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Table of contents

1. Structure of the national economy (Structure of the national economy: concept, essence and types. Theories of structural reforms of the national economy. Infrastructure of the economy: types and significance for the national economy. Sectoral and intersectoral structure of the national economy. Ownership structure in the national economy. Structural changes in the economy of modern Russia)
2. The system of potentials of the national economy (Total economic potential: concept and essence. Types of the total economic potential of the national economy. Economic resources: their types and interaction. National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy. Russia's place in the system of using the planet's potentials)
3. Economic systems of the national economy (Types of economic systems of the national economy and criteria for their differentiation. Economic entities, their relationship. Factors in the formation of the Russian model of a market economy. Mechanisms of the national economic system. Place and role of corporations in the national economic system: integrated economic structures)
4. Public goods in the national economy (Public goods: concept, essence, classification. Specifics of the consumption of public goods. Public choice in the national economy. Conditions for the effective provision of public goods in the national economy)
5. Indicators of the development of the national economy and social and labor relations (The concept of economic growth and development of the national economy. Factors affecting the development of the national economy. The main indicators for assessing economic growth and the development of the national economy: GDP, GNP. The labor market in the national economy. Features of employment and unemployment in transition economy)
6. Regional processes in the national economy (Economics of the region. The concept of regional development "Strategies for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation". Interregional socio-economic processes. Budgetary support for regional and municipal development)
7. State regulation of the national economy. National and economic security (The state in the Russian economy. The functions of the state in the national economy. The role and mechanisms of state regulation of the economy. The concept of national and economic security. The concept of Russia's national economic security. Internal and external threats to national economic security. Federal, regional and local security institutions national economic security)
8. Markets in the national economy (National markets: concept, types, principles of organization. Regulated and unregulated markets. Monopoly and competition in the Russian economy)

1. Structure of the national economy: concept, essence and types

The essence of the national economy consists in the fact that it is an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor are interconnected, which have developed as a result of a long historical evolutionary development of a particular country. The peculiarities of the national economy are influenced by historical, cultural traditions, the geographical position of the state, its role in the international division of labor, etc.

VV Leontiev defines the national economy as a system capable of self-regulation, consisting of various types of activities.

A number of related sciences and academic disciplines are devoted to the study of the national economy:

Structural analysis of the national economy, according to its founder R. Bar, it allows for a more complete and comprehensive analysis of economic processes. He comes from the fact that the structure is a way of ordering various units in the economy and the formation of organic interaction between them. There are two types of structure of the national economy:

F. Peru believes that the structure of the national economy differs in proportions and relationships between its constituent parts. Proportion is the value of the analyzed unit of the national economy in relation to others. Relationships are relatively stable links between units of the national economy, capable of change and preservation.

J. Lomm offers the opposite meaning of the structure of the national economy. These are stable relations between units of the national economy that determine the essence of the national economy in time and space.

R. Tinbergeng considers it important to conduct a structural analysis of the economy, as it allows you to determine its essence and make a forecast of the future state and development, while proceeding from the following features of the structural analysis of the national economy:

Structure of the national economy - this is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy.

There are the following types of structure of the national economy:

The structure of a certain national economy is constantly changing and transforming. This is greatly influenced by scientific and technological progress, which changes the nature of production, contributes to the emergence of new industries and sectors of the economy. The change in the nature of social production, the emergence of new industries, has an impact on the nature of the relationships in the national economy. Therefore, the structure of the national economy is constantly changing, which makes it necessary to carry out constant structural monitoring, to measure the real structure with its future development.

The structure of a particular national economy is formed under the influence of many factors - geographical, cultural, social, psychological, etc. It is specific to each particular country and cannot be artificially introduced. On the part of the state, only an indirect influence on it can be exercised.

The specificity of the structure of the national economy of Russia is due to the fact that it was formed on the basis of the structure of the USSR. As a result of the artificial transformation of the USSR, the existing structure of the national economy was destroyed, and then its long-term formation took place and is taking place.

2. Theories of structural reforms of the national economy

The need for structural reforms is usually associated with the decline of the national economy, a protracted economic crisis. In a situation where the functioning of the national economy does not meet the requirements of a decent standard of living, under pressure from the population, the country's government is forced to take a number of extreme measures to change the state of the national economy - structural reforms.

The direction of structural reform of the national economy is determined by the specific needs of the state, its position in the world economy, and is developed on the basis of an assessment of the current situation of the country and its desired future state. At the stage of comparing the current state of the economy and its desired future state, a set of specific methodology for achieving the necessary economic indicators is determined.

Carrying out structural reforms of the national economy is always included in the field of activity of the state apparatus. Not a single economic entity, except the state, has sufficient resources to carry out structural reform. Therefore, the only source and developer of reform is the state - the state apparatus.

In order for structural reforms to be more effective, they are usually formalized in the form of programs - designed for long-term implementation, interconnected measures. Programs can be different in content, goals, objectives, design methods and reflect the specific features of the national economy.

In most countries, their development and implementation is associated with the need to create the necessary conditions for active and sustainable economic growth or a way out of a protracted economic crisis. Usually they are aimed at solving several large-scale economic problems.

In this case, the reforms are aimed at stabilizing the national economy, including several small structural reforms related to attracting foreign capital to the country. Typically, structural reform programs are supported by one or more international organizations such as the IMF. But in return for this, they demand serious changes in the country's legislation in accordance with world standards.

Programs of radical structural reforms are characteristic of charismatic populist political leaders. In this case, they use them as a method of gaining power, of concentrating political power in their hands. The rise of such reforms was observed at the end of the XNUMXth century. in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Often they are limited not only to the economic sphere, but go to the cultural, spiritual, etc. Ultimately, their result directly depends on the specific historical, economic, cultural characteristics of the country. But, as practice shows, a short period of accelerated economic growth is followed by a protracted crisis. Since growth was created artificially (due to a one-time infusion of large volumes of foreign investment) and has no real basis, it will be replaced by an even stronger economic depression. A striking modern example of this can be Georgia, where in the early stages there was talk of an economic miracle, but after the establishment of the relative stability of the new political power, an even more comprehensive economic crisis ensued.

Reform of the pension system is one of the most effective mechanisms for structural reform of the national economy. Here the task is to move to a system of non-state pension funds, which, as practice shows, can implement more efficient management of the financial resources entrusted to them. But the complete withdrawal of the state does not contribute to the establishment of economic stability - it must retain the right to regulate the activities of non-state funds. Reforming the pension system is the most difficult, but nevertheless a necessary part of structural reforms, as it allows mobilizing the necessary volumes of financial resources for the development of the national economy.

Reforming the banking sector due to the fact that it implements significant economic functions - it provides cash flow for the purposes of economic development. Its main role is to create money. This is the task of the central bank. The specifics of a particular banking system depends on the real conditions and needs of the national economy.

The main problem of the banking sector was the general and systemic non-repayment of loans associated with the general economic downturn, a decrease in the activity of business entities, a decrease in household incomes and the general standard of living. All these problems in the process of structural reform caused a serious banking crisis in Croatia and Hungary.

At the same time, hyperinflation, an inevitable companion of structural reforms, contributes to the banking system's recovery from the crisis. Banks can generate windfall profits by taking advantage of inflationary features.

Another feature is the decline in public confidence in the banking system, as the population switched to the use of non-bank forms of savings and began to take a negative approach to the possibilities of investing money in the national economy.

As practice shows, countries with a transitional type of economy, which began implementing structural reforms, generally achieved significant economic results at the beginning of 2007. As a result of the positive impact of high demand from Western Europe, there has been an increase in GDP and an overall improvement in the economic situation. In general, the reforms had a significant impact on the national economies of developing countries, which was largely facilitated by the growth in the volume of the domestic market and its unfulfillment. The highest growth rates of foreign investments were observed in Croatia, Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria. Against this background, investment activity in Russia is lower.

The results of the implementation of structural reform programs show their effectiveness and efficiency. The emerging economic stabilization allows us to conclude that countries with a transitional type of economy will be able to achieve sustainable economic growth in the long term.

3. Infrastructure of the economy: types and significance for the national economy

The word "infrastructure" is formed from a combination of the Latin terms "infra" - "under, below" and "structura" - "location", structure. There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it refers to the totality of the service system, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and the provision of various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.

Infrastructure is of great importance for the functioning of the national economy, representing an integral part of it. At the present stage of development of the Russian economy, the role of infrastructure in the economy is increasing, and the process of its improvement continues.

Infrastructure as an independent area of ​​the national economy has gone through the following stages of development:

The peculiarity of the production infrastructure is that it does not produce a specific product that would be tangible, but creates conditions for social production, its normal functioning and development.

It consists of certain elements, the essence of which, the nature of their interaction with each other, depend on their goals, which are determined by the interests of the entire national economy, its needs. Goals tend to change and separate from the production sphere.

The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are distinguished:

Manufacturing infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage shipping, etc.

The production infrastructure is distinguished by the following specific features:

The essence of the production infrastructure is twofold. First, it is aimed at maintaining the normal functioning of the process of material production. Secondly, it ensures the normal life of the person himself, the reproduction of labor resources in the national economy.

social infrastructure - this is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal life of the population and man. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the life of the population at an ever higher quality level. The impact of social infrastructure on the national economy lies in the fact that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.

Social infrastructure performs the following functions in the national economy:

Today, the importance of social infrastructure is gradually changing - it is becoming increasingly important. The shift in the directions of economic growth of the national economy towards improving the quality of life of the population leads to an increase in investment in this area.

Market infrastructure - this is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal operation of the market and its development. It is represented by a combination of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.

The market infrastructure consists of the following elements:

Production, social and market infrastructure are integral elements of the national economy, without which its normal functioning is impossible.

The modern infrastructure of Russia is notable for its underdevelopment and low investment attractiveness. This situation is influenced by the low purchasing power of the population and the bias of the national economy towards the export of raw materials. As a result, the infrastructure associated with the extraction and export of raw materials is hypertrophied.

4. Sectoral and intersectoral structure of the national economy

The sectoral structure of the national economy consists in the grouping of economic entities into groups that are homogeneous in composition, connected by homogeneous functional characteristics - branches of the national economy.

The sectoral structure of the national economy goes through the following stages of its development:

These stages of development of the sectoral structure of the national economy succeeded each other, but for each individual country they had their own specific features.

Dynamic changes in the sectoral structure occur cyclically over a period of 10 to 20 years. They are characterized by the following features:

Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on the nature of the sectoral structure of the national economy. It leads to the fact that some industries disappear or stagnate, while others, such as nuclear energy, are actively developing. A distinctive feature is the emergence of related sectors of the economy - petrochemical, rocket and space, etc.

The change in the sectoral structure is taking place in the following main areas:

Theory of "Intersectoral balance" was developed in the USA by V. V. Leontiev as an effective tool in the analysis and forecasting of structural relationships in the economy. It proceeds from the possibility of achieving a general macroeconomic equilibrium, for which a model of this state has been developed, including the structural relationship of all stages of the production process - production, distribution or exchange and final consumption. The essence of this method lies in the dual definition of the sector of the economy - as a consumer and as a producer. To determine the degree and nature of the relationship between supply and demand for a good, a system of technological coefficients is used - an indicator that reflects the volume of average production costs of a certain industry, necessary for the production of a unit of good.

In this model, an input-output balance scheme is used for analysis, consisting of four main quadrants, reflecting certain stages of the production process:

The theory of input-output balance allows:

The intersectoral balance method was first used in 1936 in the USA, when V. V. Leontiev calculated it for 42 industries. At the same time, its effectiveness was recognized when used to develop state economic policy and forecast the national economy. Today it is widely used in many countries around the world.

In practice, the International Standard Classification of All Spheres of Economic Activity is widely used, which gives a classification of all sectors of the national economy. It allows you to form a system of national accounts (SNA). Classification and grouping by sectors of the national economy make it possible to determine the volume and contribution of a particular sector to the total GDP and GNP, to characterize the links between sectors and the formed proportions. The formed functional group makes it possible to conduct an objective analysis of the role of economic entities in the production of national wealth.

The number of industries included in the inter-sectoral balance is determined by its specific goals. The basic ones are transport, communications, agriculture, and production. If necessary, a branch of the national economy can be divided into smaller branches that are part of it. The grounds for attributing units of the national economy to a particular industry can be different - the similarity of the technological and production process, the homogeneity of the required raw materials, the nature of the products.

The modern sectoral structure of the national economy of Russia characterized by the predominance of the fuel and energy complex (FEC). It is one of the most capital-intensive industries, in connection with which there is an outflow of capital from other industries. The orientation of the fuel and energy complex to the international market makes Russia dependent on global price fluctuations. As a result, more than half of the country's GDP is formed from the sale of resources. The predominance of the extractive industries of the economy has a negative impact on the overall pace of development of the national economy. The dominance of the fuel and energy complex hinders the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.

5. Ownership structure in the national economy

The ownership structure is of great importance for the national economy, as it determines the nature and essence of the processes occurring in it - production, consumption, distribution.

Allocate the following property content:

The economic essence of property built on the relationship between the subject - the owner and the object - the property. As a rule, property is property on which the production process depends - economic resources, factors of production.

The system of economic relations of ownership includes the following elements:

Economic relations associated with property affect the essence and nature of the entire production process in the economy. On this occasion, people can come into conflict with each other, and therefore property cannot be only an economic category. It must be regulated by legal norms - a system of generally accepted rules for the ownership and disposal of property.

Legal nature of ownership assumes generally accepted rules of property regulation at the legislative level.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property entities (owners):

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation distinguishes the following types of property objects (property):

If the rules provided for at the legislative level are met, the subject is vested with the right of ownership of the object of ownership.

Ownership includes:

The combination of the economic and legal essence of property constitutes its modern understanding. The relations of ownership, use and disposal of property without legal consolidation would be chaotic. And without economic content, the legal consolidation of property rights would not matter.

There are two diametrically opposed approaches to ownership:

In Russia, until 1990, an exclusively socialist approach to property was used. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, the situation was changed, and three types of property were introduced - state, physical and legal entities.

Ownership structure in the national economy reflects the nature of the existing relationships between objects and subjects of ownership. It is specific to each specific country and is formed under the influence of a combination of historical, cultural, and psychological factors. Due to various circumstances in Russia until 1990 there was only one form of ownership - state ownership, and for this reason the ownership structure was extremely simplified.

The modern ownership structure of Russia is characterized by:

The main problem of the modern property structure in Russia is to create conditions for such an implementation of property rights that would combine the interests of social stability, justice and active economic development.

6. Structural changes in the economy of modern Russia

At the end of the twentieth century. a radical structural reform of the national economy was developed and implemented. As a result, the established socialist system of economic activity of the ball was replaced by a market one. The scale and complexity of the reform lies in the fact that in a country where market relations were completely absent, they were artificially introduced.

The objective reasons for the beginning of the reform were the emerging in the 1960s. and worsened in the early 1980s. a protracted economic crisis, as a result of which economic growth almost completely stopped, a state of stagnation set in, and the standard of living of the population significantly decreased. The combination of negative factors led to political instability, resulting in the fact that the existing government could not keep the government. The established new regime in the early 1990s. called "democracy". He was able to successfully establish himself by virtue of the fact that he promised the population a quick solution to economic problems and an increase in living standards. In the conditions of the general crisis of the national economy, this was the main guarantee of the victory of the Democrats.

To bring the national economy out of the crisis, the method of radical reform was chosen, which consisted in the complete abolition of the planned economy and the establishment of an opposite liberal economic policy. The methodology of monetarist economic policy was widely used, but it was little adapted to the specific conditions of the national economy, and therefore many technologies that had a positive result in the West simply did not work.

A feature of the economic reforms was that under the conditions of the socialist regime, the very concept of a free market was absent. It was necessary to create conditions in which normal market mechanisms would arise and begin to function normally.

The program of reforms of the national economy of the early 1990s. included:

Much attention was focused on budgetary and tax policy. With the help of purely monetarist methods, the state restrained the rate of inflation and at the same time implemented measures to support production.

During the period of economic reforms, Russia went through a series of deep economic crises. The decline in industrial production became most acute in 1996, when the inertia of its functioning was completely exhausted.

One of the structural shifts that emerged in 1995 is still developing more and more at the present time, it consists in reducing the volume of the manufacturing industry - the industry of deep processing of resources. At the same time, the share of industries with a low degree of resource processing, such as the mining industry, that is, those oriented not to the domestic, but to the foreign market, is increasing.

In the agrarian sector of the economy, the existing state monopoly on the use and ownership of land was abolished. It was assumed that granting the right to own land to private individuals would have a positive impact on agricultural production. But a diametrically opposite situation has developed - a decrease in production volumes in this sector as a result of non-competitiveness. As a result, there has been a developing and today a steady trend towards a decrease in the volume of agricultural production. The overall decline in production volumes was influenced by a decrease in the investment activity of the state by more than 2 times.

The result of the reforms was their success only in some areas and a general failure in the framework of the national economy. This was confirmed by the financial crisis of 1998. A sharp increase in inflation rates in 2000 led to the almost complete liquidation of the emerging middle class.

The existing national economy today is based on the residual phenomena of the planned economy in conjunction with the wild elements of the market economy, for the most part of a criminal nature. The sharp decline in the standard of living of the population led to a number of social upheavals. The domestic economy faces solving the problems of the shadow economy and the implementation of technologies for general sustainable development.

