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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Concepts of modern natural science. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important
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Introduction The concept of modern natural science is one of the most widespread sciences. She studies almost all areas of human life: from literature to mathematics and philosophy. The concept of modern natural science is inextricably linked with history. Many historical figures, such as, for example, the personalities of Peter the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte, discussed below, had a strong influence on the perception of the world by man. Entire epochs are associated with the names of such people. In the concept of modern natural science, the teachings of philosophers of different times are also studied: from ancient Aristotle to modern philosophers. It is they who, first of all, provide answers to such questions as: what is a person, what is his place in the Universe, from what our world was created, - as well as many other questions. It is known that man expressed the very first ideas about the world and his place in it in myths, legends and traditions. They tell us about the events that allegedly took place. Some researchers question the reliability of these stories, while others consider them to be reliable sources of information about ancient events. The opinion of the second part of the researchers seems to be justified. See, for example, how many real historical events are reflected in the form of legends and traditions in Christianity. It is also impossible to deny the fact that the mythology of different peoples tells about the same phenomena. For example, stories about the Flood are found among many peoples of the world. Physics and biology try to explain all the laws of the world, but they have not yet fully succeeded: despite the fact that there are many great discoveries and theories (for example, Einstein's theory of relativity), scientists still have to answer many questions. Biology claims that man "descended from a monkey," but she cannot confirm this fact, since not a single "suitable" skeleton has been found. This statement is actively used by supporters of the divine origin of man. Many ethical and moral norms are contained in world religions. After all, it is faith that contributes to the moral formation of a person. Compliance with rules, prohibitions, taboos, commandments allow a person to maintain the purity of his inner world. Today, the computerization of society is of great importance. With the help of a computer and the Internet, you can get almost any information. And who knows the story of how a person learned to count and when the first personal computers appeared? How did computer corporations like Apple Computers and Microsoft develop? After all, they are the major manufacturers of both computers and software. The study of these issues helps to answer the question of the place of a person in the modern information society. But what is a computer compared to the human brain? This is a simple set of iron and wires that are combined into a single whole. If we know about how a computer works, about how our brain works, we do not fully know. Is it possible to install it at all? These questions must be answered by the concept of modern natural science today. LECTURE No. 1. The subject of the concept of modern natural science. Natural philosophy 1. The subject of the concept of modern natural science. Synthesis of Sciences Natural History - this is not any separate science, it is a whole set of sciences that study nature, its laws. Thus, this course simultaneously affects mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, philosophy, etc. All these sciences can be classified: 1) mathematical sciences; 2) natural sciences; 3) technical sciences; 4) humanities sciences. How does the study of these various sciences contribute to our understanding of natural science? Let's look at this very simply using the example of a number of sciences: 1) physics and chemistry are natural sciences that study the laws of nature. Physics is not directly involved in the study of nature - its task is to confirm or, conversely, refute something; 2) physics and mathematics. The laws of physics are formulated (or "written") in mathematical language. To understand this, it is enough to recall the school curriculum; 3) "hybrid" or "synthesized" sciences. Over the course of centuries and millennia, mankind has come to understand that without mixing (synthesizing) the sciences, their further development is impossible. This is how physical chemistry, chemical physics appeared (the Russian Academy of Sciences even has special institutes of physical chemistry and chemical physics), biochemistry, and biophysics. Einstein combined mechanics and non-Euclidean geometry in his theory of relativity. After the discovery of O. Ghosn and F. Strassman, who studied the chemical properties of nuclear fission, physics received further development in the same way as the whole world science as a whole. 2. Naturphilosophy. Representatives of the Milesian school Modern natural science originates from one of the philosophical trends - natural philosophy. One of the most prominent representatives of this trend were the students of the ancient Miletus school (VII-V centuries BC): Thales, Anaximenes, Anaximander. Thales (640-545 BC) can be called the first European philosopher. He came from a wealthy family, was engaged in trade and political activities, traveled a lot. As a result of his travels, Thales acquired vast knowledge. In addition to trade and politics, he was also engaged in science: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, physics. There is a legend according to which Thales predicted an eclipse of the sun, which occurred on May 28, 585 BC. e. He also made a significant contribution to geometry: for the first time, Thales determined the similarity conditions for triangles that have a common side and two angles adjacent to it. He is also credited with the position of similar angles at the intersection of two lines. He made many discoveries: he set the length of the year at 365 days, divided it into twelve thirty days, established the exact time of the solstices and equinoxes, etc. Thales believed that the basis of everything is water: it is all around. Water "impregnates" even the continents; rivers and seas flow from the earth. He noticed that the food consumed by living beings is moist and that even heat arises from moisture. Thales, one might say, "animated" the water, and he associated this animation with the population of the world by the gods. Anaximander (about 610 - after 547 