Topic 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT

3.1. Features of the development process

Development is a qualitative change - the emergence of neoplasms, new mechanisms, new processes, new structures. They are characterized by the following patterns:

▪ progressive nature, when the stages already passed seem to repeat the well-known features and properties of the lower ones, but at a higher level;

▪ irreversibility, i.e. movement at a new level where the results of previous development are realized;

▪ development represents the unity of struggling opposites, which are the driving force of the development process. It is the resolution of internal contradictions that leads to a new stage of development.

The main signs of development include:

▪ differentiation, i.e. dismemberment of a phenomenon that was previously unified;

▪ the emergence of new sides, new elements in development;

▪ restructuring connections between the parties to the object. The modern idea of ​​the mental development of the individual sees its causes in various biological and social factors, in the uniqueness of the path of development of each personality. Gradually, there is an expansion and clarification of the conceptual apparatus necessary for revealing the laws of human development. A number of concepts appear that clarify the term “development”.

1. Evolutionary development, i.e., the emergence of a new one compared to the previous stage - this can include neoplasms of age periods.

2. Involutionary changes. This is the loss of previously formed mental properties and qualities that took place in the previous period. Such changes occur not only in old age, but also in adolescence, adolescence - as a result of the accumulation of changes that turn into neoplasms.

3. Heterochromic development. This is a manifestation of mental qualities at different times: some functions are ahead of other functions in development.

4. Biological development. It is believed that development is determined by hereditary and congenital factors. The congenital is determined by intrauterine development, and the hereditary is determined by the appearance of a new one due to the gene apparatus.

5. Social development. It occurs under the simultaneous influence of the natural and social environment, the historical development of society, nationality and other factors.

6. Special development. This is the development of mental functions, processes, personality traits in the framework of professional training, for example, the development of professional memory, thinking, attention, abilities, etc.

The formation of a personality is a complex process that has its own tendencies, prospects for self-determination, self-realization, and includes all of the above stages.

3.2. Driving forces, conditions and sources of personality development

The driving forces of personality development are understood as the needs of the child himself, his motivation, external incentives for activity and communication, goals and objectives set by adults in the education and upbringing of children. If the goals of education and training correspond to the motivation of the child, then favorable conditions will be created for development in terms of driving forces.

Human needs are divided according to the degree of severity and necessity, ranging from simple, lower, and ending with the highest.

1. Biogenic: the need for security and self-preservation, emotional contact, indicative need, the need for motor activity, play.

2. Psychophysical: needs for emotional saturation, freedom, energy restoration.

3. Social: the need for self-respect, communication, knowledge, self-expression.

4. Higher: the need to be a person, moral and aesthetic needs, the need to find the meaning of life, preparedness and overcoming difficulties, the need for creation and creative work.

Each age has its own needs, the satisfaction of which is important for normal personal development. The delay in the satisfaction of certain needs or their incomplete satisfaction can adversely affect the development of the individual.

One of the important moments of the driving force is motivation. It performs several functions:

▪ encourages behavior;

▪ directs and organizes it;

▪ gives it personal meaning and significance (meaning-forming motivation).

In order for motivation to be stable and positive, it is necessary to have all three functions. The last function is the most important, it is of central importance for the nature of the motivational sphere. The manifestations of the motivating and guiding functions depend on the meaning of the activity for the child. Consequently, the success of the activity depends on how the meaning-forming function is formed. Therefore, it is on this function that one should first of all pay attention when educating.

These motivational functions are implemented by many motives, among them such as ideals and value orientations, needs, motives, goals, interests, etc. At different age stages, their significance manifests itself in different ways. This fact must also be taken into account in education.

The process of child development takes place in certain conditions, surrounded by objects of material and spiritual culture, people and relationships between them. In other words, the development of the child depends on the social situation. The social situation is the starting point for all changes that occur in the development of the child during the period of growing up. It determines the forms and ways of the development of the child, the types of activity, the new mental properties and qualities he acquires. All this is the conditions for the psychological development of the child. Indeed, the same children, whose driving forces of development are the same, can develop differently in different conditions. The more favorable the conditions for the development of the child, the more he can achieve in a short period of time. Therefore, special attention should be paid to the social conditions of development.

The sources of development are the leading activity, the leading type of communication and the crisis of development.

The leading type of communication is communication, as a result of which the main positive personality traits are formed and consolidated.

Leading activity is an activity that results in the greatest success in the development of cognitive processes and the formation of neoplasms at a certain stage of development.

Each age period is characterized by a special type of activity. During the transition from one period to another, the leading activity also changes. Modern psychologists have identified the following types of leading activities.