LECTURE No. 2. The system of potentials of the national economy

1. Aggregate economic potential: concept and essence

The main direction of the functioning of the modern Russian economy, its reform is the elimination of constraining factors and the intensification of economic development. The main role in this is assigned to the development and improvement of the efficiency of using the total economic potential. This will create optimal conditions for ensuring active and at the same time sustainable economic growth. The formation of the aggregate economic potential is a complex and multi-stage process.

Potential - this is a certain set of resources, funds that are available in the national economy and can be used if necessary in production. It is also the ability of the state, society to change a certain area of ​​activity.

The functioning and development of the national and, in general, the entire world economy is based on economic resources and factors. Economic resources - this is what is necessary for the production of goods - goods and services. The rate of its development depends on the quantity and quality in which the national economy disposes of them.

The combination of economic factors and resources is the concept of the potential of the national economy. It is quite diverse in its specific content and characteristics, but in general it allows you to determine the possibilities of the national economy for growth.

Aggregate economic potential of the national economy - this is the total ability of sectors of the national economy to produce certain benefits, which differ in qualitative and quantitative characteristics, in a specific time period.

The main components of the total economic potential are:

The total economic potential directly depends on the total productive forces and wealth of the national economy. It directly reflects the position of the national economy in the system of the world economy.

The economic potential depends on the total production capabilities of all sectors of the national economy. The degree of completeness of its use distinguishes the degree of development of the national economy, since the determination of the total economic potential is carried out by correlating the volume and structure of the actual production of goods and the degree of use of production capacities - production potential.

The volume of economic potential indicates the level of economic independence of the national economy, its position in the world economy and the quality of life of the population. The main constituent element of the total economic potential is human resources, namely their professional and qualification structure. For the most part, the level of industrial development is of decisive importance for it.

The total economic potential should be analyzed from the following two positions:

Economic resources cannot be equated with economic potential, since for the purposes of economic growth it is necessary to combine economic resources and their efficient use. This is due to the fact that the real volume of production of goods directly depends on the use of a combination of resources - natural, investment, scientific, technical and human.

Accordingly, the total economic potential is directly dependent on the generalized qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the volume and degree of use of all economic resources at the disposal of the national economy, and the direction of their application to ensure sustainable economic growth.

This reflects the available resources that can be mobilized and how they can be used effectively. The increase and development of the total economic potential, in qualitative and quantitative terms, are associated both with an increase in the volume of resources involved in the national economy, and with an increase in the efficiency and rationality of their use for the production of goods - goods and services.

The total economic potential consists of the following elements:

To analyze the total economic potential, it is necessary to assess the state of economic resources in terms of quantitative and qualitative parameters, the dynamics of the development of the national economy, the sectoral structure of the economy, and the contribution of individual industries.

The total economic potential in its structure consists of a system of potentials, which are characterized by various qualitative and quantitative parameters, trends and patterns of formation, factors that influence them.

The system of total economic potential consists of:

2. Types of the total economic potential of the national economy

The total economic potential is the basis of the national economy, on which its normal functioning, as well as the pace and scale of economic growth, directly depend. According to its characteristics, it is heterogeneous and exists in several main forms.

The main types of the total economic potential of the national economy are as follows.

1. Resource natural potential - this is the total set of natural resources that are currently used or can be attracted for economic activity.

This indicator is heterogeneous in its composition and constantly changes in the process of functioning of the national economy, depending on specific economic reasons, such as the form, scale and orientation of economic activity.

According to one of the classifications, traditional resources (mineral, water, biological) and non-traditional (wind, sun) are distinguished. They are also divided into renewable (biological resources, water power and solar energy) and non-renewable (mineral resources, soil, water). Of great importance is such a resource as the territory, the place of residence of the population and the location of production facilities.

The resource natural potential consists of such types of economic resources as:

In their composition, target and non-target resources are distinguished. Single-purpose resources are resources that can be used exclusively for business activities. These include, for example, mineral resources. Their distinctive feature is their exclusive belonging to economic activity. Non-targeted resources are resources that can be used both for economic activity and for the benefit of the population - ensuring normal living conditions. These include, for example, water and forest resources, which can be used both for economic activity and for recreation of the population. Increasingly, the emphasis is shifting towards the use of non-targeted resources due to their limited nature - either for economic activity or to ensure the conditions for the normal life of the population. Today there is an active search for a balance in their use.

The availability of Russia's natural resource potential is assessed by experts as sufficiently high and sufficient to ensure high rates of economic growth. Russia is in first place in the world in terms of reserves of raw materials - coal, manganese and iron ores, potash and phosphorite salts. Its share in the world reserves of natural gas, chemical raw materials and non-ferrous metals, oil and water resources is also relatively large.

Features of the placement of natural resource potential are:

A high degree of concentration is manifested, for example, in the fact that more than half of all natural gas reserves are concentrated in less than six fields. The concentration of the agricultural resource is manifested in the fact that most of the usable land is located on less than 20% of the country's territory. Only 14% of the territories combine the necessary climatic conditions for agriculture.

2. Human Potential is one of the main types of aggregate economic potential and is distinguished by specific and qualitative characteristics. The required population size is distinguished by certain qualitative indicators (qualification and professional structure) and is a necessary resource, without which not only the development of the national economy, but also its normal functioning is impossible. Accordingly, the greater the degree of provision with human potential, the greater the potential ability of the national economy to grow.

The total population of Russia in 2000 was 145,6 million people, which corresponds to the sixth place in the world. According to the State Statistics Committee, the average life expectancy of the population of Russia is 69,5 years, for men - 63 years, for women - 74. The decline in the birth rate has led to the fact that natural growth has decreased several times.

Since 2000, there has been a major shift in the structure of the population, consisting in an increase in the proportion of the urban population and an increase in the number of women involved in economic activities.

The qualification structure of human potential in Russia has changed significantly since 2000 - 274 people per 1000 employees who have higher or secondary specialized education. This indicator differs significantly across the regions of Russia and is highest in Moscow and St. Petersburg. It is characteristic that there is a significant concentration of human potential in the central regions with a decrease in the regions of the North.

The main factor under the influence of which the distribution of the country's human potential is located is the location of production. It hinders the prospective development of productive potential. It is necessary to redistribute human potential in order to create priority industries. Human potential is highly mobile. Migration flows are mainly directed to the central regions. The influx of people from neighboring countries is also significant, but for the most part it is illegal. In order to curb migration, a corresponding law was adopted, which imposes a significant amount of fines on enterprises that use illegal labor.

The population of Russia is heterogeneous in its cultural and national composition - more than 100 nationalities live on the territory of the country. But most of the population is Russian - 81,5%.

As a result of the unstable socio-economic situation in the country, the removal of the state from the regulation of most economic processes, there has been a significant decline in the quality of human potential. Most of it was irretrievably lost to the national economy due to leaving the country for permanent residence. The quality of life of the population has also decreased, which has become a direct reason for the decline in the quality of human potential.

3. Production potential - this is the real ability of economic entities to produce public goods at an ever higher quantitative and qualitative level.

The crisis state of the national economy has affected the sharp decline in production potential. At the same time, it is influenced by the same factors that are characteristic of the production potential of the world economy, namely, scientific and technological progress. High rates of automation and mechanization of the production process are observed, which significantly changes the structure of the production potential.

Its distinctive feature is the creation of fundamentally new sectors of the economy as a result of innovative scientific and technological developments.

All types of aggregate economic potential - natural resource, human and production - constitute its essence. Their distinctive feature is the interaction with each other (for example, the development of production potential is impossible without human).

3. Economic resources: their types and interaction

Of great importance in the national economy are economic resources that determine the nature of its functioning, the pace, structure and scale of development. They are the basis for economic growth. In fact, this is a kind of goods that can be used to produce other goods.

Economic resources - is a type of resources necessary for the production of goods - goods and services.

There are the following types of economic resources:

In the Middle Ages, great importance was attached to human resources, labor, which was seen as the only economic resource. In the economic theory of Physiocratism, land was recognized as the only economic resource. A. Smith defined capital, land and labor as economic resources. On the basis of this provision, J. B. Sey formulated the theory of "three factors" - economic resources. A. Marshall supplemented this list with entrepreneurial potential - the fourth factor, resource. The merit of introducing knowledge as one of the economic resources belongs to E. Tofler; this resource is interpreted by him as specific scientific and technical developments, research, scientific and technological progress, information and science.

Natural resources in their composition are quite diverse and include land, energy, water, biological, forest, mineral, recreational, climatic resources. Their use is interconnected (for example, for the use of land resources, equipment is needed, and for its operation, mineral resources are needed - fuel).

An important type of natural resources is mineral raw materials - coal, natural gas, oil, metal ores, phosphates, potassium salts. The distribution of this resource is uneven both within the national economy and at the global level. Natural resources are divided into:

According to experts, at the current rate of mining, their reserves will be exhausted in about 500 years. At the same time, the need for them in the economies is constantly increasing by an average of 10% annually. To improve the efficiency of the use of this resource, the development and implementation of resource-saving technologies is constantly underway.

Human resources in our country are limited. Despite the high level of unemployment, there is a shortage of human resources that differ in certain qualitative characteristics - professional and qualification level. There is an acute shortage of employees of certain qualifications and professions, which significantly slows down the development of the national economy.

The main property of economic resources is their limitedness while the need for them is boundless for the production of goods - goods and services. From this property follows the natural need for the effective use of economic resources to meet the needs of the population as fully as possible. In this case, it is necessary to constantly make decisions about the appropriate distribution of resources, that is, about their application in such a way as to get the maximum result from this.

Another property of economic resources is their complementarity. For example, knowledge is used to rationalize the use of natural resources - an economic resource that, based on scientific and technical developments, makes complementarity more efficient and optimal. In turn, knowledge forms the basis of human resources and consists in specific knowledge, skills, and professional skills of employees.

Mobility economic resources is their ability to move between industries, regions, countries. With regard to each economic resource, the degree of mobility will be different and will depend on a variety of both objective and subjective factors. For example, an economic resource - land - will have minimal mobility, since it is impossible to change its geographical position. The greatest mobility is characterized by human resources that are able to move between national economies.

An important property of economic resources is their interchangeability, which consists in the ability to replace one economic resource with another. For example, in order to increase production efficiency, one can use both entrepreneurial potential - to change production technology, and knowledge - to train employees so that they can more effectively perform their job duties. The ability to replace economic resources is limited and cannot be produced completely and totally. For example, capital cannot completely replace human resources. The initial replacement of resources can bring a positive result, but in the future, economic activity becomes significantly more complicated, and its efficiency may be reduced.

The main task of an economic entity is to constantly increase the degree of efficiency and rationality of the use of economic resources, for which their properties are involved - interchangeability, complementarity, mobility.

Within the framework of the national economy, the circulation of economic resources takes place in their respective markets (for example, the capital market, the labor market). Within these markets, there is also a certain segmentation (for example, the labor market consists of a segment of managers, economists, engineers).

4. National wealth is part of the total economic potential of the national economy

The main constituent element of the total economic potential of the national economy is national wealth. Its volume largely determines the scale and rate of economic growth, which makes it relevant to evaluate it as one of the indicators of the functioning of the national economy.

national wealth - this is the total volume of economic resources and material values ​​necessary for the normal production of goods - goods and services.

National wealth consists of the following main elements:

The volume of national wealth allows:

When assessing the real volume of national wealth, only those of its components are taken into account, the value of which can be reliably determined - based on specific economic practice. Therefore, a total assessment of the real volume of national wealth is not common in the economic practice of the countries of the world, since this is associated with significant costs.

In the domestic practice of economic analysis, the assessment of national wealth at the state level was not carried out. Related data are presented only in terms of estimates of non-financial and production assets, household property. Due to the lack of a generally accepted methodology for assessing national wealth, the elements of the national wealth of Russia were not calculated by the State Committee on Statistics.

In practice, elements of the System of National Accounts (SNA) are used to calculate national wealth. This allows you to determine its approximate volume, but it does not require serious material and financial costs. For this, such a component of the SNA as a set of institutional units by sector is used.

According to the estimates of the Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the World Bank, today the national wealth of all countries of the world is 550 trillion dollars, of which half is in France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Japan, the USA, and Great Britain.

The national wealth of the USA is determined in the amount of 24 trillion dollars in current prices. The total national wealth of the CIS countries is $80 trillion.

The main trend of the national economies of developed countries is that human capital accounts for more than half of the national wealth. An increase in this ratio indicates the level of development of the national economy, since human resources form the basis of economic growth.

In Russia, the structure of national wealth is: 90% is fixed capital, and the remaining 10% is distributed between household property and working capital. The total amount of national wealth is estimated at 60 trillion dollars, more than 30 trillion dollars is natural resources. N. P. Fedorenko believes that in the period 1895-2000. the physical volume of Russia's national wealth increased 32 times.

The growth of national wealth was extremely uneven, under the influence of various both objective and subjective reasons. The rate of its increase was in direct proportion to the world economic crises and emerging internal political problems.

The destruction of the USSR and the formation of the Russian Federation due to ineffective economic reforms led to a decrease in the volume of national wealth in 1991-1999.

The stabilization of the volume of national wealth occurred only in 2000, this was due to the approval of V.V. Putin as President of the Russian Federation. The policy pursued by M. E. Fradkov in relation to national wealth is connected with work on priority national projects, such as health care, education, agriculture, etc.

As practice shows, under no state regime that existed in Russia, an effective system for using and increasing national wealth was formed. The achieved indicators of its use mostly consist of the natural resource potential. This is a simple exploitation of resources. In this component of national wealth, Russia is many times superior to other countries of the world and is constantly increasing this gap.

The pronounced unipolar structure of the world economy leads to the fact that Russia significantly loses the degree of control over its national wealth. It is increasingly becoming the subject of redistribution between economically developed countries, as a result of which there is a real threat of turning the country into a "raw material appendage" - a concept that implies the orientation of the economy exclusively to the extraction and export of raw materials.

Orientation towards the extraction and sale of raw materials is a distinctive feature of the economy of modern Russia. As practice shows, this kind of orientation leads to a dead-end development of the economy and makes it excessively dependent on the world economic situation. Such a mode of functioning of the national economy is focused not on the preservation and increase of national wealth, but exclusively on its use.

A distinctive feature of the use of the natural resource component of the national wealth of Russia is that it rightfully belongs to the entire population of the country, but, in fact, only a small part of the population owns it. As a result, the population has been removed from most of the national wealth, it is directed only to the enrichment of a small group of oligarchs, and not to the development of the national economy and human potential.

Quite objectively, there is a need to develop new mechanisms for the effective use of the country's natural resource potential to ensure the infrastructural transformation of the national economy and bring it to the position of sustainable growth and development. There is a real need to change the functioning of the national economy from a raw-material orientation to an innovative one. Stimulating the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy will increase the efficiency and rationality of the use of national wealth and increase the participation of human potential in it.

5. The place of Russia in the system of using the potentials of the planet

The increase in the degree of integration of the national economy of Russia into world economic relations raises the question of its real participation in the use of the potentials of the world economy.

It is impossible to unequivocally determine the place of Russia, since the total economic potential of the world economy seems to be a difficult object for analysis. Its definition is connected with the following main provisions.

1. The leading importance of Russia is evidenced by the high rates of GDP growth, in which it surpasses many countries, for example, Italy, Japan. UN statistics show that in 2003 Russia's GDP amounted to more than $1 trillion 330 billion - more than $9200 per unit of population. The volume of GDP is close in its value to those of Italy, France and Great Britain, but the per capita indicator is approximately equal to that of Mexico and Brazil.

Russia is one of the leading countries in power generation, production of mineral fertilizers, iron and steel smelting, ferrous metal rolling, oil and gas production. The total volume of gold and foreign exchange reserves for 2006 amounted to about $170 billion. The positive trade balance amounted to more than $88 billion, and total exports amounted to $183 billion.

The amount of external public debt as of January 1, 2006 amounted to $106,9 billion. The impact of external debt on the national economy is declining. The scale and pace of the telecommunications and computer sectors of the economy significantly exceeded those of the world's leading countries, and in 2004 the incomes of these sectors increased several times.

2. This is the low competitiveness of the national economy, and, accordingly, a small share in the use of the economic potential of the world economy. The export structure has not been transformed. For several decades, fuel and energy resources and crude oil have accounted for a large share in it. The share of industrial equipment is also minimal - less than 7%. The position of Russia as the largest supplier of raw materials has not changed significantly, and therefore the high volume of exports is not an indicator of the state of the national economy. Exports of science-intensive products are about 14 times less than in Malaysia and Japan.

The indicator of the development and use of human capital is significantly lower than in many developed countries, and in some indicators is much lower than it was in the USSR. The high degree of energy development is explained by the energy intensity of the production technologies used. Along with the significant potential of transport communications, there is a problem of their low quality. The existing significant ecological potential of the country is not used in any way. The real place of Russia in the world economy is reflected in the volume of exports of resources - oil, timber, metal, gas. The remaining potentials are practically not used.

A small share of Russia in the system of using the potentials of the world economy is explained by:

The small participation of Russia in the use of the potential of the world economy is explained by the following reasons:

The low degree of elaboration of the privatization process led to the fact that it contributed to the concentration of a significant part of the national wealth in a small number of the population (oligarchs), and ultimately led to a serious socio-economic differentiation of the population. The high degree of criminalization of production has reduced its investment attractiveness in the global capital market.

All these reasons have become an objective basis for determining Russia's place in the world economy, an obstacle in its taking a leading position in the use of the economic potential of the world economy. As a result, the national economy could not become an active subject of the world economy.