BC), unlike his teacher Thales, called not water, but apeiron ("infinite") as the fundamental principle of everything. Apeiron - this is an indefinite matter that does not have any qualitative characteristics and which is quantitatively infinite. Anaximander also claimed that apeiron combines opposites: hot - cold, dry - wet, etc. Interesting is his idea that "the Earth rises freely, not being bound by anything, and is held, since it is equally distant from everywhere." Thus, Anaximander can be called one of the first who began to assert the geocentric view of the Universe. Anaximenes (about 585 - about 525 BC) called air the fundamental principle of everything. He argued that not only earth, water and stone are born from the air, but also the human soul. Anaximenes believed that the gods have no power over the air, since they themselves are composed of air. LECTURE No. 2. Knowledge and cognition 1. Scientific knowledge and its criteria For natural science, as well as for philosophy in general, such a criterion as knowledge is of great importance. In the dictionary of the Russian language Ozhegov S. I. are given two definitions of the concept of knowledge: 1) comprehension of reality by consciousness; 2) a set of information, knowledge in some area. Let's define what knowledge is in the philosophical sense. Knowledge - this is a multi-faceted result verified by practice, which was confirmed in a logical way, the process of knowing the world around. The multidimensionality of philosophical knowledge, as mentioned above, follows from the fact that philosophy consists of many sciences. There are several criteria for scientific knowledge: 1) systematization of knowledge; 2) consistency of knowledge; 3) validity of knowledge. The systematization of scientific knowledge means that all the accumulated experience of mankind leads (or should lead) to a certain strict system. The consistency of scientific knowledge means that knowledge in various fields of science complements each other, not excludes. This criterion follows directly from the previous one. The first criterion helps to eliminate the contradiction to a greater extent - a strict logical system of building knowledge will not allow several contradictory laws to exist simultaneously. Validity of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge can be confirmed by repeated repetition of the same action (ie, empirically). The substantiation of scientific concepts occurs by referring to the data of empirical research or by referring to the ability to describe and predict phenomena (in other words, relying on intuition). 2. Cognition. Methods of knowledge It is very difficult to give an exact definition of the concept of "knowledge". Before trying to do this, let's analyze the concept itself. There are the following types of knowledge: 1) worldly knowledge; 2) artistic knowledge; 3) sensory knowledge; 4) empirical knowledge. Worldly knowledge is an experience accumulated over many centuries. It lies in observation and ingenuity. This knowledge, no doubt, is acquired only as a result of practice. Artistic knowledge. The specificity of artistic cognition lies in the fact that it is built on a visual image, displaying the world and a person in a holistic state. Works of art help you feel connected to time. Look at any painting and what do you see? Externally, the painting is a canvas that the artist has “painted” with multi-colored paints; it is a canvas mounted in a wooden frame. But internally it is an integral world that hides its secrets. Trying to unravel these secrets (for example, why Mona Lisa smiles so mysteriously), we feel connected to the past, present or future. Sense cognition - this is what we perceive with the help of the senses (for example, I hear a mobile phone ring, I see a red apple, etc.). The main difference between sensory cognition and empirical cognition is that empirical cognition is carried out with the help of observation or experiment. During the experiment, a computer or other device is used. Methods knowledge: 1) induction; 2) deduction; 3) analysis; 4) synthesis. Induction is a conclusion made on the basis of two or more premises. Induction can lead to both correct and incorrect conclusions. Deduction is a transition made from the general to the particular. The method of deduction, unlike the method of induction, always leads to true conclusions. Analysis - this is the division of the studied object or phenomenon into parts and components. Synthesis - this is a process opposite to analysis, i.e., the connection of parts of an object or phenomenon into a single whole. Now we will try to find the most correct definition of the concept of "cognition". Cognition - this is the process of acquiring knowledge through empirical or sensory research, as well as comprehending the laws of the objective world and the body of knowledge in some branch of science or art. 3. Means of scientific knowledge The means of scientific knowledge are written in the language of science. All scientists-philosophers notice that most of the means of scientific knowledge come from mathematics (Galileo even claimed that the book of nature was written in the language of mathematics). Therefore, mathematics can hardly be called a separate science, it comes into contact with many sciences: physics, chemistry, astronomy, etc. In science, formal logic is also called mathematical logic, or symbolic logic. From the very name "mathematical logic" we can conclude that logic is based on strict mathematical rules. The development of mathematical logic, as well as formal logic, began only in the 60s. XNUMXth century However, due to its complexity, it is only suitable for artificial intelligence. LECTURE № 3. Theory of relativity. Elementary particles. hot universe. Origin of the solar system 1. Albert Einstein's Theory of Relativity Before talking about Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, you need to study the experience of other physicists. In 1881 an American physicist Michelson set up an experiment in order to clarify the participation of the ether (a hypothetical all-pervading medium, which, according to the scientific ideas of past centuries, was credited with the role of a carrier of light and electromagnetic interactions in general) in the movement of bodies. With the help of this experiment, Michelson refuted the hypothesis of a fixed ether that existed at that time. The meaning of this hypothesis was that when the Earth moves through the ether, the so-called "ether wind" can be observed. However, Michelson's experience was used by Einstein only to confirm his theory of relativity. Einstein, when creating the theory, wanted to combine mechanics and the theory of the electromagnetic field. In classical mechanics, the