1. At the age from birth to 1 year, direct emotional communication of the child with adults is noted. Neoplasm - the need for communication and grasping.

2. At the age of 1 to 3 years, object-manipulative activity is present. The new formation is self-awareness (“I myself”).

3. Children of preschool age (from 3 to 6 years old) are characterized by playing activities, role-playing games. Neoplasms - the inner position of the student appears, arbitrary behavior, personal consciousness, subordination of motives, primary ethical instances, the first schematic outline of an integral children's worldview arise.

4. Educational activity is observed in children of primary school age (from 6 to 10 years). Neoplasms - there is an intensive intellectual development, "memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking", prerequisites are being created for the development of a sense of adulthood.

5. Adolescence (from 10-11 to 14-15 years old) is characterized by communication, which extends to various types of activities: labor, educational, sports, artistic, etc. Neoplasms are: the emergence of a sense of adulthood, a tendency to reflection, self-knowledge, interest in the opposite sex, puberty, irritability, frequent mood swings; there is a development of volitional qualities, there is a need for self-affirmation, self-determination. A change in leading activity leads to a crisis in development. This is due to the fact that the needs of the child are changing, but he is not yet able to satisfy them.

The crisis of development in the interpretation of L.S. Vygotsky is a concentration of sharp and major shifts and shifts, changes and fractures in the child's personality. A crisis is a turning point in the normal course of mental development. It arises when "when the internal course of child development has completed some cycle and the transition to the next cycle will necessarily be a turning point ..." (L. S. Vygotsky, 1991).

L.S. Vygotsky believed that the essence of each crisis is the restructuring of internal experiences, the relationship of the child and others, changes in needs and motives. The crisis occurs at the junction of two age periods and characterizes the end of one period and the beginning of another.

3.3. Patterns of mental development

The patterns of mental development include unevenness and heterochrony, instability, sensitivity, cumulativeness, divergence - convergence.

Irregularity and heterochrony. Unevenness is the uneven development of various mental functions, properties and formations. This process is characterized by rise, stable flow and decline, and is oscillatory in nature. When they talk about uneven mental development, they mean the pace, direction, and duration of the changes taking place. It has been noted that the highest frequency of fluctuations in the development of any function occurs during the period of the highest achievements of this function. E.F. Rybalko said that the higher the level of productivity (achievements) in development, the greater the oscillatory nature of its age dynamics.

Heterochrony means a discrepancy in the time of development of individual organs and functions. If the cause of unevenness is the non-linear nature of the development system, then heterochrony is associated with the peculiarities of its structure and the heterogeneity of its elements.

Domestic physiologist P.K. Anokhin (1898-1974) believed that heterochrony lies in the uneven deployment of hereditary information. As an example, he cited the following fact: first, older analyzers are formed, and then younger ones.

The German educator and psychologist E. Meiman (1862-1915) showed the following: the more necessary this or that function, the faster it develops. For example, a child learns faster to navigate in space than in time.

Unsustainability of development. This pattern, closely related to unevenness and heterochrony, is clearly manifested in development crises. This is due to the fact that development always goes through unstable periods, including crises. Stability is possible if two conditions are met:

1) with frequent small-amplitude fluctuations;

2) when there is a discrepancy in the time of development of different mental processes, functions and properties. It follows that stability is possible through instability.

Sensitivity of development. As mentioned above, the sensitive period of development is the period when it is most reasonable to begin and conduct the education and upbringing of children (see 2.8). Domestic psychologist B.G. Ananyev understood sensitivity as temporary complex characteristics of correlated functions, sensitized at a certain moment of learning.

These periods are limited in time, and if during the sensitive period the development of a certain quality was not given due attention, then later the process of its development will be longer.

Cumulativeness. This pattern of development is that the developmental results of the previous age period are included in the subsequent one, but with certain changes. For example, in the process of development of thinking, visual-effective thinking first develops, then visual-figurative and finally verbal-logical thinking. This process indicates a qualitative transformation of mental development.

Divergence - convergence. These are two contradictory but interrelated trends. Divergence is about increasing diversity in the process of mental development, convergence is about increasing selectivity.

3.4. Mechanisms of personality development

A personality is a person taken in the system of such psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social connections and relationships by nature, are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are essential for himself and those around him (R.S. Nemov).

The question of personality development was of interest to many scientists. As a result of numerous studies and experiments, the mechanisms of personality development have been identified. These include assignment, isolation and identification.

In domestic psychology, the position was established that a personality develops through appropriation its "comprehensive essence": the personality of a person is also "produced", that is, created by social relations into which the individual enters in his activity. Thus, in psychology, the problem of external determination is created, which determines the development and formation of the personality.