Regarding the use of world human resources: in the national economy, the course is taken to intensify migration flows. The need of the national economy for cheap labor can be satisfied by attracting migrants from neighboring countries, but this requires the creation of comprehensive legislation that minimizes possible negative consequences. There is an urgent need to develop a flexible migration policy that meets the interests of the national economy. Today, this does not exist, and the legislative act restricting migration flows is of a local, non-systemic nature and cannot solve most of the problems that arise. The structure of spending on migration policy in the 2006 budget does little to encourage the government to take an active position in this area - the total amount of funds allocated for the purposes of migration policy amounted to 6 billion 587 million rubles, including 4 billion rubles. directed to the maintenance of military formations and only 1 billion 897 million rubles. - to ensure a minimum standard of living for the population who left the territory of the Chechen Republic, and to pay compensation to them.

The high growth rates of investments and the degree of capitalization of production, observed in 2000, do not indicate an intensification of the growth of the national economy, but a revaluation of tangible and intangible assets, which were underestimated several times during privatization.

To bring the national economy to high competitive performance in world markets, active state support is required for economic entities operating in labor-intensive and knowledge-intensive industries, followed by state support for their competitive positions in world markets. This is due to the fact that in the conditions of the transformation of the world economy, only large economic entities can maintain their leading positions. With regard to foreign economic policy, it is expedient to unite the state and private business more closely, which is observed today.

In general, the passive position of the state in relation to the restructuring of the national economy, social and budgetary infrastructures contributes to Russia taking the place of a "raw material appendage" in the system of using the potentials of the world economy.

LECTURE No. 3. Economic systems of the national economy

1. Types of economic systems of the national economy and criteria for their differentiation

The economic system is a set of economic processes taking place in it, the dominant forms of ownership and methods of its organization. The economic system has a direct impact on the features of the economic activity of economic entities.

The economic system of the national economy consists of the following main elements:

In the world economy, there are various economic systems of national economies. Their formation and functioning are determined by the specific historical, cultural, climatic and natural conditions of the countries.

There are the following types of economic systems of the national economy:

Market economy system with free competition existed from the XNUMXth century to the beginning of the XNUMXth century. Its functioning had specific features depending on the characteristics of the countries in which it was used.

The system of market economy with free competition is based on the following provisions:

Its basis is the freedom of activity of all economic entities - producers and consumers. As a result of the freedom of entrepreneurial activity, high rates of economic growth were achieved, and labor resources moved to a qualitatively different status. Employees and producers have become equal participants in economic activity. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of free movement of labor force, its mobility. The hired worker became a full-fledged subject of economic activity, who sold his labor on the market - a specific type of product.

The regulator of the functioning of the economic system is the free market and prices. The change in price reflects the social need for a particular good. The dynamics of the market and prices serve as the basis for the development of an efficient economic system in which only the good that is needed is produced, as a result of which the problem of efficient distribution of resources in the economic system is solved. The incentive for the development of the economic system is the natural desire of the manufacturer to increase profits while minimizing the resources necessary for this.

System of modern market economy today is dominant due to its high efficiency and effectiveness. In it, the value of a good is determined by balancing the supply and demand for it. The volume of consumption is inversely proportional to the price of the good, and lowering the price allows a significant increase in the consumption of the good. This system has shown its effectiveness due to its flexibility, ability to transform under the influence of both external and internal factors.

Under the influence of objective factors, which include the complication of the world economy, the system of the modern market economy has been transformed in the direction of increasing the degree of state intervention in it. This led to its essential changes - the transformation of economic relations between economic entities, forms of economic activity. Elements of planning were introduced into it, since it was clear that exclusively market mechanisms cannot ensure both active and sustainable economic growth. State regulation of the economy made it possible to transform the economic system depending on specific social needs.

The rational use of the resources of economic entities became possible as a result of using tools to take into account the dynamics of economic sectors and strategic planning. The state assumed responsibility for the redistribution of resources for the development of priority sectors of the economy through budget allocations.

For the development of human potential, the state artificially redistributes economic resources, which made it possible to significantly change its qualitative characteristics. About half of the GNP is directed to solving priority problems: the fight against poverty, health care, and education. Economic entities entered into new relations with employees - social partnership, which made it possible to significantly intensify work, increase labor productivity, reduce loss of working time, and improve the quality of life of employees.

Traditional non-market economy system exists in economically backward countries and is based on the use of backward production technologies, the dominance of manual labor. Its distinctive feature is the simultaneous existence of various forms of economic activity. In some countries, a natural-communal way of life has been preserved, involving communal or collective economic activity, with a predominance of small-scale production. It exists in the form of a large number of small peasant handicraft farms.

Of great importance in the functioning and development of this type of economy is foreign capital due to the underdeveloped national economic activity. Transformation into a more efficient type of economic system is hindered by the dominance of religious and cultural values, the division of society into estates.

In conditions of low efficiency of economic activity, the state occupies a dominant position and carries out an artificial redistribution of economic resources to support the poorest sections of society.

Command economy system existed in the USSR until the end of the twentieth century, today it is used only by some countries, such as Cuba.

The system of administrative-command economy is characterized by:

It is based on the direct management of all economic entities, carried out from a single center. The state assumes the functions of total control over the production and distribution of goods, which excludes the possibility of free economic relations between economic entities. The lack of economic motivation for the activities of economic entities is due to the fact that only managerial and administrative methods are used to manage the economy.

The centralization of economic activity management has a negative impact on the development of the entire economic system as a result of its excessive bureaucratization. The structure of social needs was determined directly by the central bodies, which could not reflect them objectively. The removal of business entities from the direct distribution of material goods and financial resources significantly affected the decrease in the efficiency of the entire production process.

The reasons for the transformation of this system were its inability to develop, inflexibility, isolation from the influence of scientific and technological revolution. Therefore, countries that have used it are moving to more efficient systems, but the choice of direction depends on the specific conditions of each state.

Along with the types of economic systems, there are certain models of the system of the national economy.

The main models of economic systems of the national economy are:

Russia is in an intermediate state, which does not allow it to be attributed to any type of economic system. The simultaneous combination of elements of all types makes its economy transitional, which is in its infancy.

2. Business entities, their relationship

The limited volume of basic economic resources determines the need for their efficient and rational use - minimizing costs while maximizing the result. Economic activity is aimed at the realization of this goal. It is a kind of activity aimed at the production of goods, based on a constant process of evaluating, comparing and selecting alternative options for the use of economic resources necessary for this. To maintain the constant flow of this process, there are certain economic agents - business entities. Their distinctive feature in comparison with other elements of the national economy is the ability to make and implement independent decisions on the organization of their economic activities.

The features of each economic entity are related to the relation in which it is to economic factors and resources, whether it is possession or use. The amount of capital and economic power at their disposal has a direct impact on the chosen form of economic activity. This can be either direct participation in the management of large organizations, individual entrepreneurial activity or the disposal of only one's own labor.

In the national economy, there are the following main types of economic entities:

1) households. These are economic entities that carry out activities related to housekeeping - often this is consumption. They concentrate in their property a significant part of economic resources and factors of production. Their economic activity is aimed at providing economic resources and factors of production, such as labor, capital, land, to other economic entities. The financial resources obtained as a result of this are used to acquire the goods they need or for accumulation. Depending on the structure existing in society and the amount of income, households have a specific economic freedom - the right to make independent economic decisions;

2) enterprises (organizations). These are economic entities whose activities are aimed primarily at the production of goods and investment in this process. In the national economy, there is a large species diversity within this economic entity. For example, they differ in their forms of ownership (private, cooperative, state), in the types and scope of their activities. It is generally accepted that they are divided into financial - enterprises whose activities are aimed at investing capital in the production of goods, and non-financial - enterprises whose activities are aimed exclusively at the production of goods. The purpose of the activities of enterprises is solely to profit from their activities;

3) non-profit organizations. These are business entities whose activities are not aimed at making a profit, but at the implementation of specific, socially significant functions. These include, for example, business associations, charitable foundations and organizations, trade union organizations, sports clubs. The shift in the purpose of their economic activity from making a profit to meeting the needs of society makes them significant for the functioning of the national economy. For example, the purpose of the activities of non-profit organizations in the field of science is to develop the scientific potential of the country. The result of the implementation of this purely non-commercial goal is the development of the labor potential of the country, and therefore the entire national economy;

4) state. It is the most important subject of economic activity, which essentially determines the nature of the functioning of the national economy. Despite the fact that its activities are more aimed at the implementation of administrative and sanctioning functions, it has a great influence on the nature of a large number of ongoing economic processes. To do this, it uses a wide range of methods that allow it to take an active position in the national economy. The assessment of the economic activity of the state is carried out using various indicators, which include, for example, the volume of state property, the share of goods produced by the state, the volume of government spending and taxes in GDP.

Economic entities in the course of their activities cannot exist independently. To achieve their goals, they need to constantly interact. This interaction is specific to each individual business entity and directly depends on the characteristics of the external environment. The basis of such interaction, which determines its nature, are economic interests - the reasons for the economic actions of economic entities. They are directly influenced by the position of the economic entity in the national economy, the economic functions it implements. A common economic interest of households is to increase the marginal utility of goods while minimizing the costs required to acquire them. This can be done, for example, by prioritizing needs and consuming only on the basis of their available resources.

The actions of enterprises are also ambiguous: they can be aimed either at extracting and increasing profits, or at increasing economic power, their market share, and production volumes. The state in its economic activity implements the interests of the entire population, actively influences the pace and scale of economic growth and the increase in national wealth. Of decisive importance is the implementation of priority tasks for the entire population, the establishment of a foundation for the effective interaction of all economic entities.

The nature of the interaction of economic entities is ambiguous and diverse in its species composition, it is based on certain economic interests. At the same time, other factors also influence this, for example, the interests of society, society and the nation.

3. Factors of formation of the Russian model of market economy

Russia after a long period of existence of the administrative-command type of the national economy system at the end of the twentieth century. began the transition to a market model of the national economy. This was due to the objective need to bring the national economy out of a protracted crisis.

Since the existing system could not ensure active economic growth, it was decided to change it. As a result, not only the national economy has changed, but also the political, state, and social systems.

The collapse of the USSR led to significant geopolitical changes, the destruction of existing economic ties led to a deep crisis not only in the Russian economy, but also in the economies of the countries that were part of the USSR.

The objective reasons for Russia's transition to a market economy model were:

The combination of all these factors led to the formation of a protracted economic, social and political crisis. A common goal was defined - the transition of the Russian economy to the state of an effective market system with the preservation of the social functions of the state.

The market economy model was to be based on:

The formation of the Russian market economy model took place under the influence of the following main factors that had a significant impact on its nature:

1) geopolitical. He had a great influence on the nature of the formation and essence of the market economy in Russia. The geopolitical position of Russia puts it in the rank of a connecting and intermediate link between the cultures of the Western and Eastern types. The national economy was formed as an intermediate type between the Eastern and Western economies. Therefore, it is characterized by the absence of a civil society independent of the state, a mixture of political, economic power and property rights, the predominance of collectivism over personal initiative, the dominant role of the state as an active subject of economic life, the underdevelopment of the institution of private property;

2) historical. The emerging model of a market economy in Russia combines a number of specific characteristics associated with the historical development of Russia. The state, just as it has been throughout the history of Russia, retained a significant part of the economic power, a large public sector in the priority sectors of the economy. The existing unity of the right to property and political power was restored. The problem is that the state, as a result of privatization, eliminated most of the revenues to the budget, while maintaining the same volume of economic, social and political functions. In this situation, it was unable to effectively implement them, which led to serious economic and social upheavals;

3) legal. In Russia, no effective legal mechanism was formed to regulate the interaction of economic entities, which led to the emergence of conflict situations between them. A large number of conflicts, including those involving the use of force, significantly hampered the establishment of an effective functioning of the economy, and the lack of an effective legal framework did not allow them to be resolved;

4) economic monopoly. The existing powerful monopolistic structures in the priority sectors of the economy prevent the formation of a competitive environment based on a large number of manufacturers. Often, to establish a dominant position in the market, not economic methods are used, but purely criminal - violent ones;

5) orientation towards the use of the country's natural resource potential. Mutual influence of low investment activity, restriction of competition, non-competitiveness of the national economy led to the deformation of the sectoral structure of the economy towards the predominance of the mining and fuel and energy industries. Natural resources have become a source of quick enrichment and profits that are not related to real economic activity. As a result, the economy increased the amount of financial resources that were not provided with real economic potential - a natural result of an increase in inflation rates. The resource orientation of the economy has made it dependent on the world economic situation and the policies of countries that consume raw materials. The outflow of the most important economic resources (human, capital) to the fuel and energy complex hinders the development of the real sector of the economy;

6) uneven development of the main sectors of the economy. This factor had a significant impact on the specifics of the Russian market economy model and caused an imbalance in the sectors of the economy. So, trade, the monetary system of Russia corresponds to world standards, and agriculture, production are at the level of economically undeveloped countries;

7) uneven economic development of regions. For various reasons, the economic development of regions in Russia is uneven. For example, Moscow, St. Petersburg are at the stage of development corresponding to the world level (entrepreneurship, the service sector are actively developing), and the Saratov region in terms of economic development corresponds to "third world countries" with a predominantly agricultural sector;

8) combination of economic, political and criminal power. This feature has been observed in Russia throughout its existence. The criminalization of the national economy and economic activity, the resolution of conflicts between economic entities not by legal, but by forceful methods - all these are the distinctive features of Russia;

9) the mentality of Russian citizens, which has become a determining factor in the formation of a market model of the economy. Significant social transformations associated with the transitional economy have led to a decrease in the business activity of the population. The destruction of existing social relations, values ​​and way of life did not occur simultaneously with the formation of new ones, which had an impact on the high level of anxiety of the population, suicide, and crime. The lack of developed democratic traditions and the great influence of totalitarian regimes stimulated the development of the denial of the law, distrust of government, and confrontation between the state and the private sector. Long-term total state regulation has led to the formation of a passive psychology among the population, which is characterized by the fact that it is not the person himself who makes decisions, but the state does it for him.

All these factors determined the essential characteristics of the emerging market economy model. The impossibility of forming an effective national economy is explained by the significant regulatory role of the state, the dominance of extractive industries and the fuel and energy complex, the low competitiveness of the national economy, extensive agriculture, and the tendency of the population towards economic passivity.

It is necessary to take into account the fact that, before reaching the indicators of economic growth that exist today, the world powers went through a long path of evolution of national economies before their effective model was formed. Russia began to build a market economy only at the end of the XNUMXth century. Before reaching the positions of active economic growth, it is necessary to carry out a number of global institutional reforms of the national economy, and first of all, the mentality and psychology of the population must change towards taking a more active economic position.

4. Mechanisms of the national economic system

The national economy is based on the free interaction of producers and consumers of goods. Based on their own economic interests, economic entities determine the model of their behavior. The basis of the market model of the national economy is the freedom to choose the activities of economic entities.

The functioning of the national economy is basically built on the interaction of the processes taking place in it. They are necessary to ensure the normal functioning and development of the national economy.

The basic mechanisms of the national economy are:

Pricing is one of the basic mechanisms for the functioning of relative prices in the national economy and consists in the formation of prices for various types of goods. It determines the behavior of the producer of goods, for example, in the formation of production volumes. The dynamics of prices affects the technology of production of goods, as well as the nature of its consumption.

Interaction of supply and demand is one of the main mechanisms of the national economy. Aggregate demand - a certain need for goods that are distinguished by clear qualitative and quantitative characteristics that can be purchased by the consumer. The aggregate supply is a certain set of goods that differ in qualitative and quantitative characteristics, which can be offered to the consumer for purchase. The interaction of supply and demand affects the pricing mechanism and tends to establish an equilibrium price, resulting in a state of equilibrium between consumption and production volumes.

One of the regularities of the interaction between supply and demand is that a decrease in price with the stability of other factors leads to a corresponding increase in demand. The opposite effect is that an increase in price, ceteris paribus, leads to a decrease in the quantity demanded.

There is an inverse relationship between supply and demand. The population consumes more of the good, the price of which is lower compared to the same good. The price of a good is an obstacle to increasing consumption: a low price stimulates demand, while a high price reduces it. Reducing the price of a good is an effective tool for reducing the manufacturer's inventory.

Demand is influenced by the following main non-price factors:

The offer is characterized by the quantity and set of benefits that can be offered to the consumer by the producer. There is a direct positive relationship between supply and price, which means that an increase in the price of a good affects an increase in its supply, and vice versa. The producer seeks to sell goods at a higher price, thereby increasing his income while maintaining the same production volumes.

There is a close relationship between production costs and supply. They have an impact on the amount of profit and on the nature of the functioning of the economic entity. There are fixed costs. These are costs that do not change with an increase or decrease in production volumes, and variable costs. Costs are directly related to production volumes. The nature of the proposal is influenced by the cost of resources, production technology, taxes, market price, consumer expectations, the number of producers operating in the market.

The result of the mechanism of supply and demand is that limited economic resources are allocated and used efficiently. This allows you to establish the state of equilibrium of the national economy, but this balance is not constant, it is established at each stage of the development of the economy.