principle of physical relativity was formulated, which was that all mechanical processes in all inertial systems occur in the same way. Einstein formulated the generalized physical principle of relativity: all physical phenomena occur in the same way with respect to any inertial systems. According to the principle of constancy of the speed of light and the generalized principle of relativity, relativity is the simultaneity of two events to the frame of reference. It used to be thought that simultaneity is an absolute event that does not depend on the observer. But in his theory of relativity, Einstein proved that time in a moving reference frame passes much more slowly relative to the passage of time in a stationary reference frame. Such physical quantities as extension, time and mass have lost their absolute status in the theory of relativity. Einstein, as a quantity that has the status of a constant, left only force (for example, the force of gravity). The general theory of relativity contains a geometric interpretation of the phenomenon of gravitation. Einstein argued that the force of gravity of the equivalent is equal to the curvature of non-Euclidean space. That is, an object moving in space and caught in the field of gravity changes the trajectory of its movement. Now we can conclude that in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, space and time have physical characteristics. And since they have physical characteristics, therefore, they are part of the world of physical processes, and the part that forms the entire internal structure of this world, "which is connected with the laws of being of the physical world." 2. Elementary particles. Origin of the Universe According to studies conducted from satellites, the space is permeated with microwave radiation. This microwave radiation is a "legacy" from earlier stages of our universe. By the beginning of the 1930s. it was known that most stars were made of helium. However, it remained a mystery where carbon comes from. In the 1950s English astrophysicist, writer, administrator, playwright Fred Hoyle restored the course of reactions in stars. It was these considerations that allowed Hoyle in 1953 to predict the important energy level of the carbon-12 nucleus, and the experiments of physicists confirmed his prediction. Later American physicist William Fowler, having carried out appropriate experiments, confirmed this theory. And only then was the appropriate theoretical basis prepared. Scientists Ralph Alfer and Robert German the biblical word "ilem" called the primary substance. Then, according to Alfer and Herman, our Universe was formed from it. This primordial substance was nothing but neutron gas. These scientists developed a theory according to which heavy nuclei were attached to free neutrons. This process ended only when the free neutrons ran out. Hoyle, who did not take the theory of Alfer and Herman seriously, called it "the big bang theory" - that is, the theory of the big cotton, but in Russia it is better known as the "Big Bang theory". There was also a theory of the cold universe. Its author, a Soviet physicist, physical chemist and astrophysicist, Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich noted that radio astronomy data did not confirm the high density and high temperature of radiation (which should have been with the version of the "hot" origin of the Universe). Zel'dovich called the initial substance an electron gas with an admixture of neutrinos. Stages of development of the Universe. The initial stage of the existence of the Universe is divided into 4 eras: 1) the era of hadrons; 2) the era of leptons; 3) photon era; 4) the era of radiation. During the first era, the era of hadrons, elementary particles were divided into hadrons and leptons. Hadrons participated in faster processes, and leptons - in slower ones. During the second era, the era of leptons, some of the particles are out of balance with radiation, and the Universe becomes transparent to electron neutrinos. During the third, photon, era, photons begin to play the main role in the development of the Universe. At the beginning of this era, the number of protons and neutrons was approximately equal, but then they began to turn into each other. During the fourth era, the era of radiation, protons begin to capture neutrons; the nuclei of beryllium and lithium are formed, and the density of the Universe decreases by about 5-6 times. Due to the decrease in the density of the universe, the first atoms begin to form. After the fourth era (the era of radiation), another era began: the fifth, stellar, era. During the stellar era, the complex process of the formation of protostars and protogalaxies began. 3. "Hot" Universe The founder of the theory of the "hot" Universe was the American physicist Georgy Antonovich Gamov. It was he who, in 1946, laid the foundations of this theory and subsequently studied it. As is known, in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics at high densities and temperatures in a heated substance, radiation must always be in equilibrium with it. Gamow argued that as a result of the process of nucleosynthesis, radiation should remain to this day. Only its temperature will have to "drop" due to the constant expansion. For almost ten years, Gamow consulted with various scientists and developed formulas and schemes. As a result of painstaking work, A - B - G-theory appeared by the names of its creators: Alfer, Bethe, Gamow. What did the theory of the "hot" Universe give? She gave the necessary ratios of substances such as hydrogen and helium in the modern universe. Heavy elements were born, possibly, in the explosions of supernovae. Also, Gamow, in his note published in 1953, predicted background radiation. The existence of this background radiation was confirmed by accident by American scientists (future Nobel Prize winners): radiophysicist and astrophysicist Arno Penzias and radio astronomer Robert Wilson. They were debugging the horn antenna of the new radio telescope and could not get rid of the interference. Only later did they realize that these were not simple interference, but the background radiation predicted by Gamow. The theory of the "hot" Universe had such a powerful influence on science that Hoyle, the author of the theory of the eternal Universe, admitted the failure of his theory, although he later tried to modernize it. 4. Origin of the solar system Cosmogony deals with the question of the origin of our solar system. One of the main theories of the origin of the solar system was put forward by Kant. He argued that the solar system was formed from chaos. He also said that the entire world space is filled with a certain inert matter, which is disordered, but “strives to