The idea of ​​"appropriation" in itself would be mechanical if it were not presented in dialectical unity with the idea of ​​the inner essence of man, his activity and the dependence of circumstances on the "self-realization of the individual." People create circumstances and each other. Even in relation to himself, a person acts from a subject-subject position.

Separation - this is the upholding by an individual of his natural and human essence. In other words, it is the desire to stand out from the crowd. Isolation acts as a process of individualization.

Separation is external and internal. External isolation includes physical parameters, external data, nationality, gender, etc., internal - individual psychological characteristics, intellectual development, character traits, temperament, etc. Alienation is a special case of isolation.

Identification - this is the process of emotional and other self-identification of a person with another person, group, model, the experience by the subject of his similarity (identity) with the desired object. Therefore, identification acts both as a mechanism for the "appropriation" by the individual of his human essence, and as a mechanism for the socialization of the personality.

Children learn the norms, attitudes and forms of behavior characteristic of their parents, peers, and people around them. The process of identifying oneself with them proceeds spontaneously. The child adopts their views and life experiences. For young children, the main source of identification is the parents, later - peers and other adults.

The identification process continues throughout life. Its source can be other people who are carriers of those qualities and forms of behavior that a person wants to develop in himself.

3.5. Self-awareness of the individual

Self-consciousness is a set of mental processes through which an individual realizes himself as a subject of activity (I.S. Kon).

Self-consciousness reflects the real being of a person, and it is important that he learns to realistically, adequately evaluate himself. But this is not always the case for humans. Even trying to explain his actions to other people and to himself, he is not necessarily sincere. As a result, the motives that prompted him to act remain unknown to others, and sometimes to himself. Therefore, self-consciousness can be called a process of cognition, during which a person is aware of his experiences and motivations.

Self-consciousness is not given from birth, it is one of the developmental processes. Over the years, as life experience accumulates, a person rethinks his life. Rethinking determines the motives of his activities and the inner meaning of the tasks that he faces on the path of life. The ability to understand what the meaning of life is, to recognize what is really important in it and what is not, to determine a life goal and strive for its implementation, to successfully solve the tasks that life sets - this is what is called wisdom and what you need to strive for. . This is possible only with the normal development of self-consciousness.

In the formation of self-awareness, it is very important that a person can develop a positive attitude towards himself as a person. This can be achieved by generalizing practical knowledge about other people. The child early begins to separate people from the surrounding world in his mind, and then to distinguish one person from another, to distinguish between their gestures, movements, to understand that people's relationships are built according to certain rules, etc. Thanks to this, he begins to master the movements and produce actions, realizing them with the help of adult assessments. But it takes several years of life for a child to begin to develop partial forms of self-consciousness. This is expressed in awareness of oneself in different situations, in relation to different things. This awareness leads to the formation of self-awareness of the individual.

Any change in the life situation in social, labor, personal life leads to a change in attitude towards oneself as an agent and subject of this situation. B.G. Ananiev believed that to realize oneself means to realize oneself not only as a psychophysical being, but, first of all, as a worker, family man, father, educator, comrade, as part of a team.

3.6. Structural links of self-consciousness. Their genesis

The structural links of self-consciousness are:

1) identification of a person with his body, name, i.e. value attitude to the body and name; what is noted already in children of one month of age, when the infant begins to distinguish sensations emanating from his own body from sensations caused by external objects;

2) self-esteem, expressed in the context of claims for recognition;

3) awareness of oneself as a representative of a certain gender, gender identification;

4) self-representation in the aspect of psychological time, individual past, present and future;

5) social and moral self-esteem, which is formed in adolescence and youth.

The development of self-esteem in ontogenesis is carried out as follows. First, there is a spontaneous formation of personality, not directed by self-consciousness, characterized by the appearance of polymotivation and subordination of actions. The development of a person's self-awareness begins at the age of two - at this time the child already distinguishes himself as a person and bearer of a certain name (proper name, pronoun "I", a certain physical appearance). This process continues throughout the early and preschool years. From the emotional attitude towards people, the psychological "image of I" begins to form. The emotional coloring of this image can be both positive and negative. The "image of I" is also formed by expressing one's will ("I want", "I myself"), which acts as a specific need of the child. Then the claim to recognition begins to emerge. It can have both a positive and a negative direction. Then the child begins to form a sense of gender, then there is a feeling of being in time. He has a psychological past, present and future. He begins to relate to himself in a different way, the prospect of developing himself opens up before him.

Consider the stages of development of self-consciousness.