Competition is the most important mechanism to ensure the normal functioning and continuous development of the national economy. It affects the satisfaction of the needs of the population for goods that differ in the necessary qualitative and quantitative characteristics. An increase in the price of a good, caused by an increase in demand for it, and the formation of economic profit as a result of this, is an incentive for the producer to increase his production volumes. But only competition contributes to an increase in production volumes simultaneously with an increase in the quality of the produced good and a decrease in its price.

The mechanism of competition is blocked when only one producer dominates in a certain sector of the economy, which prevents new producers from entering the market. In this case, the laws of competition do not apply, and the monopolist can increase the price with the same output.

The mechanism of competition stimulates the transition of the manufacturer to new, more efficient technologies, since the unprofitability of production may be one of the reasons for the exit of the enterprise from the market. It actively influences the pace and scale of the scientific and technological revolution and the development of the national economy.

Competition directs and transforms personal selfish interests and motives in the direction of ensuring that their implementation simultaneously ensures the provision of public interests and needs. The increase in the producers' own profit occurs simultaneously with the increase in the social product.

State regulation is of decisive importance for the normal functioning of the national economy, as it regulates economic processes and directs the development of the entire economy. This is done through legislation (regulation) and a range of market-based instruments such as taxation and government spending.

The mutual influence of the mechanisms of the national economic system most rationally realizes the need for the production of necessary goods with a limited amount of economic resources. They make it possible to find a balance between the volume and structure of production and social needs. The operation of these mechanisms allows us to solve the main problem - maximizing the provision of goods while minimizing costs - with the help of competition, cost reduction, growth in labor productivity, and improvement of production technologies. They also create effective incentives for continuous improvement of efficiency and development of production. With their help, a relationship is established between the amount of income received and the real contribution of the producer to the increase in social production, which stimulates the development and improvement of labor resources.

At the same time, failures can occur in the flow and operation of the mechanisms of the national economy, which necessitates their constant monitoring and, if necessary, adjustments. To do this, there is a mechanism of state regulation of the national economy, which allows you to effectively solve social problems, maintain the overall economic balance, and regulate the provision of public goods.

5. Place and role of corporations in the national economic system: integrated economic structures

The essential transformation of the national economy of Russia under the influence of globalization, increased competition in the world economy, integration and internationalization of economic activity has led to the emergence and strengthening of such new forms of economic activity as corporations. These are economic entities that occupy a dominant position in a particular market. These are large production complexes, the scope of which is connected not only with production, but also with financial activities. Recognition of the importance of large corporations in the functioning of the national economy led to the creation of appropriate legislation regulating their activities (laws "On Joint Stock Companies", "On Financial and Industrial Groups").

World experience shows that the national economy can be competitive in world markets only through large corporations. In this case, they acquire the character of transnational (TNC). The activity of such corporations is not limited to only one country, but extends to several national economies.

One of the types of corporations are financial-industrial groups (FIGs). This is a form of economic activity, when under the leadership of one main company, various companies are united, legally and economically independent from each other and operating in various sectors of the economy. The parent company assumes the functions of their financial control and coordination of activities. The purpose of the activities of such associations is to increase the stability of the companies that are part of it, strengthen competitive positions, improve performance and take a monopoly position in certain markets.

The corporation is a legal entity and exists independently of its owner, and the transfer of part of the rights to its ownership through the issuance of shares leaves it a holistic entity. Large corporations are most often national, depending on the dominant share of capital, but also actively attract foreign investment.

Despite the fact that corporations also existed in the USSR, most of them were formed in the 1990s. This was facilitated by total privatization, which made it possible to concentrate significant economic resources and redistribute them. An example of a corporation with mixed ownership (public and private) is Gazprom, which occupies a leading position in the world commodity markets, providing significant revenues to the state budget.

Most domestic corporations work in the fuel and energy sector of the economy, while there are relatively few of them in other sectors, for example, Eye Microsurgery, AvtoVAZ. According to the Financial Times rating, several domestic corporations were included in the list of the world's largest transatlantic corporations.

The largest corporations in Russia, the volume of sales of their products and the number of employees are presented in the following list:

The peculiarity of the formation of domestic financial and industrial groups is that they were created on the basis of Soviet ministries or central departments. As a result, it was possible to concentrate significant economic resources and preserve the accumulated experience of economic activity.

Both officially registered financial and industrial groups (their minority) and hidden, officially unregistered ones (they are the majority) are widespread in Russia. This is due to the fact that at the legislative level, including the Federal Law "On Financial and Industrial Groups", their clear characteristics are not given and the procedure for their activities is not regulated.

Financial and industrial groups have a significant impact on the functioning of the national economy. Thus, according to the data of M. E. and Z. B. Seifullaev, at the beginning of 2003, 75 financial and industrial groups were registered in Russia, and they included 1150 industrial enterprises and organizations, 160 financial and credit institutions. The total number of employees employed in them is approaching 5 million people.

At the initial stage of the formation of domestic corporations, great importance was attached to the unification of the capitals of the CIS countries, as a result of which modern domestic financial and industrial groups developed active activities in the territory of the former USSR - the CIS. This was facilitated by the course of the governments of states towards more active economic integration.

The development of the domestic economy is in the direction of reducing financial and industrial groups to several powerful universal transnational corporations, by analogy with foreign ones. In terms of dynamics, they should concentrate more than half of their production capacities. Only in this case can we count on the fact that the domestic economy will become a competitive exporter of not only raw materials, but also manufactured goods.

LECTURE No. 4. Public goods in the national economy

1. Public goods: concept, essence, classification

Public goods occupy a significant place in the national economy. Their adequate interpretation, management of their production, distribution and consumption are the key to the effective functioning and development of the national economy.

In a generalized sense benefits - is a certain set of means that allow you to meet the needs of both a particular person and the population as a whole.

In the national economy, there is an extensive species composition of goods. Depending on their species, their essential characteristics are determined.

According to the nature of consumption, the following main types of goods are distinguished:

1) public, characterized in that they are freely consumed by all members of society and cannot be used individually;

2) individual, characterized in that they can be used by only one member of society and are aimed at satisfying only his needs.

Public goods include both public and collective goods.

A collective good differs from a public good in that it can only be used by all members of society to a limited extent.

public goods - a set of goods and services that are provided to the population on a gratuitous basis, at the expense of the state's financial resources.

Public goods include, for example, roads, health care, education, services provided by state and municipal governments, and bridges.

The production and distribution of public goods is one of the main functions of the state, its primary tasks. Here, the orientation of the state to reflect and realize the interests of the entire population of the country is manifested. The form in which the state today assumes responsibility for public goods took shape only in the XNUMXth century. Today, the normal functioning of the national economy cannot be imagined without such generally accepted benefits as a free healthcare system, education, external and internal security of the state, social security and insurance. The work of civil defense services and the elimination of emergency situations are also public goods. The significance of public goods lies in the fact that they are needed not by a part, but by the entire population.

Regarding the mechanism of production and distribution of public goods, the laws of the national economy are powerless - they are not able to work effectively in this area of ​​the market. Therefore, objectively, this task is assumed by the state - the state apparatus.

Public goods have the following specific features:

According to the criterion of the scale of distribution within the national economy, the following types of benefits are distinguished:

Depending on the degree of accessibility, the following types of public goods are distinguished:

Since the number of people consuming public goods is large, and charging for its provision is difficult, in this case the only effective producer of goods can be the state. The state can participate in the production of public goods in various ways:

In the national economy, these two forms of state participation in the production of public goods exist simultaneously. The criterion for choosing a specific form is economic feasibility - minimizing the costs of producing a certain good while maximizing the result.

In order to effectively provide the population with public goods, the state must have certain financial resources that are necessary for their production, which are formed as a result of taxes. Taxes are a kind of payment for the use of goods, carried out by the entire population.

2. The specifics of the consumption of public goods

The main feature of public goods is the boundary within which they are consumed. The specificity of production, distribution and consumption of goods depends on this.

Based on the territorial boundaries within which the consumption of goods is carried out, the following public goods are distinguished:

1) international public goods. These are the benefits to which it has access and which are consumed by the entire population, regardless of the territorial boundaries of the state. Such benefits include, for example, scientific and technical research and development, activities aimed at improving the environmental situation, the international monetary system. The production and distribution of public goods at the international level is quite difficult, since this requires a significant concentration of resources not only of one state, but of the entire world economy. Only in this case can any tangible efficiency and effectiveness be achieved. Various intergovernmental associations, commissions, etc. are used as effective instruments for the production of public goods at the international level. A big step in this direction was made with the creation of the EEC. As a result, a large number of benefits have been transformed from national to pan-European. Naturally, this required a significant change in the characteristic functions, a large number of institutions and mechanisms;

2) national public goods. These are goods that are produced, distributed and consumed within a particular national economy. The scale of their distribution is clearly limited to the territory of a certain state and cannot go beyond them, for example, to the international level. These include, for example, the army, navy, and the activities of federal government bodies. Their specific feature is that they are necessary for the entire national economy, for which it is advisable to produce them at the national level;

3) local public goods. These are goods that are produced, distributed and consumed not at the level of the entire state, but at the local level. The production of these goods is necessary when a certain region has needs that are different from the national needs. Such benefits include, for example, garbage collection, concerts, theaters, city parks.

All three levels of production, distribution and consumption of public goods are of great importance for the normal functioning of the national economy. In the process of its functioning, all of them actively interact with each other.

Due to the minimization of the size or the complete absence of costs associated with an increase in the number of consumers of public goods, in most cases it is not advisable to form a specialized system of payment for them. In this situation, the most optimal financing of their production at the expense of public funds.

They cannot be transferred for exclusive use to a certain person, since they have the property of indivisibility - it is impossible to separate them without a significant loss of their properties. For the most part, the principle of exclusion cannot be extended to them, there is no effective method for eliminating a group of individuals from using the prevailing number of public goods. The effect of them is already in their production, and not in the sale to the final consumer.

By taking over the production of public goods, the state thereby solves the most important problem of their consumption - integrativity. It consists in the fact that the costs necessary to charge for the use of most goods exceed the costs of their production. For example, it is inconceivable that it would make sense to charge for the use of street lighting. At the same time, financial resources are necessary for the production of goods. The state, through the tax system, can effectively charge for the use of goods.

One of the most important features of the consumption of public goods is the difficulty of effective control over the provision of the population with them, as well as the quantitative volumes of its production. Usually, social standards are used for this, which reflect the quality and volume of public goods.

The end consumer of public goods for the most part does not have a practical choice regarding the use or non-use. There is also a widespread practice in which he is forced to consume a good, despite the fact that it does not meet his needs or is of poor quality. For example, if the level of illumination of city streets does not meet the needs of the population, they are still forced to walk along them - to use the provided public good.

One of the most important problems in the consumption of public goods is the unwillingness of the population to pay for them. This is a significant obstacle to improving the quality of public goods, and therefore the real demand for the good is underestimated. This is due to the fact that with a large number of consumers of a public good, the share of an individual in its use is insignificant, and therefore he seeks to evade the costs necessary for the production of goods. With a decrease in the number of people using the good, it is possible to effectively calculate the share of each person's participation in the use of the good and put on him the corresponding burden for its production.

Another feature of the consumption of public goods is the equation. Regardless of the contribution of each particular person to the production of the public good, he receives an equal amount with everyone else.

3. Public choice in the national economy

Public choice theory occupies a significant place in economic theory. It is based on the assumption that the individual in the process of his activity is guided by the need to obtain the maximum result from it. As an independent direction in the study of economic science, it took shape in 1950, but acquired its modern meaning in the works of D. Buchanan "The Limits of Freedom", then it was developed and continued by M. Olson, R. Tollison, D. Muller, W. Neskanen.

The theory of public choice is of great importance for economic theory, as it highlights the patterns of the political mechanism of decision-making at the macroeconomic level - the level of the national economy.

D. Buchanan identifies three foundations for the theory of public choice:

Politics is considered in this theory as a kind of market, similar to other economic ones. In this market, voters and elected officials exchange a specific kind of commodity - votes, campaign promises, which are necessary to gain access to economic and political power. In the process of this exchange, the activities of elected persons do not always seem to be optimal.

Public choice theory, in fact, is aimed at exploring the possibilities of using economic theory to analyze political processes. This combines the subject of economic science and political science in terms of studying the state, election mechanisms, and bureaucracy. The specificity lies in the fact that the methodology of economic science is used to study purely political processes.

Public choice theory proposes the following roles for the individual:

This theory proceeds from the fact that the state as an active participant in economic life is not effective. Problematic points of its functioning, called the failures of the state, are constantly observed.

The characteristic failures of the state are:

Since the state (namely the state apparatus) is equated in its functional characteristics with a specific type of economic market, then in the process of production, distribution and consumption of public goods, it should act similarly to other economic entities - to satisfy the needs of the population in public goods as fully as possible.

The decision-making process of the state as an economic entity is based on:

In public choice theory, there are two opposing approaches to the definition of the state:

The central place in the theory of public choice is occupied by the problem of public goods. Their distinctive feature is that the use of public goods by one individual does not exclude a similar possibility for another. In this case, a problem arises - the unwillingness of some members of society to pay for the production of goods. In a situation where it is possible to limit the consumption of a good by a certain group of people, it is possible to charge as much as possible for this. With a significant increase in users of goods, these opportunities decrease proportionally. Therefore, an agreement between the population on the production, consumption and distribution of public goods is possible only in a relatively small community. If only the consciousness of the population to pay for the use of goods is used, this will inevitably lead to the problem of underproduction or, in some cases, the complete absence of the production of public goods due to the lack of necessary financial resources for this. Due to the presence of this feature, a democratic form of the state is possible only with a small population; with an increase in the population, it is naturally necessary to strengthen the sanctioning and regulatory functions of the state.

There are also certain restrictions on the operation of the theory of public choice. They lie in the fact that negotiations are a natural and effective way to resolve contradictions between economic entities, as a result of which consensus can be reached. When the number of economic entities is large, they cannot effectively balance their interests; this requires the use of external force, the role of which is performed by the state.

One of the reasons for the creation of the state, supporters of the theory of public choice call the need for efficient distribution and redistribution of public goods. This was not always driven by performance criteria, but most often by the interests of specific individuals or groups - the lobby.

Central to this theory is the decision-making process, which should reflect the interests of the majority of the population. But the decision of the majority is not always optimal. In this regard, there is an adaptation effect, when a minority goes to make a decision, albeit not optimal, but supported by the majority. In some situations, achieving unanimity requires too many resources and time to be used, which is inefficient. In order to avoid this effect, it is advisable to reduce the circle of persons who have access to power, who have the right to make decisions.

The theory of social choice proceeds from the possibility of identifying individual needs and integrating them.

Based on the theory of public choice, the production, distribution and consumption of public goods should be based on:

The process of public choice is one of the main ones in the national economy, which largely determines the nature of its functioning. It should fully take into account the individual preferences of the population, excluding the dictates of the minority - a non-optimal choice for the majority of the population.

4. Conditions for the effective provision of public goods in the national economy

Absolute efficiency is the main characteristic of economic activity and the national economy as a whole. This is a state to which it inevitably strives, but the achievement of which in practice is impossible. Providing benefits to each person, in fact, is one of the main goals of the functioning of the national economy. The same state, when the effectiveness of the provision of benefits will be most effective, can only be in conditions of an efficient national economy. Therefore, effective provision of the benefits of the population is possible only with the effective functioning of the national economy.

Economic efficiency is to achieve a state in which, with a minimum amount of costs, the maximum result is obtained - the effect. The increase in the efficiency of economic activity is connected with the fact that investments in production have the maximum return, and the costs of producing a unit of output are minimized.

The definition of efficiency in relation to a particular business entity cannot be equated to a similar one within the framework of the national economy. Profit maximization while minimizing costs allows us to talk about the effectiveness of a separate unit of economic activity - production.

The efficiency of the functioning of the national economy differs from a similar indicator at the level of business entities and determines the result of social production and reproduction. Such a state of the national economy can be recognized as effective, in which the needs of the population are met as fully as possible in terms of quality and quantity. This is limited by the currently existing production technologies and available resources.

In economic theory, to determine the state of the national economy, which can be recognized as effective, the evaluation methodology developed by V. Pareto is used. It lies in the fact that the ideal situation is a situation in which it is impossible to increase the quantity and quality of satisfaction of the needs of one member of society for the good without worsening the same indicator for another. The model of an ideal economy, where the consumption of the good by the population is in a balanced state and its change will only worsen the situation, cannot be achieved in practice. But approaching it allows us to assess the degree of satisfaction with the benefits of the population within the framework of a particular national economy.

Efficiency is a relative category that cannot be reduced to the results of the economic activity of a particular industry or enterprise. It does not reflect very well with what resources and to what extent the result was achieved. For this, the effect is used - an indicator that characterizes the result of economic activity simultaneously with the resources used to achieve it.

The modern development of the domestic economy sets new goals to increase its efficiency, consisting in the need to organically combine the maximum efficiency of production activities with social, cultural and humanistic goals for the development of the national economy. To achieve these indicators, it is not enough to rely solely on market mechanisms - it is necessary to actively use the entire arsenal of state regulation of the national economy, namely tax, financial, credit, monetary, fiscal instruments. Today, many states widely use tax methods for managing the distribution of benefits, which do not require significant financial costs from the state, but bring significant results. For example, reducing the tax rate on the production of a certain good stimulates its production and at the same time reduces its price. As a result, the population is provided with them in a more accessible form. Financial resources withdrawn from the economy with the help of tax instruments make it possible to artificially redistribute benefits among members of society in accordance with the need to achieve a general socio-economic balance.