transform into a more organized one through natural development.” Kant also believed that Milky Way for stars is the same as the Zodiac for the solar system. As a result of the research and numerous observations, Kant presented his structure of the Universe: Universe is nothing but a hierarchy of self-gravitating systems. All systems, he believed, should have a similar structure. Laplace's theory. Laplace, on the basis of Kant's ideas, created his own theory, which was called the nebular Kant-Laplace hypothesis. Kant's nebular hypothesis was not known for one banal reason: the publisher who printed this work of Kant went bankrupt, and his book warehouse in Koenigsberg was sealed. The nebular theory of Kant-Laplace for a long time remained the first rotational hypothesis about the origin of the solar system. This theory also had its drawbacks: 1) it did not explain the large size of the orbits of the outer giant planets and the slowness of the rotation of the Sun; 2) she did not answer the question why "the moment of the number of planets is almost twenty-nine times the moment of the number of the Sun, if the solar system is isolated." There were also catastrophic hypotheses for the origin of the solar system. For example, Jeans suggested that some other star had once passed by our Sun nearby, and as a result, “tidal protrusions” appeared on the Sun, which transformed into gaseous jets, from which planets later arose. Academician Vasily Grigorievich Fesenkov He believed that the planets were formed as a result of processes that took place "inside" the Sun. As a result of nuclear reactions, masses were ejected from the Sun, from which the planets later formed. These emissions were consistent with the calculations of George Darwin (son of Charles Darwin) and AM Lyapunov. LECTURE № 4. Galaxies. "Corpses" of stars 1. Galaxies. Variety of galaxies It is not known when man first looked at the sky: many millennia have passed since those distant times. It is only known for certain that man has always revered the sky, and also respected and feared him. It is very easy to explain this attitude: there, in the sky, the gods lived. The man tried to appease them, to propitiate them. If the gods are kind, then they will send rain, and if it rains, there will be a harvest for next year. If the gods get angry, they will send thunder, lightning and drought to the earth. Therefore, in those distant times, no one dared to anger their gods; Every nation had its own gods. But what are stars? The stars are the souls of the dead who watch and follow us. So it was believed in ancient times. How could people then know that the stars are far from being souls, but a celestial body with an incredibly high temperature. Centuries later, people began to notice some incomprehensible "hazes", foggy spots in the sky. With the help of telescopes, the human eye has seen that inside these nebulae are entire clusters of stars. Such clusters of stars are called galaxies. Back in the XNUMXth century V. Herschel, a famous English astronomer and optician who discovered the planet Uranus, explored double stars and the structure of the Milky Way, built several of the largest telescopes of his time, discovered several thousand foggy spots (which were called nebulae). V. Herschel cataloged the nebulae discovered by him. During the study and observation of these nebulae, it was found that many of them have a spiral structure. In the science of astronomy, all galaxies are divided into three large groups. This classification is based on the appearance of galaxies. Three groups (classes) of galaxies: 1) spiral galaxies; 2) irregular galaxies; 3) elliptical galaxies. Consider these types of galaxies. spiral galaxies. Their branches consist of hot stars, supergiants; they emit radio waves. Approximately ten percent of the mass of such a galaxy is the mass of neutral hydrogen. The main difference between spiral galaxies is that they rotate at breakneck speed. Wrong galaxies. What makes them different? Let's dive into history first. In the XVI century. Ferdinand Magellan made his famous trips around the world, which helped to "destroy" many "white spots" on the geographical map of our planet. Travelers in the southern hemisphere of the sky noticed and for an extended period of time watched two small stellar clouds. Later, these clouds began to be named after the most famous traveler: the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. In fact, these are not clouds at all, but real galaxies that belong to the irregular group. These galaxies are different in that: 1) they have a shapeless appearance; 2) their stellar composition is the same as that of the branches of spiral galaxies, with one exception: the irregular ones do not have a nucleus; 3) irregular galaxies are very, very rare. Elliptical galaxies. These galaxies are much more common than spiral and irregular galaxies. Let's call salient features of elliptical galaxies: 1) they can be mistaken for globular clusters of stars, if you do not take into account that the galaxy is larger than them; 2) they rotate very slowly, and, consequently, they are slightly flattened. This is their main difference from spiral galaxies (which rotate very quickly and, as a result, are very similar to a spindle); 3) elliptical galaxies contain neither giant stars nor nebulae. 2. "Corpses" of stars: white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes White dwarfs Stars, like many things in our Universe, are not eternal, their life expectancy is tens of millions of years, however, this is incomparable with the years of the existence of the Universe. At the end of its life, the star becomes a white dwarf. The "death" of a celestial body occurs after it has exhausted the entire supply of its sources of thermonuclear energy. Moreover, not all stars become white dwarfs, but only stars of medium and low mass. White dwarfs do not glow on their own, since they do not have any nuclear processes inside them. But still, the "corpses" of the stars glow. Why? The glow of white dwarfs is explained very simply: the glow occurs due to slow cooling. The scientist, Indian physicist Raman Chandrasekara calculated the mass of a white dwarf, which he cannot exceed. According to Chandrasekara, the mass of this celestial body is approximately 1,4 solar masses. neutron stars Neutron star - this, one might say, is also the “corpse” of a star, but a much larger star, which has a mass exceeding ten times the mass of our Sun. The radius of a neutron star is approximately one and a half to two times the mass of the Sun, and its radius is approximately 10 - 20 km... In very rare cases, the mass of a neutron star can exceed the mass of the Sun, but no more than three times (this is the so-called "limit