a specific situation in which both an adult and a child are included. During this period, communication plays a situational role. Situational speech is clear to the interlocutor, but incomprehensible to an outsider, because during communication the implied noun drops out and pronouns are used (he, she, they), there is an abundance of adverbs and verbal patterns. Under the influence of others, the child begins to rebuild situational speech to a more understandable one. In older preschoolers, the following tendency can be traced: the child first calls the pronoun, and then, seeing that they do not understand him, pronounces the noun. For example: "She, the girl, went. He, the ball, rolled." The child gives a more detailed answer to the questions. The range of interests of the child grows, communication expands, friends appear, and all this leads to situational speech being replaced by contextual speech. Here is a more detailed description of the situation. Improving, the child often begins to use this type of speech, but situational speech is also present. Explanatory speech appears at the senior preschool age. This is due to the fact that the child, when communicating with peers, begins to explain the content of the upcoming game, the device of the machine, and much more. This requires a sequence of presentation, indication of the main connections and relationships in the situation. The planning function of speech develops because speech turns into a means of planning and regulating practical behavior. It merges with thinking. In the speech of the child, many words appear that seem to be addressed to no one. These may be exclamations reflecting his attitude to the action. For example, "Knock-knock... scored. Vova scored!". When a child turns to himself in the process of activity, then they speak of egocentric speech. He pronounces what he is doing, as well as the actions that precede and direct the procedure being performed. These statements are ahead of practical actions and are figurative. By the end of preschool age, egocentric speech disappears. If a child does not communicate with anyone during the game, then, as a rule, he does the work silently, but this does not mean that egocentric speech has disappeared. It simply passes into inner speech, and its planning function continues. Consequently, egocentric speech is an intermediate step between the child's external and internal speech. The sign function of the child's speech develops in the game, drawing and other productive activities, where the child learns to use sign objects as substitutes for missing objects. The sign function of speech is the key to entering the world of human socio-psychological space, a means for people to understand each other. The expressive function is the most ancient function of speech, reflecting its emotional side. The speech of the child is permeated with emotions when something does not work out for him or he is denied something. The emotional immediacy of children's speech is adequately perceived by surrounding adults. For a child who reflects well, such speech can become a means of influencing an adult. However, the "childishness", specially demonstrated by the child, is not accepted by many adults, so he has to make an effort on himself and control himself, to be natural, not demonstrative. Personal Development preschool child is characterized by the formation of self-awareness. As mentioned above, it is considered the main neoplasm of this age. The idea of oneself, one's "I" begins to change. This is clearly seen when comparing the answers to the question: "What are you?". A three-year-old child replies: "I'm big," and a seven-year-old - "I'm small." At this age, speaking of self-awareness, one should take into account the child's awareness of his place in the system of social relations. The child's personal self-awareness is characterized by awareness of his "I", the isolation of himself, his "I" from the world of objects and people around him, the emergence of a desire to actively influence emerging situations and change them in such a way as to satisfy his needs and desires. In the second half of preschool age, self-esteem appears, based on the self-esteem of early childhood, which corresponded to a purely emotional assessment ("I am good") and a rational assessment of someone else's opinion. Now, when forming self-esteem, the child first evaluates the actions of other children, then his own actions, moral qualities and skills. He has an awareness of his actions and an understanding that not everything can. Another innovation with the formation of self-esteem is the awareness of one's experiences, which leads to orientation in one's emotions, from them one can hear the following statements: "I'm glad. I'm upset. I'm calm." There is an awareness of himself in time, he remembers himself in the past, realizes in the present and imagines in the future. That's what children say: "When I was little. When I grow up big." The child is gendered. He is aware of his gender and begins to behave according to the roles, like a man and a woman. Boys try to be strong, brave, courageous, not cry from resentment and pain, and girls try to be neat, businesslike in everyday life and soft or coquettishly capricious in communication. In the course of development, the child begins to appropriate behavioral forms, interests and values of his gender. The emotional-volitional sphere develops. Regarding the emotional sphere, it can be noted that preschool children, as a rule, do not have strong affective states, their emotionality is more "calm". However, this does not mean that children become phlegmatic, the structure of emotional processes simply changes, their composition increases (vegetative, motor reactions, cognitive processes predominate - imagination, imaginative thinking, complex forms of perception). At the same time, the emotional manifestations of early childhood are preserved, but emotions are intellectualized and become "smart". The emotional development of a preschooler, perhaps, most of all contributes to the children's team. In the course of joint activities, the child develops an emotional attitude towards people, empathy (empathy) is born. Changes during preschool age motivational sphere. The main personal mechanism that is formed at this time is the subordination of motives. The child is able to make a decision in a situation of choice, whereas before it was difficult for him. The strongest motive is encouragement and reward, the weakest is punishment, and the weakest is promise. At this age, demanding promises from your child (e.g., “Will you promise not to fight again?”, “Will you promise not to touch that thing again?”, etc.) is pointless. It is at preschool age that the child begins to master ethical norms, he has ethical experiences. Initially, he can only evaluate other people's actions: other children or literary heroes, but he is not able to evaluate his own. Then, in the middle preschool age, the child, evaluating the actions of a literary hero, can substantiate his assessment, based on the relationship between the characters in the work. And in the second half of preschool age, he can already evaluate his behavior and tries to act in accordance with the moral standards that he has learned. 7.5. Neoplasms of preschool age To neoplasms of preschool age D.B. Elkonin attributed the following. 