The state has sufficient economic power to influence the efficiency of the provision of goods, motivating the necessary volumes of their production and distribution structure.

An invariable condition for the effectiveness of the provision of goods is the effectiveness of production, which is influenced by a wide range of both purely economic and non-economic factors. The efficiency of reproduction of a public good (product) includes the efficiency of its distribution, circulation, consumption and production, as well as individual production phases and stages, their technological characteristics. It is customary to define it at various levels, for example, the federation - in general, the national economy, the subject of the federation, the region. As a result of their addition, you can derive the overall degree of efficiency.

The effectiveness of international economic relations is also of great importance in modern conditions. They determine how well the population is provided with goods, the degree of satisfaction with them. This category, in fact, changes efficiency in the direction of its internationalization, since the current stage of development of the world economy is associated with increased interdependence of national economies. This is happening not only in a purely economic direction, but also in environmental, political, technological, scientific. At present, the world community has decided to end the arms race that has been going on until that time, as a result of which the tendencies towards strict isolation of national economies are increasingly losing their significance. As a result, a course has been taken to strengthen and complicate international economic relations, and, consequently, to increase the efficiency of providing benefits. At the forefront are such parameters as the quality of life of the population, the balance of interests of national economies, the development of international military and environmental security.

An indispensable condition for the effective provision of benefits is the transition to an open system of functioning of the national economy and the formation of a single world economy. This direction has received great development today under the influence of globalization and integration. According to experts, by 2010 more than half of the goods produced will be the subject of international trade and economic turnover.

Another condition for effective provision of benefits is the consolidation of efforts at the international level to minimize the impact of production and economic activity on the environment. It must be understood that the deterioration of the environmental situation will have a negative impact not only on the degree of satisfaction of the population with benefits, but also on the general standard of living. Pollution of the soil, air, depletion of resources - all this is an incomplete list of the consequences of an increase in the living standards of the population. Understanding of this problem today is clearly marked not only at the level of national economies, but also at the international level. A large amount of financial resources is directed to the development and application of waste disposal technologies, restoration of the overall environmental situation. Since a person inherently cannot live in isolation, the violation of the ecological balance, its natural capacity are a significant obstacle to increasing the efficiency of providing the population with benefits.

The most important condition for increasing the efficiency of the provision of goods is the increase in the efficiency of production, which is inevitably associated with economic growth and development and occurs in parallel with it. The main trend here is the transition from the dominance of the material to the predominance of the production of services. This is the main feature of the newly emerging post-industrial society. Changes occur not only in the direction of scale, but to a greater extent of structure. It must be understood that post-industrial society is associated with a qualitatively different order and structure of the provision of goods.

At the present stage, the effectiveness of providing benefits in the national economy is usually assessed by such indicators as:

Inevitably, the degree of efficiency in the provision of public goods is linked to the existing ownership structure in the national economy. If it is concentrated in the hands of a small number of the population, then the existing system cannot be considered effective. Here the state must maintain a balance in which the population is endowed equally with the right to use and own property.

The effectiveness of the provision of benefits in the national economy is a complex problem that depends on many factors. Naturally, many economic mechanisms constantly increase the degree of efficiency of provision, but they cannot be fully relied upon, since a large number of distortions and disproportions can occur. The state at the level of the national economy must implement an effective policy for regulating this process, aimed at the interests of the population.

LECTURE No. 5. Indicators of the development of the national economy and social and labor relations

1. The concept of economic growth and development of the national economy

The leading economic indicator is economic growth, as it reflects the ability of the national economy to meet the needs of the population for goods, the possibility of improving the standard of living.

The problem of economic growth was identified at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. J. B. Seem, and further developed into an independent scientific direction by E. Domar, R. Harrod.

In modern science, there are the following main theories of economic growth and development:

All these three directions proceed from the definition of economic growth as a complex phenomenon, the analysis and study of which requires the development of unique analytical tools.

The problem of economic growth was posed in domestic economic science after the emergence of depressive phenomena in the early 1980s, and for its initial interpretation only the mathematical apparatus was used, and the emphasis was on the statistical statement of the volumes and dynamics of the main economic indicators.

The following is generally accepted definition of economic growth. This is a real increase in the volume and scale of material and non-material benefits created over a clearly defined period of time, a qualitative strengthening of the economic potential of the national economy and its position in the world economy.

Economic growth is inherently associated with a quantitative increase in the volume of goods produced within the national economy. It is clear that this is possible only under the condition of qualitative transformations of forms and production technologies. This can occur under the influence of not only economic factors, but also non-economic ones - culture, education, politics, demographic situation.

Economic growth is a concept that is quite close to the concept of economic development and is often identified with it, but not identical to it. Economic development is the positive dynamics of the national economy. The opposite of him economic downturn - the negative state of the economy associated with its decline, degradation. Economic development is not a linear process - a constant development. Within the framework of the national economy, it occurs in waves and most often cyclically, which is due to the fact that at some intervals the economy can have negative dynamics, and at others - positive.

Economic growth is assessed using a quantitative and qualitative group of indicators and criteria. Quantitative indicators of economic growth assess the degree of change in the volume of social or national product over a certain time period. The qualitative group, however, involves an analysis of the ability of the national economy to meet the needs of the population in material and non-material benefits. Usually these two groups of indicators are used together, which makes it possible to assess the real state of the national economy and the dynamics of its growth.

The main goal of economic growth is to meet the needs of the population at a higher level than the previous ones. The realization of this goal is inevitably connected with balancing two factors - the unlimited needs of the population and the limited resources necessary to satisfy them.

Growth and development are objective trends of the national economy - all economic entities strive for their own growth and development. But this cannot be realized as fully as possible, since the main economic resources are limited in their volumes. When growth cannot be carried out further, a state of economic decline and stagnation inevitably sets in.

Economic growth is the central goal not only of the economic system, but of the whole society. It is aimed at a qualitative and quantitative improvement in the standard of living of the population, which cannot be achieved, including without a high degree of security of the national economy.

Economic security includes a set of factors and conditions that ensure the real independence of the economy from external factors that cannot be controlled by the state. As a result, its sustainability and stability are formed with the development of high parameters of economic growth.

The main indicator of economic growth is its balance and sustainability. This is the ability of the national economy to move to a qualitatively new level of its functioning with minimal losses in the standard of living of the population, production volumes. To characterize this indicator, the concept of the efficiency of economic growth is often used, which is associated with the possibility of increasing production volumes while reducing their resource consumption.

To characterize economic growth, such a new concept as the quality of economic growth is also used. This is an interdependent increase in the rate of economic growth and the degree of social orientation of the national economy. This indicator allows you to evaluate what has been achieved economic growth. The quality of economic growth puts the primary goal of increasing the quality of life of the population, and not economic growth as such. As China's practice shows, high rates of economic growth can exist simultaneously with a widespread decline in the standard of living of the population. Therefore, economic growth should be assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Economic growth is linked to economic indicators such as aggregate economic demand and supply. These indicators are quite often not in balance with each other - either demand exceeds supply, or vice versa.

The ideal state is one in which supply and demand are equal. This proportionality along with economic growth is called equilibrium economic growth. It is clear that it is practically impossible to achieve such a state, but approaching it is one of the main directions of economic growth.

Economic growth and development are two categories associated with both economic and non-economic factors. The study of these indicators has an objective necessity, since on their basis it is possible to assess the real state of the national economy, develop an objective and effective national economic policy, and make the regulatory and coordinating economic functions of the state more effective.

2. Factors affecting the development of the national economy

Economic growth is a difficult indicator in its assessment, which is widely used to compare the level of economic development of national economies with each other, as well as individual sectors of national economies. All these objective indicators are necessary for the development of an effective state economic policy.

For the first time the issue of assessing economic growth in the early twentieth century. took up S. Kuznets, defining it as the real ability of the national economy to meet the growing needs of the population through the complication and development of new production technologies and in the overall essential structure of the national economy. He highlighted the following characteristics of economic growth:

Economic growth is caused by the mutual influence of certain causes - factors of economic growth.

Factors of economic growth - these are processes and phenomena that have an objective and subjective impact on the ability of a real increase in the volume and scale of production of goods.

Allocate subjective and objective factors of economic growth. Those factors that have a direct and decisive influence on the rate of economic growth are considered objective. Subjective factors are those that have an indirect and indirect impact on the rate and scale of economic growth.

The objective factors of economic growth are:

The subjective factors of economic growth are:

These factors have a different impact on economic growth, depending on the degree of their significance. An increase in their volume and activity stimulates economic growth, and vice versa, a decrease reduces its pace or, in some cases, can completely stop it. Having determined the degree of influence and significance of factors, it is possible to develop an effective state economic policy that will allow directing economic growth in the interests of the national economy.

In modern economic science, the classification of factors of production depending on the state of the good in the economy has become widespread. In accordance with it, the factors of supply, demand and distribution of the good are distinguished.

The development of society and the economy has an impact on a set of factors that affect economic growth. The degree of influence of some, such as the geographical location of production, is decreasing, while others, on the contrary, are increasing, such as the quality of labor resources.

At the present stage of economic development, a large The following factors influence economic growth:

1) natural resources that directly affect economic growth. Their importance is steadily increasing, as their reserves are limited and depleted. The problem of limited natural resources is the main factor that can finally stop the progressive growth of the world economy. The only way out to maintain the same growth rates is the development of new technologies that make it possible to involve new, previously unused resources in the production process, or to make a deeper and more efficient use of existing ones;

2) an increase in the population, the volume of labor resources. On the one hand, this has a positive effect on economic growth, and on the other, it has a negative effect. With an increase in the population, the volume of resources that are necessary to ensure its normal functioning, which are limited, increases commensurately. As a result, the national economy faces a number of social problems, which include unemployment, hunger, and epidemics. On the other hand, an increase in population is a positive factor, since it reduces the cost of labor and allows expanding the scale of production;

3) increasing the degree of concentration of capital within the national economy, which allows expanding the scale and volume of production, investing in new scientific and technical developments, human resources;

4) the scientific and technological revolution, which is a fundamental factor in economic growth, as it is associated with the exit of the economy to a qualitatively different stage of its development.

Within the framework of the national economy, the influence of economic growth factors is intricately interconnected. The main task of the state is to make the most of the existing economic factors, redirect them in the right direction in order to orient economic growth towards the realization of the interests of the entire population.

3. Key indicators for assessing economic growth and development of the national economy: GDP, GNP

The problems of economic growth are central to the national economy. The quality of life of the population ultimately depends on it. Therefore, its regulation is one of the most important areas of state economic policy. To develop it in an up-to-date and effective form, it should be based on objective indicators of the state of the economy, its dynamics, and also take into account the effect of the measures taken.

For these purposes, until 1980, the USSR used data on the total social product and national income. They were necessary to determine the consolidated indicator of the balance of the national economy (BNH). For its calculation, the labor theory of value was used, and the branches of material production were considered as the sphere in which the national income is produced.

Since this indicator allowed double counting, it does not allow assessing the real state of the national economy. In this regard, in the second half of the twentieth century. economically developed countries, except for the USSR, refused to use it to assess the state and level of development of the national economy.

As an equivalent substitute for the "total social product" (GSP) indicator, another indicator has been developed - "gross national product" (GNP). Its use in practice dates back to 1953, when it became the basis of the System of National Accounts (SNA), which made it possible to make an up-to-date and objective comparison of the level of development of various national economies. Today, this system for assessing the state of the national economy is used by more than 100 countries of the world, it is widely used by the UN as the main macroeconomic indicator.

GNP reflects the total value of the volume of goods produced in the national economy over a certain time period, usually a year.

The GNP indicator reflects such features as:

The GNP indicator excludes value added - the costs necessary to create a certain good, for example, transportation costs, remuneration of employees, depreciation. It includes only the value of only the final, created and realized good.

GNP does not include the following value indicators:

Generally, GNP is calculated in two main ways:

The simultaneous use of these two calculation methods makes it possible to increase the objectivity of the GNP indicator and eliminate the possibility of its distortion.

The methodology for calculating GNP as a result of adding expenses is based on the division of expenses into certain groups - usually there are four of them:

When using the methodology for calculating GNP by income, the total value added is summarized in financial terms. For this, the total income of economic entities, interest, wages, depreciation, and indirect taxes are added.

The methodology for calculating GNP by income includes the addition of the following elements, in financial terms:

As a result of adding all the listed elements, the identity of the system of national accounts is obtained.

In order to reflect GNP as objectively as possible, it is made as independent of price changes as possible. A certain base year is chosen, and all other calculations are made in relation to prices from that year. As a result, the real GNP - the total value of all goods produced in the national economy in prices correlated with the base year.

Together with GNP, the following indicators are used to determine the state of the national economy:

Since 1990, as the main indicator of the functioning of the national economy in Russia, such an indicator as the gross domestic product (GDP) has been used. It is determined annually by the State Statistics Committee of the Russian Federation.

GDP is the total value of all goods produced in the national economy, regardless of the nationality of the owner of the economic entity. This indicator is complementary to GNP and characterizes the performance of economic activity throughout the national economy. It does not take into account the nationality of an economic entity, and the GNP excludes from the calculation the income received by the country's citizens during economic activities in another country.

With an objective calculation, the indicator of GDP and GNP cannot differ by more than 1%, otherwise, errors were made in their calculations, or some indicators are deliberately distorted.

GDP and GNP are used to determine the state of the national economy. With their help, it is possible to determine the economic potential of the country, as well as the pace and main indicators of growth and development of the national economy.

4. Labor market in the national economy

The functioning of the labor market is based on the fact that the population, in order to lead a normal life, is forced to sell their labor for remuneration, which is presented in the form of wages. Here the specific product is labor - a certain set of intellectual, spiritual, physical abilities of a person, which, in general, represent an individual labor potential. On the other hand, another part of the population agrees to pay for the work of hired workers. In the labor market, they are employers.

The labor market is the interaction of demand (employers) and supply (employees). As a result, they enter into economic relations with each other. The labor market also implies the existence and functioning of certain mechanisms and structures, which together constitute the essence of the labor market.

The main indicator of the labor market is wages, which is determined, among other things, on the basis of the total cost of goods necessary to ensure the normal functioning of a person. This point is the starting point below which no wages can be set. The final level of wages is determined under the influence of many factors, the main of which include supply and demand in the labor market.

The main factors that influence the wage rate are relate:

Changes in the level and size of wages are in direct interaction with changes in supply and demand in the labor market. Another important factor that has a decisive impact on the functioning of the labor market is demand - the employer's need for employees with certain qualifications and professional characteristics.

Demand in the labor market is formed under the influence of the following factors:

The supply on the labor market is formed under the influence of the following main factors:

The peculiarity of the national market lies in the fact that a state of full employment of the population cannot be achieved in it. This is due to the fact that the development of the national economy requires the presence of untapped or not yet developed resources, which include labor resources. The presence of free labor resources not involved in the economy allows it to develop. With total employment, development either stops completely or proceeds at a slow pace.

Natural unemployment in the national economy exists in the form of:

Along with the natural rate of unemployment, there is hidden and long-term unemployment, which has a negative impact on the overall functioning of the national economy.

In relation to the labor market, the following categories of the population are distinguished:

To determine the state of the labor market, statistical research methods are used that allow for its effective forecasting. Of great importance for the national economy is the number of unemployment, as it has a direct impact on the functioning of not only the labor market, but the entire national economy. A person is classified as unemployed if he is ready to perform professional activities, but is not currently engaged in this.

The main body in Russia responsible for determining the state of the labor market and developing state policy in this direction is the Federal Labor Exchange. Together with an assessment of his condition, she is pursuing an active policy of retraining, retraining, promoting employment and improving the skills of the population.

The features of the functioning of the labor market are influenced by:

Thus, the labor market is a fundamental element of the national economy. The functioning of the national economy depends on its dynamics and condition. In the course of its functioning, it is influenced by many factors.

5. Features of employment and unemployment in the transition economy

The labor market is interdependently transformed in a transitional economy. It is characterized by the aggravation of the problems of employment and unemployment of the population and the emergence of new trends due to the essential transformation of the national economy. The atypical compared to the previous state of the labor market is complicated by the impossibility of its forecasting and regulation.

Employment and unemployment rates are of great importance for the functioning of the national economy. This is due to the fact that the development of the economy requires the fullest possible use of available resources, including labor. If all available labor resources are not used, then the national economy cannot achieve the highest rates of economic growth. Therefore, indicators of employment and unemployment can serve as one of the main characteristics of the pace of development of the national economy.

Employment - this is a person's activity, in the process of which he enters into certain socio-economic relations, which allows him to receive a certain income directed to the realization of his needs.

The increase in employment of the population is the main direction of the state economic policy, as it allows to increase the volume of the produced social product, which, in turn, has a positive impact on the quality of life.

In the transitional type of economy, the following forms of employment of the population are distinguished:

The opposite of employment is unemployment. This is the most characteristic phenomenon for a transitional economy, which fully applies to Russia. In fact, unemployment has an ambiguous impact on the Russian economy.

The positive impact of unemployment lies in the fact that it is a side effect of the transformation of the national economy. In its absence, social reproduction would be hampered, for which additional resources are needed. It also increases the degree of efficiency in the use of labor resources employed in the economy.

The negative impact of unemployment on the transition economy is as follows:

Of great importance is not only the economic, but also the social impact of unemployment. This includes the fact that it can become a catalyst for social upheaval.