Oppenheimer - Volkov." We will find out below what will happen to such a “small” star. In 1930's Walter Baade и Fritz Zwicky put forward the theory that as a result of a supernova explosion (supernovae are stars that "suddenly flare up and die like new stars. However, at the maximum luminosity they are thousands of times brighter than new stars"), an ultradense neutron star is formed. This theory was confirmed almost thirty years later, when a pulsar was discovered in the Crab Nebula, that is, a neutron star that rotates at an incredibly high speed. Black holes The concept of "black hole" was introduced in 1968 by an American physicist John Wheeler. With this concept, he designated neutron stars, which, as a result of the action of gravity, have contracted to such an extent that light simply cannot overcome their attraction. It was said above that the mass of a neutron star is approximately one and a half to two times greater than the mass of the Sun, but sometimes its mass can be three or more times greater than the mass of the Sun. So, these “exceptional” neutron stars become black holes. Gravitational radius is the radius to which a neutron star must collapse to become a black hole. If the star was very large, then this radius is only a few tens of kilometers. LECTURE No. 5. Charles Darwin's theory. Human Origins. Abuse of Darwinism. The evolution of nature 1. Theory of Charles Darwin The great Englishman Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of natural selection. This theory was adopted by natural scientists. In ancient times, scientists believed that all living organisms originated from inanimate matter. Then, when Christianity became widespread, it was argued that all living organisms were created by God, and man was created in His image and likeness. Today there are many supporters of the divine theory in the world. With the advent of evolutionary theory, the gap that was previously filled by belief in a Creator could be filled by scientific explanations. This did not bode well for the Church, as it began to lose its influence. Before Charles Darwin, he created his theory of evolution J. B. Lamarck. Lamarck developed his theory in the 19th century; He was the first to notice that living organisms become more complex in the process of historical development. He explained this by the fact that animals are constantly "exercising", gaining new knowledge, as well as new experience. And then they pass it all on to their descendants, who, in turn, acquire new knowledge and new experience and also pass it on to new generations. A significant drawback of the theory of J. B. Lamarck was that he did not try to explain the causes of evolution, its driving force. Science did not stand still. In 1831 T. Schwann developed the cellular theory, in which he proved the fundamental unity of the living world. Now we can say that Charles Darwin, when he began to develop his theory, had a sufficient scientific basis. In his book, which was sold out on the very first day of the sale (then it was second only to the Bible in "popularity"), Charles Darwin says that the material for natural selection is an individual. He drew attention to the fact that any species reproduces in geometric progression: one individual herring produces on average up to 40 thousand eggs, sturgeon - up to 2 million eggs, frog - up to 10 thousand eggs, one poppy plant produces up to 30 thousand. seeds So why does the number of adults remain relatively constant? Charles Darwin explained this by a simple competitive struggle between adults, as well as a lack of food (as a result of which such competition arises), the attack of predators, and the influence of adverse natural conditions. Darwin named three types of struggle: 1) intraspecific struggle; 2) interspecific struggle; 3) the fight against inanimate nature. Intraspecific struggle. Darwin considered such a struggle to be the most intense. Here there is a struggle between individuals of the same species who live in the same conditions and have equal nutritional needs. Therefore, it is natural that the strongest, most adapted individuals survive here. Interspecific struggle Eit is the fight against other types of living organisms, including predators and parasites. As a result of such a struggle, the weakest species of living organisms die. Fight against inanimate nature. This is a fight for survival. Nature is not always kind to animals and from time to time there are droughts (and therefore famine), floods, severe frosts, etc. The following conclusions can be drawn from the theory of Charles Darwin: 1) nature and animal organisms are constantly changing; 2) a fierce struggle for existence is constantly going on between the species of living organisms. However, despite the fact that Charles Darwin based his theory of natural selection on extensive empirical experience collected both by Darwin's predecessors and by himself, it seems unconvincing. And some facts of evolution do not fit into the framework of the theory of natural selection at all. For example: 1) the change in the teeth and hooves of horses in the process of evolution indicates that evolution has a certain direction, not due to the struggle for existence; 2) some certain structures evolve before the need arises; 3) there are also some species of animals and insects that almost do not evolve (for example, shark, opossum, cockroach). And the question remains: if man originated from apes, then why is this not happening now? 2. The origin of man For many centuries, there was an opinion that man descended from the gods. Time passed, rivers of centuries flowed, and scientists began to receive the first empirical data on the origin of man. It all started with the fact that in 1856 in France the remains of an ancient man were found, who received the "name" of Driopithecus. A new 20th century has begun. It was marked by the discovery of the remains of fossil monkeys: Proconsuls discovered in East Africa, Oriopithecus found in Italy, etc. After conducting appropriate analyses, scientists found that these ancient monkeys lived approximately from 12 to XNUMX million years ago. In 1924, the remains of Australopithecus were discovered in South Africa. To date, scientists believe that australopithecus - "closest relative" of a person. Australopithecus was an upright mammal; the age of the found bones, as experts have found, ranges from approximately 5 to 2,5 million years. Australopithecus weighed from 20 to 50 kg, their height was approximately from 120 to 150 cm. Some of the main similarities with a person were: 1) a similar structure of the dental system; 2) movement on two legs. Today it is known that the brain of Australopithecus weighed about 550 g. They used animal bones and stones as weapons to