В early childhood (from 1 year to 3 years) the formation of self-consciousness takes place. The child begins to recognize himself in the mirror, respond to his name, actively use the pronoun "I" - that is, he is aware of himself as a person.

The development of self-awareness will lead to the formation of self-esteem. It is after realizing oneself as a person that a child has a need to compare himself with other people, on the basis of which self-esteem is formed. At this age, self-esteem is a purely emotional formation, it does not contain rational components and is based on the child's need for emotional security and acceptance. And since parents often admire the child and praise him, the self-esteem of children in early childhood is usually overestimated.

В preschool childhood (from 3 to 6-7 years) the formation of self-consciousness continues, which is considered the main neoplasm of this age. The child's idea of ​​himself, his "I", his place in the system of social relations is changing. When realizing oneself, separating oneself from the surrounding world, the child has a desire to actively influence situations and change them the way he himself wants. He begins to realize his experiences ("I am cheerful", "I am angry", etc.), and there is an awareness of himself in time ("I am small", etc.). (For more on the formation of self-awareness, see Topic 7.)

В primary school age (from 6-7 to 10-11 years old) the development of the child's self-awareness is greatly influenced by the assessment that the teacher puts for doing work or evaluating his behavior. Focusing on the teacher, the child begins to consider himself an "excellent", "three", "lo", a good or average student, endowing himself with a set of qualities corresponding to the group to which he attributed himself.

From this we can conclude that the assessment of academic performance becomes an assessment of the individual and affects the social status of the child. Therefore, excellent students and "good students" have an overestimated self-esteem, while those who do not succeed have an underestimated one, since constant failures and poor grades reduce faith in their strengths, reduce self-confidence.

In order for self-esteem to be adequate, it is necessary to develop in any child, regardless of academic performance, a sense of competence, dignity, and responsibility.

В adolescence (from 10-11 to 14-15 years old) the development of self-awareness, the formation of the ideal of personality is aimed at a person's awareness of his personal characteristics. This is determined by a special, critical attitude of a teenager to his shortcomings. The "I" of a teenager usually consists of the qualities and virtues of other people, especially valuable in his eyes. But since both adults and peers can be a role model for a teenager, the ideal image turns out to be contradictory. Perhaps this is the reason for the teenager's inconsistency with his ideal, which is a reason for worry.

At this age, adolescents develop a tendency to self-knowledge (reflection). He begins to compare himself with other people (adults and peers), is critical of himself, goes through a lot of emotional experiences, as a result of which his self-esteem is formed and his revenge in society is determined.

As a rule, in younger teenagers, self-esteem is contradictory, so their behavior is characterized by unmotivated actions. (See Topic 9 for more on this.)

В youth (from 15-16 to 20 years old) there is a formation of self-consciousness and a stable image of "I". Scientists believe that the reason for this formation is that at this age abstract-logical thinking develops, the inner world is discovered, the image of the perceived person changes, a feeling of loneliness appears, an exaggeration of one's uniqueness and stability over time.

I.S. Cohn noted that the image of “I” is a social attitude consisting of three interrelated components:

1) cognitive (knowing oneself, understanding one’s qualities and properties);

2) emotional (assessment of these qualities and associated pride, self-esteem, etc.);

3) behavioral (practical attitude towards oneself). The process of developing self-awareness is very complex, and not everyone experiences it smoothly and painlessly. (This process is described in more detail in topic 10.)

In the period early adulthood (from 20 to 40 years) the development of self-awareness, self-esteem and “I-concept” continues. This process is influenced by the individual’s self-definition as a sexual partner, spouse, parent, professional and citizen (for more information on this, see topic 12).

In the period middle adulthood (from 40 to 60 years old) self-consciousness is enriched with new images, self-assessments become generalized, because the "I-image" of a developing personality turns into a "I-image" associated with the development of children, students, colleagues and other people (see also the topic 12).

In the period late maturity (60 years and older) a person integrates his past, present and future. And if his “I-concept” is positive and active, then his personal development will continue (see also topic 12).

Authors: Marina Khilko, Maria Tkacheva

<< Back: Theories of mental development (Biogenetic and sociogenetic concepts. The theory of convergence of two factors of child development. Psychoanalytic theories of child development. Epigenetic theory of personality by Erik Erikson. Theory of social learning. The problem of the development of thinking in the early works of Jean Piaget. The theory of cognitive development (the concept of Jean Piaget). Cultural-historical concept. Concept of mental development of a child by D.B. Elkonin)

>> Forward: Periodization of mental development (Approaches to the periodization of mental development in developmental psychology. The concept of age. Parameters of age. The concept of sensitivity. Critical and crisis periods)

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