The peculiarity of the structure of unemployment in Russia is due to the fact that its volume differs significantly from production volumes. A 40% decline in output led to a 10% increase in unemployment.

To analyze the state of the labor market in a transitional economy, official statistics are used - data from the State Statistics Committee. It should be borne in mind that these data are not always objective. Therefore, the reported volume of unemployment is several times less than the real one.

The transformation of the national economy had a great impact on the functioning of the labor market. The transition from a planned to a market economy, the deterioration of the socio-economic situation had a negative impact on the state of labor resources. This includes a large volume of emigration of highly qualified specialists. This seriously affected the overall decline in the quality of labor resources, but on the other hand, reduced unemployment.

The transition to market mechanisms for regulating the labor market has also brought a major positive development - the importance of a person in labor relations has changed. He began to take a more active position, transformed into a full-fledged subject of economic activity, which has a great influence on the functioning of the national economy.

The approach to employment of the population has also undergone a change in the direction of increasing its efficiency - the formation of such a functional state of the labor market in which it becomes a source of active development of the national economy.

A feature of the structure of employment in Russia is that the state is increasingly removed from the regulation of the labor market. The existing system of employment services cannot provide effective employment. In this situation, the population can only rely on independent employment, without the help of the state. Illegal labor activity has become widespread, either in the form of organizing unregistered enterprises, or employment on a temporary basis, without an employment contract.

The population resorts to unstable forms of labor activity, the main thing is to earn income. At the same time, it is in the transitional economy that people have an increasing need for a permanent and sustainable work activity, which allows them to receive a stable income.

A distinctive feature is that they are ready to go to a fairly low level of income - the main thing is its sustainable nature.

The main task of Russia's transitional economy is to create a really working national economy. In this connection, the importance of the labor market is increasing - it should become a source of transformation and sustainable functioning. To achieve this state, the active position of the state in relation to the regulation of the labor market, namely, employment of the population, is of great importance.

To regulate employment, the state can apply the following mechanisms:

Excessive unemployment has a negative impact on the state of the national economy and directly on the standard of living of the population. In this connection, in this area it is necessary to form an active state policy aimed at creating a developing and sustainable labor market. To do this, a wide range of both economic and legislative levers should be involved.

LECTURE No. 6. Regional processes in the national economy

1. Economy of the region

In the structure of the national economy of Russia, due to its federal state structure, there is a specific structural unit - the region; it is an economic system limited by the boundaries of the subject of the Russian Federation with interconnected economic processes occurring in it.

The study of the economy of the region is devoted to science and academic discipline - regional economy. It is engaged in the study of emerging patterns in the process of functioning of economies at the regional level, reflects national, historical, demographic, religious, natural resource, and environmental features.

Initially, the term "region" denoted a territory separated by certain characteristic features. For example, Siberian, Southern region. Today, the region is understood as the subjects of the Russian Federation that are part of the Russian Federation - relatively separate administrative units and their corresponding socio-economic economic systems. In this case, the regional economy is a part of the national economy, repeating it in terms of its main functional characteristics. The allocation of smaller units within the national economy - the economy of regions - allows you to develop and implement a more effective economic policy, since each region has its own specific features. Accordingly, the subject of the regional economy includes the regional specifics of the functioning of the national economy, including the investment process, human resources, quality of life, and economic activity.

In order to develop national economic policy, there are the following types of regionalization:

1) macro-regionalization, proceeding from the division of the national economy into certain zones for the purpose of long-term planning of the structure of the distribution of productive potential. In accordance with this, the eastern and western economic zones are distinguished. The western zone is characterized by the dominance of production in the engineering industry and science-intensive sectors of the economy. The Eastern zone is focused on the resource and energy industries. The main criterion for this kind of division is the commonality of the prevailing specialization of economic activity, natural and resource potential. Each of them is an enlarged economic region, an integral economic system. One of the links of macro-regionalization is the enlarged economic regions - Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasus, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far East, Northern, North-West, Central. To improve the efficiency of their functioning, regional associations were created on their basis - "Ural", "Siberian Agreement", "Far Eastern Association", "North-West", "Central Russia", "Black Earth", "Big Volga";

2) mesoregionalization, based on the division of regions in accordance with the existing administrative structure - the subjects that are part of the Federation. They are functionally independent economic systems. There is more shallow mesoregionalization - allocation of economic systems of subdistricts, which have a common specialization and close economic ties.

3) microregionalization, proceeding from the allocation of the level of local self-government and the corresponding rural, urban administrative regions, the total number of which is 4 thousand people. They represent the primary level of the national economy as an integral system.

The reproduction system of the region consists of the following processes:

The main feature of the regional economy is its economic integrity - the potential ability of the regional economy to function independently of the national economy.

A qualitatively new stage in the functioning of the regional economy is associated with the approval by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of May 13.05.2000, XNUMX of seven federal districts and their respective plenipotentiaries of the President of the Russian Federation in the federal district.

The statutory tasks of the institute of the plenipotentiary representative of the President of the Russian Federation in the federal districts are:

The system of federal districts is the main form of strengthening the vertical of state power in Russia.

The basis of the region's economy is its production complex - an economic system aimed at ensuring the functional state of the production potential necessary for the independent and sustainable development of the region's economy.

The following indicators testify to the degree of industrial complexity of the region's economy:

Each region is characterized by a specific sectoral structure - a set of sectors of the economic complex, interconnected. It is the basis of the region's economy, which determines the nature and specifics of its functioning.

The composition of the national economic policy also includes regional economic policy - a part of the economic policy of the state, reflecting its regional aspects. Its main direction is the formation of a system of effective reproduction and use of the economic potential of the region's economy to achieve a state of sustainable development of the national economy.

The priority importance of the formation and implementation of regional economic policy is explained by the fact that the national economy is heterogeneous in its natural, geographical, social, demographic and economic structure, and therefore, when forming a national economic policy, it is necessary to take into account these regional features as fully as possible.

The main objectives of the regional economic policy are:

2. The concept of the development of regions "Strategies for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation"

The main direction of the functioning of the region's economy is its sustainable development - the achievement of a higher functional state compared to the previous one.

The following indicators are used to assess the level of development of the regional economy:

The development of the regional economy directly depends on the functional state of the markets that make up its structure.

There are the following directions for the development of regional markets:

The basis for the sustainable development of the region's economy is the proportional integrity of its production potential - this type of integration of the production complex, which allows the active development of the production potential, balanced crisis-free.

The economic growth of the region is evidenced by the correspondence between the products produced and consumed in the region.

Management of economic development is a direct task of the Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation. This government body adopted the concept of "Strategy for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation", which is the only legal document that officially regulates the issues of economic development of the regions.

The concept of the "Strategy for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation" outlines the main direction of the federal regional policy - creating conditions for and promoting the social and economic development of the regions, namely, improving the quality of life and welfare of the population, bringing economic growth to a position of sustainability and high quality, creating conditions competitive development of regions.

The developers of this concept believe that only the activation of the regional economy and an increase in the efficiency of the use of available resources will allow Russia to get out of the protracted economic crisis and significantly increase its GDP.

The objectives of the federal regional policy in accordance with the concept are:

In order to effectively coordinate the work of state authorities of the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as for the most complete coordination of the social and economic development of the regions, the preparation of the legal framework for regional policy, an interdepartmental commission was created under the Ministry of Regional Development of the Russian Federation.

The tasks of the interdepartmental commission within the framework of the concept of regional development are:

The implementation of the concept "Strategy for the socio-economic development of the regions of the Russian Federation" takes place within the framework of the following stages:

Actions within the framework of the concept are carried out in a complementary and phased manner, and, if necessary, they are adjusted. This makes the concept viable and increases its relevance.

To finance the implementation of the concept, funds from the federal budget, the budgets of the constituent entities of the Federation, funds from municipalities and extrabudgetary sources are attracted.

As a result of the implementation of the concept, it is expected that by 2020 the total amount of funds allocated for the development of regions will reach 1 trillion rubles. in year. The efficiency of spending financial resources will increase significantly, which will create conditions for enhancing the economic growth of the regions. The strategic results of the implementation of the concept are the preservation of the territorial integrity of the Russian Federation, the reduction in the number of crisis regions, the formation of a single economic space that is competitive at the global level.

3. Interregional socio-economic processes

The space of the national economy of Russia includes certain territorial formations - regions, districts, settlements, which differ in the level of socio-economic development, the dominant industry specialization, and specific natural and climatic potential. Despite the significant features of the structural units of the national economy, they are closely interconnected.

In the process of long-term joint functioning of the regions, certain stable socio-economic ties and characteristic processes of interaction were formed between them, for example, the territorial division of labor, specialization in the economic complex of the national economy.

The functional state of the region's economic space consists of socio-economic interaction between different regions. It is characterized by two types of interactions - intraregional and interregional.

The interregional type of interaction includes a set of links between a region and economic units that are not part of it. The degree of its development and scale determine the openness of the region for interaction. The intra-regional type of interactions is associated with the interaction of economic units that are part of one region. It is partly included in the interregional type and to some extent forms its basis. The presence of all these types of interaction determines the region's economy as a socio-economically integral one.

The economy of the region is an open economic system. The increase in the degree of its openness is associated with the activation of the processes of globalization, integration and communication. There is an increase in the dependence of the region's economy on interregional relations. Interregional ties have a great impact on the nature of ongoing economic processes, and their total volume is comparable in some respects to the scale of production and consumption.

As a result of ongoing economic reforms, the following negative trends in interregional economic relations have emerged:

Of great importance in the weakening of interregional ties is the global increase in tariffs for transportation and the overall reduction in production volumes.

In order to determine the quantitative dependence of the region on the dynamics of external relations, a specialized economic and mathematical calculation model is used. This is an optimization statistical sectoral model of the intersectoral balance of the regional economy. It makes it possible to reliably determine the dependence of the dynamics of the level of external relations on the volume of the internal final product. External relations of the region include both inter-regional and international relations.

According to the degree of dependence of regions, the following groups are distinguished:

The current state of the national economy puts the regions in front of the need to choose one of the strategies for their behavior in relation to interregional relations. This kind of choice is due to the existing functional differences between regions.

In relation to interregional socio-economic relations, the region can adopt one of the following strategies:

The implementation of a closed strategy has negative consequences for the region's economy, namely, it will lead to an economic downturn. An open strategy, along with the weakening of ties between regions, is the most optimal for most regions. With its use, there will be a gradual increase in the gross regional product due to the intensification of the export of raw materials to other regions. At the same time, not all regions can make the transition to this strategy, as this is due to the low competitiveness of their products.

The simultaneous practical use of these strategies in the context of weakening interregional economic ties will lead to a violation of the integrity of the single economic space.

The main interregional socio-economic processes are:

1) globalization and integration. As a result of the activation of this process, the unification of the economic systems of the regions, which has received the greatest development within the framework of the EEC, is increasingly intensifying. An example of this is the creation of cooperation associations of some regions with Finland, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Ukraine on the basis of mutual economic interests. The basis of economic integration is the mutual interest of the regions in equal and effective economic ties. A high degree of integration increases the efficiency of the region's economy. Since economic units become the main subjects of interregional integration, the task of the state economic policy is reduced to the formation of conditions for the activation of this process. Effective steps in this direction are associated with the creation of interregional associations of economic interaction, which integrate the economic interests of several regions at a more global level;

2) regional division of labor which finds its manifestation in the consolidation of certain production activities for certain regions. The specificity of the interregional division of social labor is associated with the specific industrial specialization of the regions and is determined by the level of development of social production. In its formation, the geographical factor is also of great importance;

3) regional specialization, primarily related to the capabilities of the regional economic system to produce a certain type of goods more efficiently. Of great importance in this is the possibility of a significant reduction in the cost of production due to the region's natural, resource and economic potential. The specialization of the region is associated with the predominant concentration on its territory of certain types of industries, the products of which can satisfy not only the needs of domestic markets, but also send it for export;

4) formation of integrated economic units, the main forms of which are financial and industrial groups, the development process of which is quite dynamic. They are a more efficient form of reproduction and circulation of financial, industrial and commercial capital, its accumulation, concentration and investment in priority sectors of the Russian economy. Their role is also significant in increasing the competitiveness of the regional economy, not only within the national economy, but also at the international level;

5) allocation of free economic zones in order to create favorable conditions for foreign investment, increase and diversify exports. The need to create them is associated with the presence of competitive advantages in some regions in the international market.

The nature of the flow and the composition of interregional socio-economic processes are diverse, but they form the basis of the national economy.

4. Budget support for regional and municipal development

Due to the objective imperfection of the market model of the functioning of the national economy, there is a completely justified need for state intervention in it. The place occupied by the state in the national economy is different - from the stabilization of economic cycles, the purchase of public goods, the prevention of excessive monopolization of markets, the creation of conditions for the presentation of the most complete and objective information to all economic entities, to the creation of a system of a socially oriented model of the national economy with an artificial distribution of income. Points of influence can be, for example, production, accumulation, consumption and reproduction of goods.

State regulation of the national economy is carried out using the following groups of methods:

To apply a group of administrative methods, there is no need to attract significant financial resources, while economic ones, on the contrary, are associated with the use of significant amounts of funds, but are more efficient and relevant.

The most common type of economic methods of state regulation is budgetary, including tax tools. The effectiveness of these methods for ensuring and stimulating regional and municipal development was proved by P. Samuelson and W. Nordhaus, who considered it important to use them as the most effective levers for regulating the national economy.

Regulation of the regional economy using the budget process occurs in the following main directions:

Each region has its own budget, the purpose of which is to implement the function of public administration at the regional level. The main direction of using the regional budget is to ensure sustainable growth of the region's economy.

Regional budget - this is an integral system of attracting and spending financial resources aimed at financially supporting the main functions of the state at the regional level. The budget process at the regional level is regulated by Ch. 8 and 9 of the Budget Code of the Russian Federation. Regional budget expenditures are divided into two main types - expenditures of a current operational nature and expenditures for capital needs of the development budget.

Relations of the regional budget exist in the following forms:

The specifics of the functioning of the budgetary system of the region is directly determined by the nature of the existing public administration system. The federal budget system is a set of relations between the budgets of all regions of the country, based on economic relations and having the appropriate legal and regulatory framework.

The expenditure side of the region's budget is an effective tool for mobilizing the free resources of the region, stimulating and expanding reproduction, and forming the social sphere.

In this capacity, it is the main source of stimulating the development of the social sphere, maintaining and developing the economic and social infrastructure.

The volume of the regional budget is directly dependent on the efficiency and effectiveness of economic activity, which makes up the bulk of its revenue: the larger the volume of production, the greater the amount of tax revenues to the budget. Own revenues of the regional budget are not the only source for its formation. For this, extrabudgetary funds are also attracted - the financial resources of the budgets of other levels, for example, the federal one. As a result, the financial balance of the region is developed, which includes a set of sources for the formation of the regional budget.

One of the main problems of the regional budget process is its balance - the state of equality between both revenues and expenditures of the regional budget. In the case when expenditures exceed revenues, a budget deficit arises; if it exists, priority is given to current budget expenditures. To maintain the state of stability of the regional budget, a marginal deficit rate is established - a mechanism for a commensurate reduction in budget expenditures with a decrease in its revenues.

Based on the theory of Keynesianism, a moderate deficit of the regional budget has a positive effect on the growth of the region's economy, since an increase in government spending stimulates it. At the same time, the planned accumulation of the budget deficit can also slow down economic growth due to the creation of regional budget debt, which is formed from the total volume of regional budget deficits. Accordingly, it becomes necessary to manage it, for example, by issuing loans, and paying interest on previously issued ones.

Within the framework of the regional economy, a commensurate increase in the volume of state and regional investments stimulates an increase in demand and the corresponding growth of industry, and creates a favorable economic environment. Budget financing of the development of social and economic infrastructure favorably affects the growth of production potential, real production volumes, and capital turnover.

Public procurement is becoming an effective way to reduce unemployment in the region and boost the region's economic growth. At the same time, the volumes of regional budget expenditures and taxes turn out to be the leading factor in the formation of production volumes and the level of employment.

The beginning of the use of the state budget to stimulate economic growth is associated with the economic crisis of 1929-1933, when it became obvious that the market in some situations is not capable of self-regulation. At this time, the state budget became an effective tool to stop the decline in production and further increase bankruptcies and unemployment. At that time, it was not about stimulating economic growth, but the focus was on urgent tasks - the withdrawal of the national economy from the crisis, with the help of the budget.

The development of the theoretical foundations of budgetary regulation of economic growth was carried out by such economists as D. Keynes, A. Hansen, P. Samuelson, W. Heller, D. Peckman, D. Hicks, A. Lerner, R. Musgrave, G. Eckley. They formulated a theoretical position, consisting in the fundamental impossibility to ensure sustainable economic growth with the help of exclusively market mechanisms due to the high degree of uncertainty of the economic system, the uneven distribution of national wealth. The regulation of economic growth with the help of the regional budget occurs in three directions - the rate of interest, consumption, and the rate of profit.

One of the tools of budgetary regulation is the reduction of government spending, and this tool is based on the relationship between inflation rates and government spending. Decreasing budget expenditures helps to reduce the rate of inflation. At the same time, an increase in spending on social needs significantly reduces the rate of economic growth.

Despite the great importance of budgetary provision of regional economic growth, the existing budget system in Russia, in fact, does not meet the needs of the strategy for the development of the national economy in a strategic sense. There is an unjustifiably high degree of concentration of tax and budgetary powers at the federal level - in the center. At the same time, local and regional budgets have an excessive amount of social and economic obligations, the implementation of which is not secured by appropriate financial receipts.