protect themselves from enemies and to get food. Dutch explorer Eugene Dubois On the island of Java, he discovered the remains of Homo erectus. This Homo erectus was named Pithecanthropus. Many years later, similar remains were found in China, which were slightly different from the remains of the Pithecanthropus found in Java. Historians have found that Pithecanthropus was a fairly developed person. It (and its other “relatives”, for example, Sinanthropus found in China) existed from approximately 500 thousand to 2 million years ago. Pithecanthropus knew agriculture and ate plant foods. At the same time, he was a hunter and knew how to use fire. The Pithecanthropus tribe carefully kept the secret of fire and passed it on from generation to generation. Africa has never ceased to amaze the world with unusual finds. So, in the 1960s and 1970s. the remains of ancient people who used the simplest tools made of pebbles were discovered. These people were called Homo habilis, that is, "handy man." A skilled man existed for only about 500 thousand years. Then he evolved and acquired a great resemblance to Pithecanthropes. If I may say so, then the children of Pithecanthropes were Neanderthals. Their remains were discovered first in Germany, in the valley of the Neander River, and then throughout Europe, Asia and Africa. In addition to the knowledge left over from Pithecanthropes, Neanderthals learned how to rip off the skin of animals, sew original clothes from it, and build dwellings. Neanderthals were the ancestors of the Cro-Magnons. They were divided into two groups. The first group of Neanderthals, with a small stature (slightly more than 150 cm), had very powerfully developed muscles, they had a sloping forehead; their brain mass reached already 1500. Scientists also believe that these ancestors of modern man had the beginnings of articulate speech. The second group of Neanderthals was very different from the first. Representatives of this group were physically less developed, since they (unlike their relatives from the first group) realized that it was safer to hunt in a group, while it was easier to fight off enemies in a group. Therefore, they have significantly increased the size of the frontal lobes of the brain. Even outwardly, they differed from the representatives of the first group: a high forehead, a developed chin and jaws. And, most likely, it was the second group that gave birth to Homo Sapiens. It is reliably known that these two species of mammals existed simultaneously for several millennia. But then modern humans finally ousted the Neanderthals. In France, the remains of a Cro-Magnon were discovered (they were discovered in the Cro-Magnon grotto). Tools of labor were found along with the remains; Cro-Magnons knew how to make clothes and build houses. The Cro-Magnons were articulate; they were tall (up to about 180 cm), and the volume of their cranium averaged 1600 cm3. 3. Abuse of Darwinism It is indisputable that the theory of Charles Darwin was a powerful stimulus for the further development of science. However, the question of its viability or, conversely, complete failure, everyone must decide for himself. At the end of the XIX century. among the largest industrialists of both America and Europe, the ideas of the Englishman Herbert Spencer circulated. Herbert Spencer used the concept of natural selection to justify free enterprise. The essence of his idea was that the poor should be used as labor force. And that is why many manufacturers, owners of factories, enterprises, etc. "with a bang" took this theory. They found an ethical and philosophical justification for their way of life, because "survival of the fittest" (the author of this expression is Herbert Spencer, not Darwin). And the German scientist Ernst Haeckel generally argued that man, like nature, should be free in their actions. He even said that people can be cruel and very cruel at the same time. This point of view was adopted by Nazi Germany, led by Adolf Hitler. Hitler promoted cruelty. The "pure Aryan race" in the fight against other races and nationalities should not choose soft means, because they will be ineffective for Germany. It seemed much easier for Hitler to shoot tens of millions of civilians: the elderly, women, children - to kill millions of soldiers in the USSR defending their country from fascist aggressors. It's sad to say, but the ideas of fascism continue to live today. Neo-fascism and skinheads in Russia fully confirm this. 4. Evolution of nature The history of our Earth is divided into three large periods (or eras): 1) Paleozoic era; 2) Mesozoic era; 3) Neozoic era. The Paleozoic era began 600 million years ago, before it there was the Archean era. During the Archean era there was no life on Earth yet, so we will not consider it. The Paleozoic era is divided into: 1) early Paleozoic; 2) Late Paleozoic. The Early Paleozoic includes the following periods: Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian. The Late Paleozoic includes the Carboniferous and Permian periods. It was during the Paleozoic era that the first sprouts of life appeared on Earth. Algae appear in the water, small at first. But then the water area became crowded for them, and they "decided" to get out into the air. After algae appeared in the water, there are also first living organisms - mollusks that feed on these algae. What happened after algae appeared on Earth? They gradually "transformed" into giant grasses, and then grass-like trees. Naturally, abundant vegetation appears on Earth. Why shouldn't she show up? After all, the climate was warm then. Our entire planet was covered in a thick, impenetrable fog of water vapor. There were no seasons back then. Here is what testifies to this: deposits of coal have been discovered almost all over the world. And coal - these are the remains of trees that do not have annual rings, their structure is tubular, not ring-shaped. Simply put, these are not the trees that grow outside our window, this is a very large grass. Also in the Paleozoic era, the number of molluscs grows exponentially; fish appear that can breathe with both gills and lungs. Next era - Mesozoic. This is the time of real flowering of the animal kingdom on Earth. At that time, the planet was inhabited by many species of reptiles. They lived both in the seas and oceans, and on land and in the air. Not only reptiles lived on the planet, but also very large insects that appeared at the end of the Paleozoic. Also in the Mesozoic era, the first birds appear. The ancestors of birds are reptiles such as pterodactyls and archeopteryx. Pterodactyls were reptiles with incredibly strong and developed toe muscles. And between them appeared membranes, thanks to which the pterodactyl learned to