1. The emergence of the first schematic outline of an integral children's worldview. A child cannot live in disorder, he needs to put everything in order, to see the patterns of relationships. Children use moral, animistic, and artifical reasons to explain natural phenomena. This is confirmed by the statements of children, for example: "The sun moves so that everyone is warm and light." This happens because the child believes that at the center of everything (beginning with what surrounds a person and up to natural phenomena) is a person, which was proved by J. Piaget, who showed that a child in preschool age has an artificalistic worldview. At the age of five, the child turns into a "little philosopher". He talks about the origin of the moon, sun, stars, based on the television programs he watched about astronauts, moon rovers, rockets, satellites, etc. At a certain moment of preschool age, the child has an increased cognitive interest, he begins to torment everyone with questions. This is the peculiarity of his development, therefore, adults should understand this and not be annoyed, not dismiss the child, but, if possible, answer all questions. The onset of the "age of the whys" indicates that the child is ready for school. 2. Emergence of primary ethical instances. The child tries to understand what is good and what is bad. Simultaneously with the assimilation of ethical norms, aesthetic development takes place ("Beautiful cannot be bad"). 3. Appearance of subordination of motives. At this age, deliberate actions prevail over impulsive ones. Perseverance, the ability to overcome difficulties are formed, a sense of duty to comrades arises. 4. Behavior becomes arbitrary. Arbitrary is the behavior mediated by a particular representation. D.B. Elkonin said that at preschool age, the image orienting behavior first exists in a specific visual form, but then becomes more and more generalized, acting in the form of rules or norms. The child has a desire to control himself and his actions. 5. Emergence of personal consciousness. The child seeks to take a certain place in the system of interpersonal relations, in a socially significant and socially valued activity. 6. The emergence of the inner position of the student. The child develops a strong cognitive need, in addition, he seeks to get into the world of adults, starting to engage in other activities. These two needs lead to the fact that the child has an internal position of a schoolboy. L.I. Bozovic believed that this position may indicate the readiness of the child to go to school. 7.6. Psychological readiness for school Psychological readiness is a high level of intellectual, motivational and arbitrary spheres. The problem of readiness of the child to study at school was dealt with by many scientists. One of them was L.S. Vygotsky, who argued that readiness for schooling is formed in the learning process: “Until the child is taught the logic of the program, until then there is still no readiness for learning; usually readiness for schooling develops by the end of the first half of the first year learning" (Vygotsky L.S., 1991). Now training is also carried out in preschool institutions, but there the emphasis is only on intellectual development: the child is taught to read, write, and count. However, you can be able to do all this and not be ready for schooling, because readiness is also determined by the activity in which these skills are included. And at preschool age, the development of skills and abilities is included in the game activity, therefore, this knowledge has a different structure. Therefore, when determining school readiness, it is impossible to evaluate it only by the formal level of writing, reading, and numeracy skills. Speaking about determining the level of school readiness, D.B. Elkonin argued that one should pay attention to the occurrence of voluntary behavior (see 8.5). In other words, it is necessary to pay attention to how the child plays, whether he obeys the rule, whether he takes on roles. Elkonin also said that the transformation of a rule into an internal instance of behavior is an important sign of readiness for learning. The degree of development of voluntary behavior was devoted to the experiments of D.B. Elkonin. He took children aged 5, 6 and 7, put a bunch of matches in front of each and asked them to move them one by one to another place. A seven-year-old child with a well-developed volitionality scrupulously carried out the task to the end, a six-year-old child rearranged matches for some time, then began to build something, and a five-year-old child brought his own task to this task. In the process of schooling, children have to learn scientific concepts, and this is possible only if the child, firstly, is able to distinguish between different aspects of reality. It is necessary that he sees in the subject separate sides, the parameters that make up its content. Secondly, in order to master the basics of scientific thinking, he needs to understand that his point of view cannot be absolute and unique. According to P.Ya. Galperin, by the end of preschool age there are three lines of development: 1) the formation of arbitrary behavior, when the child can obey the rules; 2) mastering the means and standards of cognitive activity that allow the child to move on to understanding the conservation of quantity; 3) the transition from egocentrism to centralization. Motivational development should also be included here. Tracking the development of the child, taking into account these parameters, it is possible to determine his readiness for schooling. Consider the parameters for determining the level of school readiness in more detail. Intelligent Readiness. It is determined by the following points: 1) orientation in the surrounding world; 2) stock of knowledge; 3) development of thought processes (ability to generalize, compare, classify); 4) development of different types of memory (figurative, auditory, mechanical); 5) development of voluntary attention. Motivational readiness. The presence of internal motivation is of particular importance: a child goes to school because it will be interesting for him and he wants to know a lot. Preparing for school implies the formation of a new “social position”. This includes the attitude towards school, educational activities, teachers, and oneself. According to E.O. Smirnova, it is also important for learning that the child has personal forms of communication with adults. Willful readiness. Her presence is very important for the further successful education of a first-grader, because hard work awaits him, and he will be required to be able to do not only what he wants, but also what is necessary. By the age of 6, the basic elements of volitional action are already beginning to form: the child is able to set a goal, make a decision, outline a plan of action, carry out this plan, show a certain effort in overcoming obstacles, and evaluate the result of his action. Authors: Marina Khilko, Maria Tkacheva << Back: Early childhood (from 1 year to 3 years) (Social situation of development. Development of the child’s cognitive sphere. Personal formations. Three-year crisis. Leading activity in early childhood) >> Forward: Junior school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years) (Social situation of development. Educational activities. Other types of activities. Seven-year crisis. Problems of transition from primary school age to adolescence)
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