The current system of budgetary federalism, namely, the unjustifiably overestimated dependence of regional budgets on the decisions of the center in terms of establishing a system of standards for splitting federal taxes, has a negative impact on the economic growth rates of the region. Due to the obvious limitations of the existing tax powers of regional and local authorities, a system of informal sources of income is being formed, which negatively affects the overall economic situation in the region.

There is a clear problem of contradiction between the decentralization of budgetary resources. It is exacerbated by the low transparency of regional budgets for control by the population. One of the obstacles to improving the efficiency of the budget process is the uncertainty of the budgetary status of municipalities.

Inefficient organization of regional budgets leads to a decrease in the efficiency of the use of public financial resources, the volume and quality of public services, the transformation of the public sector of the regional economy, the creation of obstacles to the formation of a competitive national economy, a decrease in the investment attractiveness of many regions, an increase in disproportions in the national economy, and an increase in socio-economic tension.

5. Targeted programs for managing the development of regions

One of the main ways to bring the region out of the crisis and increase the rate of economic growth are federal targeted programs (FTP). This is due to the fact that the market economy is not always conducive to the mobilization of financial resources necessary for regional economic growth - this is undertaken by federal targeted programs.

The methodology of program targeted management of the development of regions is widely used in economically developed countries, where it has shown its effectiveness and efficiency. The basis of this method is the formation of goals that correspond to the resources necessary for their implementation within a specific program. A separate program is a set of interrelated activities aimed at the implementation of one or more goals. As a result, maximum efficiency in planning and managing regional economic development is achieved. The basis of this method is the program - a set of activities necessary to achieve a specific goal.

The method of program-target planning has shown its effectiveness in the management of the regional economy. This is due to the fact that this method is an effective tool for the implementation of state social and economic policy. For example, they are actively used by Japan, the USA, the EEC. In Russia, however, the efficiency of implementation and the cumulative effect of the implementation of federal target programs are not high, since flaws are observed everywhere at all stages of program-targeted planning. At the same time, targeted programs are an effective mechanism for creating conditions for the systemic and integrated development of regions and solving urgent problems of the regional economy. They are flexible tools for ensuring an effective and long-term regional economic policy, based on the rational management of regional economic processes.

Federal target programs are developed by the Government of the Russian Federation, and then approved as a federal law by the State Duma of the Russian Federation. There are also a number of problematic aspects in this process, for example, the mechanism for choosing problems to be solved by FTPs is not well developed, and most often there is a formal nature of working out the need to use financial resources. As a result, there is a general inefficiency of the program-target method.

Federal targeted programs are an effective tool for activating the economic growth of regions.

FTPs aimed at increasing the rates of economic growth of the regions are divided into the following main types:

1) aimed at enhancing social and economic development;

2) aimed at creating conditions for the reproduction of basic economic resources.

Each of these types of FTP is aimed at solving a specific set of economic problems and contributes to the transition from solving local problems to the systemic development of Russian regions.

The development, implementation and monitoring of the effectiveness of FTPs are based on the following principles:

The strategic goals of the federal target state policy of regional development are:

The program-target method is widely used today to enhance the economic growth of regions, both in the form of sectoral federal target programs (aimed at only one or a few industries), and complex ones related to all areas of the regional economy. At the same time, at the level of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, there is a widespread misinterpretation of the program-target method of managing the regional economy. They are considered solely as a means of attracting budgetary funds, and not as a tool for enhancing economic growth and mobilizing the region's own economic resources. Often, state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation designate as FTP part of the actions of local authorities, which fundamentally contradicts the program-target method.

Since 2005, a clear course has been taken in Russia for the widespread introduction of the program-target management method, which was also indicated in the President's Address of 2007. The initiators of the transition to this methodology believe that it will allow regional economic policy to move from resource forecasting to effective planning .

The relevance of the implementation of the program-target method is due to the fact that in market conditions, the natural mechanisms of a free economy do not allow directing financial resources to areas with a long financial cycle - making a profit is rather delayed in time. FTPs will help overcome the economic imbalance and use budgetary funds to stimulate the development of priority areas for the entire economy, including those with a long financial cycle.

At the same time, according to the estimates of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia, there are a number of problems in the development of regional targeted programs. These include the fact that government customers quite often change the volume of budget financing and goals after the start of the program, which significantly and negatively affects the final socio-economic effect of them - the relationship between target programs changes, continuity. As a result, resources are used, but the set goals are not achieved, since their relationship has been changed: "resource - goal". At the same time, when developing programs, indicators for evaluating the effectiveness of their implementation, expressed in quantitative and qualitative indicators, turn out to be poorly developed. Violation of the relationship "goal - resource - result" on the part of state customers reduces the effectiveness of the program-target method of managing regional development.

Now the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia has raised the problem of inefficient provision of FTPs. To this end, the need for a detailed study of the budgetary provision of medium-term and long-term programs has been initiated. It is believed that the main direction in the development of program-target management for 2007 should be a detailed study of its legal support, namely the regulation of the budget process - budgeting aimed at results.

It is generally recognized at the level of the Government of the Russian Federation that FTPs are an effective mechanism for managing the development of the region.

The main advantages of the FPC are:

LECTURE No. 7. State regulation of the national economy. National and economic security

1. State in the Russian economy

The national economy is a complex system consisting of a large number of economic entities and diverse economic processes. Along with economically independent, there are also regulatory economic entities. One of the largest and most significant regulatory entities of the national economy is the state, which concentrates a significant part of the national wealth, establishes normatively fixed rules for the behavior of other economic entities, artificially redistributes the gross domestic product through the state budget, forms and maintains a system of social guarantees to the population.

There are the following approaches to determining the role of the state in the national economy:

Historically, the state is the main regulatory entity in the national economy, which is manifested in the creation of conditions for the functioning of other economic entities. Initially, the role of the state was reduced to the definition of fiscal policy, the collection of taxes, but with the complication and increase in the scale of the national economy, the importance of the state increased significantly.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century. with the formation of the USSR, the state took the position of a total regulator of the economy, which significantly affected the mentality of Russian citizens. Since 1990, Russia has taken a course towards reducing the share of state influence on the economy.

At the present stage of Russia's development, there is a kind of return to the previously existing practice of total state regulation, in connection with which the share and importance of private business in the national economy is steadily declining. According to estimates by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, at the beginning of 2000 only half of the national economy was under state control. In 2007, this figure has increased significantly and is more than half. In this context, the proposal of United Russia representatives to develop a system of state planning for the national economy is of great importance.

The increase in the role of the state, which began to grow in 2004, is accompanied by a simultaneous suspension of privatization processes. G. O. Gref and A. L. Kudrin at the official level raised the question of the need to increase the degree of state influence on the economy. The logical continuation was the actual transfer of such oil companies as Sibneft and Gazprom to state control, which is ambiguously assessed by experts. On the one hand, this is a positive phenomenon, since it allows the state to concentrate the extraction and sale of minerals, which, according to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, are a national treasure. On the other hand, world practice shows that the state cannot provide effective management, which is aggravated by the crisis of the state apparatus itself.

Being state-owned by an economic entity or owning a controlling stake is not the only form of state intervention in the economy. In fact, the state controls most of the market and disposes of property at its discretion. Yukos and the Sakhalin-2 project can serve as an example of this, when the state, neglecting legal norms, took them under full control.

The proposal of the President of the Russian Federation on the transition to three-year budget planning is the main prerequisite for the formation of a planned economy. According to many experts, such long-term budget planning is impossible in Russia due to the instability of the economic situation.

The government's policy of complete nationalization of such strategic areas as nuclear energy, the defense industry, and railways is fully justified. But under the existing conditions of total state control of the market, the development of private property in other sectors becomes impossible, since there is no concentration of capital in them.

According to A. N. Illarionov, in 2002 there was a steady growth trend in the total share of the public sector in the gross domestic product, and over the same period, the share of the public sector of the economy increased from 45 to 47,6%.

A. L. Kudrin believes that the state apparatus, out of the total number of violations, occupies in the field of: antimonopoly legislation - 90%, in the insurance services market - 80%, in the banking services market - 76%, in the market of other financial services - 50%. These indicators have a steady upward trend. In 2005, the combined profits of the 10 largest state-owned companies amounted to more than 20% of the gross domestic product.

The importance of the state in the Russian economy is quite large, not only in the direction of creating conditions for the functioning of economic entities and a system of minimum social guarantees, but also in the form of direct state intervention. There is a widespread association of state and business structures, which leads to the monopolization of the market by the state. The apparent return to the existing state economy, which has been taking place since 2002, became more and more aggravated in 2007. At the same time, the increase in the importance of the state in the national economy is accompanied by a decrease in the degree of efficiency of the functioning of the state apparatus. The state, trying to take a position of active regulation, is not capable, for objective reasons, of ensuring rational management of the national economy in the interests of sustainable economic growth and overcoming a protracted economic crisis. This is due to the presence of such problems of the state apparatus as bureaucratization, bribery, corruption, etc.

2. The functions of the state in the national economy

In the course of its activities in market conditions, the state performs certain functions, a specific set of which is specific to each country and depends on specific cultural, economic and social conditions. Over time, they change along with the development of the national economy. Accordingly, intervention in the economy cannot be chaotic, but must be functional - to perform certain functions. They are directly corrected depending on the problems arising in the national economy related to the imperfection of market mechanisms - the inability of the market to self-regulate in certain areas.

The state includes in its field of activity the creation of mechanisms that provide equal conditions for competition, and artificially limits the monopolization of the market. Due to the fact that market mechanisms are not able to meet all the needs of society at the required level, it is directly engaged in the production of the required amount of public goods.

The need for state participation in the national economy is also explained by the fact that it is not capable of a socially equitable distribution of income - national wealth. Along with caring for the socially unprotected part of the population, its direct duties include financing fundamental scientific and technical developments - only the state has sufficient resources for this. Since the labor market functions only on the basis of market mechanisms, there is an urgent need for its state regulation in order to minimize unemployment.

The active participation of the state in the formation of market mechanisms is in direct interaction with the establishment and maintenance of political, legal, social principles of society.

classic features, which implements the state in the national economy, are:

These classical functions of the state are transformed depending on various conditions. So, for a transitional type of economy, they differ significantly from classical functions. The functions of the state in the national economy of Russia, due to the presence of a transitional type of economy, differ significantly from those that are implemented by other economically developed states. One of their main features is that the change in the previously existing mode of functioning of the national economy took place in the direction of the destruction of old institutions, and not the priority creation of new ones. As a result, a situation has developed in which the state has abandoned its former functions, while not taking on new ones that are more in line with the realities of a market economy. In fact, the state has withdrawn from managing the economy.

In a transitional economy, the state implements the following functions:

Stabilization of the national economy leads to the need to review the implemented state functions. A change in the state of the national economy should occur simultaneously with the transformation of the state, otherwise serious problems may arise when the state does not contribute to the development of the national economy, but hinders it.

The experience of developed countries shows that in order to ensure the normal functioning and high rates of development of the national economy, the state takes on an increasing number of functions. This is an urgent need, since only it is able to regulate the functioning of the national economy - with the existing structure and scale.

3. The role and mechanisms of state regulation of the economy

In the process of functioning and development of the national economy, a number of both purely economic and social, political and administrative problems naturally arise that cannot be solved only by market mechanisms, the ability of the free market to self-regulate.

Therefore, there is a reasonable need for state regulation of the economy, for example, in the field of production of public goods that is unprofitable for the market. The need for state regulation of the national economy is also caused by a number of sectoral and general economic crises, mass unemployment, violations in monetary circulation, and the need to regulate inflation. The opportunity to carry out state regulation of the economy arises only when a certain level of economic development is reached, the concentration of production potential.

At the present stage, it is an integral part of the complex process of reproduction of the national economy. Forms, goals, methods and mechanisms of state regulation directly depend on the state of the national economy, its specifics and characteristics.

State regulation of the economy - this is one of the fundamental forms of state participation in the national economy, which includes the impact on the key stages of the process of distribution of income and resources, the rate of economic growth, the standard of living of the population, for which the state institutions use executive, legislative and control methods.

Approaches to state regulation of the national economy were different at each stage of human development.

In the XVI-XVIII centuries. the dominant position was occupied by mercantilism - an approach based on the recognition of the urgent need for state regulation to ensure the development of the national economy. In the XNUMXth century in connection with the development of the economy, economic entities considered it as a significant obstacle in their activities, therefore, a policy was adopted to reduce state intervention in the economy. It was replaced by the Keynesian approach, based on the need to combine government regulation and the principles of the free market.

State regulation of the national economy is a complex process due to the complexity and ambiguity of its object. It consists of interrelated specific goals, objectives, methods and mechanisms, which constitute the institution of state regulation of the economy.

The main mechanisms of state regulation of the economy are:

Direct mechanisms of state regulation are the most common due to their effectiveness. Their main form is the economic activity of the state, represented by the public sector of the economy, which is quite large in economically developed countries. Within its framework, the state can, for example, independently provide loans, take equity participation in companies, and be the direct owner of an economic entity. Thus, it not only makes a profit, but also creates jobs, reducing the unemployment rate. Typically, the state takes control of those industries that require significant investment, such as nuclear energy, air and maritime transport.

Direct mechanisms also include normative-legal methods of state regulation. An example of their use is the adoption of a legal act that establishes the rules for the behavior of economic entities in a certain area of ​​the national economy. This is the most common mechanism, since it does not require the involvement of significant amounts of resources for implementation.

Direct state regulation can also be implemented in the form of direct investment in priority sectors, with the help of subventions, subsidies and subsidies. It is usually aimed at regulating economic activity, which significantly distorts the operation of market mechanisms, which does not always lead to favorable consequences. It also includes the costs of creating and maintaining the functional state of social infrastructure - healthcare, education, science, etc.

Indirect mechanisms of state regulation - these are such methods of state influence on the economy that allow you to achieve your goals without direct state intervention and are based on the basic laws of the functioning of the national economy. Usually they are aimed at maintaining a normal level of employment, stimulating an increase in the export of goods, creating stable pricing in the interests of the population, sustainable economic growth rates, redistributing resources, and stimulating the investment process. The main way to achieve the goals set is fiscal and monetary policy. Fiscal policy is carried out through the state budget by changing its revenue and expenditure parts. The monetary system is built on the regulation and regulation of money circulation.

The tax system is included in the list of the main indirect mechanisms of state regulation of the economy. With its help, the budget is formed - its revenue side. Changes in tax rates make it possible to effectively regulate the pace and scale of economic growth. One of the types of action of the tax mechanism is the accelerated depreciation write-off of fixed capital. It allows you to stimulate the pace and scale of accumulation of volumes of infrastructure changes. Modification of the rate and order of depreciation change changes the rate of capital investment in the development of production. This mechanism is effective for improving the overall economic situation, transforming the infrastructure of the national economy and stimulating the pace of scientific and technological progress.

State regulation of the national economy in Russia has a certain specificity. The ill-conceived state economic policy in the process of privatization, reorganization of the banking system, price liberalization and other actions were aimed at creating a free market, but led not to the expected positive results, but to negative ones. The adopted economic policy contributed to the emergence of a small class of owners (oligarchs) and the transfer of property under the control of criminal structures. According to experts, there was no appropriate economic base for pricing liberalization - market infrastructure, competition. The result of this was a sharp increase in inflation rates and the formation of a pricing system not based on competition, but with the unilateral establishment of sellers. Therefore, the most important function of pricing - the regulation of production - did not work for a long time.

According to experts, the economic policy implemented by Russia recently cannot be recognized as objective and effective. The main financial resources were directed not to economic growth, but to the maintenance of the state apparatus. At present, no unified state policy has been adopted to use large volumes of budget revenue generated by high world prices for resources. The declared goals of state regulation of the economy, formalized in the form of national projects, in practice do not bring significant structural changes to the national economy and the developed system of strategic development directions.

Along with the lack of an effective system of state regulation of the national economy, there is an increase in the degree of differentiation of incomes of the population, more than 22,6 million people in Russia have incomes below the subsistence level. At the beginning of 2007, there was a sharp decline in investment activity, despite the fact that the moral and physical depreciation of fixed assets exceeded 50%.

Despite the directions of state regulation outlined in 2007 (increase in spending on defense, healthcare and education, formation of an investment fund and a development bank, development of the oil and gas industry, restructuring and significant state investments in the automotive industry - AvtoVAZ and aircraft industry), the lack of unity and strategic orientation of the state regulation minimizes the economic effect of the measures taken. Favorable conditions (high prices for resources) are not used to stimulate high rates and sustainable economic growth. Funds received from the sale of resources are not directed to investments in the national economy, but are accumulated in the stabilization fund. Despite the fact that they could be an effective mechanism for activating the growth of the national economy.

In general, the need for state regulation of the national economy of Russia is logically conditioned. Under the influence of the globalization of the world economy, the strengthening of the influence of transnational companies, only this mode can ensure the normal functioning of the economy. At the same time, state regulation does not meet the requirements of efficiency and effectiveness and is not able to fully cope with the functions assigned to it.

4. The concept of national and economic security. The concept of national economic security of Russia

Security need - elimination of undesirable effects leading to cardinal deformations is one of the basic needs of both the individual and the whole society as a whole. In modern conditions, the need for security has become aggravated, since if it is not observed, a number of negative phenomena arise not only for the individual, but also for the whole society - the state.