fly. Archeopteryx had large lips and teeth, and a muzzle similar to a pterodactyl. Paleontologists find only skeletons of pterodactyls, Archeopteryx and ancient birds, but not a single intermediate link between them has been found. So the fact that birds are descended from a pterodactyl (like a person from a monkey) cannot be considered one hundred percent proven. Next comes neozoic era. The fauna of the Neozoic era is very similar to the world of modern animals (for example, in areas of Africa that are not affected by the glacier). Man, according to scientists, appeared at the end of the Ice Age. It was at this time that all mammals appeared. Mammals stood out as an independent class from the class of reptiles. Differences between mammals and reptiles: 1) hairline; 2) four-chambered heart; 3) separation of arterial and venous blood flow; 4) intrauterine development of offspring and feeding of young with milk; 5) the development of the cerebral cortex, which ensured the predominance of conditioned reflexes over unconditioned ones. A special animal can be called a platypus. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it "hatches" from eggs (like a reptile), and is fed by its mother's milk (like a mammal). LECTURE No. 6. The mechanism of heredity. Quantum mechanics 1. The mechanism of heredity All information about the "plan of the organism" is contained in just one cell, or rather, in the part of the cell, which is called cell nucleus. This core consists of a set of particles. These particles are shaped like a stick or thread, and they are called chromosomes. The number of chromosomes is different: 8, 12, and a person has 48. It would be more correct to say that a cell contains 24 pairs of chromosomes. And it is they who carry the entire encryption code of the body. If you look closely, we will see the similarity of chromosomes. This is due to the fact that part of the chromosomes comes from the mother, i.e. from the egg, and the second part comes from the father, i.e. from the fertilizing sperm. Scientists conducted a study during which it was reliably established that the main "heredity code" is contained in the DNA strand. A strand of DNA makes up chromosomes, in appearance it resembles a grid. This "code of heredity" has its own units. Such a unit for a microorganism is three nucleotides. They are built quite simply - along the length of the DNA molecule. The chromosomes of higher organisms are built much more complicated, but there is an assumption that the process of reading information (although this has not been reliably established) is in general similar to that observed in microorganisms. The body grows by mitosis. Mitosis is sequential cell division. The egg is divided into two "daughter" cells, which are then divided into 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, etc. It should be noted that the frequency of cell division throughout the body is not the same, as a result of which the number of cell divisions is disturbed. In mitosis, the chromosomes double. The meaning of mitosis is that the daughter cells receive exact copies of the set of chromosomes of the egg. From this follows the conclusion that all the cells of the body are similar to each other. Meiosis. After the individual has begun to develop, some of the cells are reserved. The reserved part of the cells is no longer involved in any processes. It is activated only when the individual reaches maturity, and participates in the reproduction of the individual. From this reserved part of the cells, very soon, but before the individual begins to multiply, cells - gametes begin to form. Male gametes are called sperm and female gametes are called eggs. Meanwhile, cells can differ in the number of chromosome sets: 1) cells that have only one chromosome set are called haploid (these are the same gametes); 2) ordinary cells are called diploid; 3) in life there are individuals with three, four or more chromosome sets: triploids, tetraploids, polyploids. 2. Quantum mechanics Quantum mechanics is otherwise called wave mechanics. So, quantum mechanics - this is a theory that establishes the method of describing and the laws of motion of microparticles (elementary particles, atoms, molecules, atomic nuclei) and their systems, as well as the relationship of quantities characterizing particles and their systems with physical quantities directly measured experimentally. Quantum mechanics has helped mankind to describe and understand such phenomena as: 1) ferromagnetism of solids; 2) superfluidity of solids; 3) superconductivity of solids; 4) the nature and origin of neutron stars, white dwarfs and other astrophysical objects was explained. The significance of quantum mechanics does not end there. In theory, quantum mechanics is divided into two types: 1) non-relativistic quantum mechanics; 2) relativistic quantum mechanics. The difference between relativistic and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Naturally, if there are two directions of quantum mechanics, then they must contradict each other. Through this contradiction one can see the meaning of both non-relativistic and relativistic quantum mechanics. Here are the characteristics that distinguish both directions: 1) non-relativistic quantum mechanics is more "rigorous", it is a complete fundamental physical theory, the main feature of which is its consistency. Relativistic quantum mechanics is more "soft", it admits the presence of contradictions in the theory; 2) in the non-relativistic theory it is considered that the information that helps the interaction is transmitted instantly. Relativistic quantum mechanics, on the other hand, states that the interaction propagates at a strictly defined speed (the so-called "final speed"). Therefore, there must be something that will facilitate such a transfer. And this "helper" is the physical field. One of the founders of quantum mechanics can be called Planck. He was the first to speak out against the theory of thermal radiation that existed at that time. The theory of thermal radiation was based on statistical physics and classical electrodynamics. These two branches of science did not complement each other, but, on the contrary, led to a contradiction in the entire theory of thermal radiation. What is Planck's point of view? And the essence of his point of view is that light is not emitted continuously (as previously thought), but in portions. To be more precise - discrete portions of energy, i.e. quanta. In quantum mechanics, the so-called discrete states are distinguished. The meaning of this state is that a large-scale body continuously changes its speed. Moreover, the change in this speed can occur both in the direction of its increase, and in the direction of its decrease. A variety