National security means such a state of the external environment that allows maintaining the normal functioning of the entire state, preserving its sovereignty and territorial integrity.

There are the following approaches to the definition of national security:

Initially, military power was a necessary condition for the survival of man and the state, a way to protect its independence from external influences. Today, it is a direct component of the state - the state regime, without which its normal functioning is impossible.

National security for a long period of time had an exclusively external orientation - the protection of the independence of the state from external interference. The current stage of human development has brought the understanding of national security to a fundamentally different level. Scientific and technological progress has significantly changed the methods and the very essence of military aggression. For example, with the advent of atomic weapons, the conduct of hostilities does not make sense, since as a result of them both the aggressor and the object of aggression will be destroyed. The level of national security increasingly depends not on the specific military power of the country, but on such factors as the level of development of the national economy, the quality of life of the population, the degree of development of social infrastructure, and the size of national wealth. Modern threats to national security have shifted towards terrorism, intercultural conflicts, environmental violations, and the decline of the national economy.

The main component of national security is national economic security, the importance of which in modern conditions is increasingly growing under the influence of globalization and integration of the world economy.

National economic security - this is the mode of functioning of the national economy, which allows you to maintain acceptable living conditions for the population - the quality, standard of living and the provision of economic resources in the amount necessary to ensure sustainable economic growth.

National economic security is based on such basic principles as:

Economic security is based on the independence, stability and growth of the national economy, which is a prerequisite for its normal functioning.

The concept of the national security of the Russian Federation is a normative legal act that establishes the main provisions of national security, including economic. It was approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of December 17, 1997 No. 1300 (as amended by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of January 10, 2000 No. 24).

The concept of national security of the Russian Federation is a system of basic provisions aimed at ensuring the security of the individual, society and the state in the Russian Federation from external and internal threats in all spheres of life. This legal act determines that the national security of the Russian Federation is understood as the security of its multinational people as the bearer of sovereignty and the only source of power in the Russian Federation.

The following tasks are set for national economic security:

The basis of national security is national interests - a set of interrelated and balanced interests of the state, society and the individual.

5. Internal and external threats to national economic security

In the process of creating and maintaining national economic security, key causes arise that can violate it, threats. The main threats are defined in the National Security Concept of the Russian Federation, approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of December 17, 1997 No. 1300 (as amended by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of January 10, 2000 No. 24). In accordance with it, threats are divided into internal and external in relation to the location of the causes of their occurrence - outside the national economy and inside it.

The main internal threats to national economic security are:

Taken together, internal threats to national security are closely intertwined and interrelated. Their elimination is necessary not only to create the proper level of national security, but also to preserve Russian statehood. Along with internal, there are also external threats to national security.

The main external threats to national security are:

Ensuring national security at a sufficient level makes it necessary to constantly monitor external and internal threats, and therefore their list is constantly changing depending on specific political, social, legal and economic conditions.

Adopted in 1997 and amended in 2000, the National Security Concept of the Russian Federation is not a simple declaration. It is an effective legal document that regulates the priority area of ​​the state's activity - national security. Only starting from 2003, it began to be implemented after the necessary potential had been accumulated. The introduction of a system for appointing senior officials of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation minimized the threat to the territorial integrity of Russia. The recent ban on the activities of foundations with foreign capital in Russia has reduced the degree of its political and economic dependence. Now we are witnessing a process when the accumulated potential of state power has begun to implement the National Security Concept adopted in 1997, albeit not in all areas effective and efficient.

6. Federal, regional and local institutions for ensuring national economic security

National economic security is a line of state activity that ensures the sustainable functioning and development of the national economy. For practical implementation, it relies on certain methods and mechanisms that are carried out by state and regional institutions.

The concept of national security of the Russian Federation defines certain state and regional institutions that ensure the implementation of national economic security. This includes:

The formed system of institutions for ensuring national security is built in accordance with the existing vertical of power and makes it possible to implement the basic principles of effective management. Accordingly, the general management of it is carried out by the President of the Russian Federation, and direct work at the grassroots level, with citizens, is carried out by local governments. Adopted in 1997, the National Security Concept attached great importance to the Security Council of the Russian Federation, but its functioning was not provided with an appropriate legal, financial and organizational basis. A number of legal acts adopted at the beginning of 2007 eliminate this gap and make the Security Council of the Russian Federation an active center in ensuring national security. Late 2006 - early 2007 marked by the course taken by the state apparatus to increase the role and effectiveness of the main institutions for ensuring national security. On the whole, this should help to increase the political and economic role of Russia in the world economy, but today only the first steps have been taken in this direction, and it will be possible to expect tangible results only in 2008-2009.

LECTURE No. 8. Markets in the national economy

1. National markets: concept, types, principles of organization

The basis of a free nationwide market is the right of economic entities to carry out economic activities in accordance with their interests and in accordance with the law. The functioning of the national market is built on the interaction of consumers and producers, the result of which is pricing. It also includes various industrial, financial and commercial and information structures.

nationwide market is an economic structure that ensures effective interaction between consumers and producers.

The decisive influence on the nature of the functioning of the market has a total number of consumers and producers - the interaction of supply and demand. It is expressed in the key concept of the market - "competition". This is a specific type of interaction between consumers among themselves, the result of which is the determination of the total amount of goods and its price.

The legislation defines the market as follows: it is the circulation of goods that do not have substitutes or interchangeable goods on the territory of the Russian Federation or its part, determined on the basis of the economic opportunity to purchase goods in the relevant territory and the absence of this opportunity outside it.

The national market is characterized by the following characteristic features:

For the normal functioning of the market, the process of movement of goods is regulated by legal acts, which creates its legal framework.

According to the circulation criterion, the following types of markets are distinguished in the structure of the nationwide market:

The object of the market is the good - goods and services that are included in the subject of circulation in the market.

The definition of the market as a specific form of circulation is connected with the external parameters of its functioning.

The main parameters of the functioning of the market include:

The essence of the national market is associated with its specific qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

The main quantitative characteristics of the market are:

The main quantitative characteristics of the market are:

The interaction of a set of qualitative and quantitative characteristics determines the type of market.

The market performs the following functions:

Depending on specific conditions, each of the national markets can exist as:

The structure of the national market is heterogeneous, it includes a large number of smaller markets. They usually specialize in the circulation of a certain economic resource or good. The interaction of these markets of the national economy is the essence of the national market, determines its dynamics and pace of development.

The structure of the national market includes the following markets:

They represent the four main elements of the national market - economic resources, capital, labor and consumption, the functional interaction of which determines the specifics of the national market.

2. Regulated and unregulated markets

Depending on the presence of external control of the processes occurring in the markets, they are divided into regulated and unregulated.

Unregulated markets - this is a state of the market when the processes occurring within its framework are not subject to management, but proceed in accordance with the natural mechanisms of market self-regulation.

This state of the market provides a mode of efficient allocation of resources. Natural market mechanisms direct limited resources to the production of goods that are most needed by the population. Constant improvement of production technologies contributes to an effective combination of supply and demand - their balancing. The personal interests of the individual in market conditions are directed in such a way that he acts for the benefit of the whole society: he produces the most necessary goods, the incentive for which is the price of the good.

The basis of the free market is economic freedom, but the market directs it in the interests of the whole society. The market is able to coordinate the activities of a large number of individuals without the use of means of violent coercion. Freedom of economic activity is one of the main reasons for the high efficiency of the unregulated market - the level of his well-being depends only on personal abilities, actions of a person, which stimulates him to increase the efficiency of his economic activity.

The disadvantage of an unregulated market is the gradual decrease in competition, which is the engine of the effective functioning of the market.

From the position of the consumer, it is a favorable phenomenon, but for the producer it seems to be an undesirable element of economic activity. In the process of market development, the manufacturer inevitably seeks to minimize the impact of competition on its activities (for example, through various agreements, mergers of companies) and ultimately monopolize the market. At the same time, scientific and technical developments require the concentration of capital, which is possible only when the economic resources of several economic entities are combined, as a result of which there are several producers on the market who have sufficient resources to conduct scientific and technical developments and who are able to provide the consumer with better benefits. This situation allows you to manage demand by regulating supply, the consumer is forced to buy the offered goods at the offered price, since their substitutes are not available on the market. In the process of its development in an unregulated market, competition weakens, at the same time, the efficiency of the functioning of market mechanisms decreases.

Another disadvantage of an unregulated market is the increased tendency towards an uneven distribution of resources - national wealth among the population. The free market system encourages the concentration of capital in a small number of more economically capable people. Recognized and guaranteed property rights reinforce property differentiation, as capital is inherited.

The unregulated market system is not always able to adequately respond to consumer signals and produce all the benefits they need. The manufacturer decides on the efficiency of producing a certain good only on the basis of the correlation of his own costs and profits, but does not evaluate the costs for the whole society (for example, the negative impact of industrial production on the environment and the costs necessary to eliminate it).

Another dysfunction of the market is manifested in its inability to produce public goods. Based on personal gain, economic activity does not consider as a priority the production of public goods that are necessary for the whole society, but their financing cannot be made by an individual consumer, but only by a group or the entire population. The imperfection of pricing and the impossibility of ensuring the optimal level of employment for society are also among the significant shortcomings of the market.

Along with the negative features of the unregulated market, its advantage in ensuring the efficient allocation of resources is also significant.

Regulated Markets - this is a state of the market when the processes occurring within its framework are fully or partially subject to external management and regulation.

The external source of regulation is the state or its authorized bodies. The method for regulation is state regulation of the market - a system of methods of legal, administrative and economic regulation of the market, carried out by state-authorized bodies.

The inability in some situations of the market to self-regulation causes an objective need for state regulation (for example, in the field of production of public goods, regulation of employment, financial and credit sphere). The explanation for the need for external regulation of the market is mainly due to the fact that many market crises can only be resolved with government intervention.

The volume, scope and effectiveness of regulation are directly related to the level of development of the market. At the moment, state regulation is included in the process of reproduction of the national economy.

Depending on the specific situation on the market, the tasks of state regulation are also being transformed. Usually these include creating conditions for sustainable economic growth, reducing unemployment, initiating a structural transformation of the market, creating a system to protect the national producer and stimulating the export of goods.

The objects of state regulation of the market are specific problems that have arisen or may arise in the course of the functioning of the market, causing significant damage to the standard of living of the population and economic growth.

The main points of state regulation of the market are:

In the economic practice of any country it is impossible to meet an exclusively regulated or unregulated market. As experience shows, only a reasonable combination of elements of the free market and government regulation can stimulate sustainable economic growth and the stability of the national economy.

3. Monopoly and competition in the Russian economy

The state, as one of the leading market actors, seeks to legally regulate competition. At the same time, the development and consistent implementation of relevant measures against the monopolization of the national market is a necessary condition for overcoming the economic crisis.

One of the main activities of the state is assigned to this problem - antimonopoly regulation. This is a set of normatively fixed rules of conduct for all economic entities and mechanisms to prevent market monopolization, aimed at discriminating consumers and hindering fair competition and the development of the national economy.

The main structural unit of the national economy is the market. This is a structure that allows for effective interaction between the producer and the consumer.

The determining influence on its functioning is exerted by the total number of consumers and producers participating in the process of exchanging money for goods. It is characterized by competition - a specific type of relationship in the market, the purpose of which is the need to outperform another market participant. It acts as a catalyst for improving the efficiency of the market, as it stimulates, for example, an increase in the efficiency of an economic entity by improving the quality and quantity of the good provided and reducing its price.

In a market environment, competition performs the following functions:

Competition is an effective mechanism for improving the quality and quantity of goods and services with a commensurate decrease in its cost.

Government competition policy generally aims to:

Monopoly - This is a model of the functioning of the market, in which there is one producer and many buyers of the good. In this mode, there is no competition or is minimized.

The characteristic features of a monopoly are:

The market inevitably tends towards monopolization, since producers need to establish control over the market in order to function effectively.

Unfair competition in the national economy of Russia manifests itself in the form of:

The state antimonopoly policy is aimed at creating conditions for fair competition and preventing market monopolization. It performs the most important functions in the development of the national economy, as it creates conditions for increasing the competitiveness of the domestic manufacturer and the economy as a whole.

The need to create a competitive environment - freedom of economic activity, movement of goods, services and financial resources - is enshrined in the Constitution of the Russian Federation (clause 1, article 8).

The problematic of the practical implementation of antimonopoly policy is due to the fact that it mainly uses economic mechanisms that are not sufficiently developed in Russia. Accordingly, the effectiveness of antimonopoly policy is determined primarily by the development of the national market and the objectivity of the state economic policy.

The fundamentals of antimonopoly policy are enshrined in the Federal Law "On Competition and Limitation of Monopolistic Activities in Commodity Markets" adopted in 1991. The relatively established system of antimonopoly regulation was reformed after the 1998 crisis, when its shortcomings became apparent. Within its framework, in 1999, the Federal Law "On Competition and Restriction of Monopolistic Activities in Commodity Markets" was substantially revised, and the State Committee for Antimonopoly Policy and Support for New Economic Structures was transformed into the RF Ministry for Antimonopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support. Since that time, active regulation of competition in various areas of the national economy has begun (for example, the Federal Law "On Protection of Competition in the Financial Services Market").

Due to the low efficiency and inconsistency of state regulation of the activities of natural monopolies, the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Antimonopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support was forced to resolve many cases of violation of competition in court, for example, JSC Irkutskenergo, RAO UES of Russia.

Since 2004, a fundamental change in the state antimonopoly policy has taken place, when, simultaneously with the general reform of the state apparatus, the RF Ministry for Antimonopoly Policy and Entrepreneurship Support was reorganized into the Federal Antimonopoly Service. The main activity of the new structure was determined to create conditions for the development of competition and the development of a unified state policy to support competition. Despite this, in general, the state antimonopoly policy has retained its inactive nature - there is simply a fixation of cases of violation of competition.

An effective and up-to-date normatively fixed state antimonopoly policy is a necessary condition for the active development of the national economy and its structural transformations. There is a transition of the problem of competition from a purely economic category to a political one, which indicates the need to maintain it at the proper level throughout society. The activity of monopolists, which is certainly necessary in some industries, should be more and more legally regulated primarily in the interests of the consumer.

Basic literature on the course "National Economics"

1. Ananiev AN New processes in employment of the population in the conditions of transition to a market economy. Moscow: Unity, 2000.
2. Andrianov VD Economic and investment potential. M., 1999.
3. Bazylev N. I., Gurko S. P. Economic theory (macroeconomics). M.: Dis, 2000.
4. Bilchak V.S., Zakharov V.F. Regional economy. Kaliningrad, 1998.
5. Borisevich V. I. Forecasting and planning of the economy. M.: Ekoperspektiva, 2005.
6. Bragin N.I. State and market. M., 2000.
7. Buzgalin A.V. Transitional economy. M.: Taurus, 1999.
8. Butov V. I., Ignatov V. G., Ketova N. P. Fundamentals of the regional economy. M., 2000.
9. Vedyapin V. I. General economic theory. M.: Book service, 2002.
10. Voronin Yu. M. Russia: economic growth. M., 2004.
11. Granberg A.G. Fundamentals of regional economics. M., 2000.
12. Denison E. Study of differences in economic growth rates. Moscow: Progress, 2004.
13. Zhukov V.I., Mitrokhin V.I. Anti-crisis management. M., 2003.
14. Kozyrev V. M. Fundamentals of modern economics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2000.
15. Kondratiev N.D. Problems of economic dynamics. M.: Economics, 2003.
16. Lvov Yu. A. Fundamentals of economics and business organization. St. Petersburg: Formica, 1992.
17. Menshikov S. M. New economy. Fundamentals of economic knowledge. M., 1999.
18. Plisetsky E. L. Russia and countries in transition: the geography of foreign economic relations. M., 2003.
19. Porter M. International competition. M., 1994.
20. Ruzavin G. I., Martynov V. T. The course of the market economy. Moscow: Banks and exchanges, UNITI, 1995.
21. Sazhina M. A., Chibrikov G. G. Economic theory. Moscow: Fis, 1999.

Author: Koshelev A.N.

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Random news from the Archive ASUS ZenPad 8 (Z380M) and ZenPad 10 (Z300M) tablets 21.05.2016 ASUS has updated its tablet family with the introduction of the ZenPad 8 (model Z380M) and ZenPad 10 (Z300M), which will ship with Android 6.0 Marshmallow. Both computers are endowed with a MediaTek MT8163 processor, which contains four 64-bit Cortex-A53 computing cores. The equipment includes wireless adapters Wi-Fi 802.11a / b / g / n and Bluetooth 4.0, a GPS satellite navigation system receiver, a microSD slot, cameras with 5- and 2-megapixel matrices. The ZenPad 8 is equipped with an 8-inch display with a resolution of 1280 x 800 pixels. The amount of RAM is 1 or 2 GB, the capacity of the flash module is 8 or 16 GB. The tablet weighs 350 grams and measures 209 x 123 x 8,5 mm. Power is provided by a 4000 mAh battery. The ZenPad 10 computer has a 10-inch screen with a resolution of 1280 [800 dots. The amount of RAM is 2 GB, and the flash module can store 16 or 32 GB of data. Dimensions and weight - 251,6 x 172 x 7,9 mm and 490 grams. The battery has a capacity of 4860 mAh. The price of new tablets ASUS ZenPad 8 and ZenPad 10 will be respectively 160 and 200 euros.

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