of physical phenomena are of great importance for changing the speed. It is these phenomena that contribute to an increase in speed or, conversely, to its decrease. An example of a physical phenomenon that contributes to a decrease in the speed of a body is air resistance. To understand this, it suffices to recall the pendulum of a clock: first the pendulum oscillates quite "frequently" and then stops altogether. It is clear that not only Planck played an outstanding role in the development of quantum mechanics. The stages of development of quantum mechanics (this development can be traced in chronological order) look like this: 1) in 1905, Albert Einstein built the theory of the photoelectric effect. This theory was built to develop the ideas of Planck. Einstein suggested that light is not only emitted and absorbed, but also propagated in quanta. Therefore, discreteness is inherent in light itself; 2) in 1913 Bohr applied the idea of quanta to the planetary system of atoms. Bohr's idea led to a scientific paradox. According to Bohr, the radius of the electron's orbit was constantly decreasing. The electron in the end should have simply "fallen" onto the nucleus. Bohr decided that the electron does not emit light all the time, but only when it moves to another orbit; 3) in 1922, the American Compton proved that the scattering of light occurs by the collision of two particles; 4) the Compton effect also led to a paradox. He argued about the corpuscular-wave nature of light. And it was a clear contradiction: these two phenomena could not mix. In 1924, the French scientist Louis de Broglie put forward a theory according to which each particle must be given a wave that is associated with the momentum of the particle; 5) Austrian Schrödinger proved de Broglie's conjecture. Schrödinger came up with an equation that matches the behavior of de Broglie waves. This equation is called the "Schrödinger equation"; 6) in 1926, physicists conducted experiments that experimentally finally confirmed de Broglie's theory; 7) in 1927 Dirac comes up with his own equation, which becomes the main argument of relativistic quantum mechanics. This equation describes the motion of an electron in an external force field. Finally, quantum mechanics as a consistent theory was formed thanks to the works of the German scientist - physicist W. Heisenberg, who created a formal scheme. A feature of this scheme was that instead of mathematical coordinates and mathematical velocities, abstract quantities, the so-called matrices, appeared. Heisenberg's work was developed by other scientists (for example, Born, Jordan, and others). The work of the German physicist Heisenberg became the basis for matrix mechanics. Heisenberg is also the author of the hypothesis that any physical system can never be in a state in which the coordinates of its center of inertia and momentum take on equal values at the same time. This principle is known in science as the "uncertainty relation". According to this principle, the concepts of coordinates and momentum are not applicable to microscopic objects. This is because the experiment never leads to any exact data. This is due not to the fact that the measuring technique is imperfect, but to the objective properties of the microworld. LECTURE No. 7. Biochemistry 1. The concept of biochemistry, the history of its appearance Biochemistry is also known as organic chemistry. Both names are correct in my opinion. Biochemistry is a science that studies the compounds of carbon with other elements, i.e., organic elements and the laws of their transformation. This science studies chemicals, their structure and distribution in the body. The use of the laws of biochemistry dates back to ancient times. Man has long since learned to process animal skins, learned to make wine, mash, that is, he used fermentation processes, etc. The term "organic chemistry" was introduced in 1827 by the scientist J. Berzelius. How did organic chemistry develop? It all started with the fact that the point of view was undermined, according to which the so-called "life force" is present in the synthesis. This happened after F. Wehler investigated urea in 1828. All life processes are based on organic chemistry, because carbons are able to combine with many elements and can form molecules of very different composition and structure (for example, chain, cyclic, etc.). It is this ability of carbon that accounts for so many organic compounds: by the 90s. 10th century their number was more than XNUMX million. And this whole process of carbon synthesis with various elements led to the emergence of separate branches of science and new industries (for example, the production of synthetic dyes, etc.). Biochemistry itself consists of general and analytical chemistry, which were its "parents". To date, organic chemistry itself has long acquired "offspring". In the mid 20s. XNUMXth century molecular biology emerged. In connection with the growth of the national economy, technical biochemistry emerged as a separate science. Molecular biology is concerned with the study of the basic properties and manifestations of life at the molecular level, and also finds out how and to what extent the growth and development of organisms, the storage and transmission of hereditary information, and many other phenomena are due to the structure and properties of biological proteins and nucleic acids, i.e. macromolecules. Molecular biology is closely related not only to organic chemistry, but also to: 1) biophysics; 2) genetics; 3) microbiology. When did microbiology originate? It's not known for sure, but there are two points of view: 1) molecular biology emerged in the 20s. XNUMXth century At this time, there is an active introduction into biology of ideas and methods that were borrowed from physics. Such borrowing occurred in order to explain a number of phenomena, such as muscle contraction, heredity, and many others; 2) molecular biology arose in 1953. It was in this year that J. Watson and F. Crick developed their idea of the DNA double helix. In the Soviet Union, science also did not stand still, but developed. A huge contribution to this development was made by such Soviet scientists as A. N. Belozersky, V. A. Engelgardt. Molecular biology, biophysics, biochemistry, etc. are included in a single complex of sciences - physical and chemical biology. 2. Belozersky Andrey Nikolaevich and his scientific works Belozersky Andrey Nikolaevich was born in Tashkent on August 16 (and according to the old style on August 29), 1905. He became an outstanding Russian biochemist, winner of many all-Union and international prizes. Andrei Nikolaevich's father, Nikolai Andreevich Belozersky, was one of the first Russian settlers in Central Asia. His mother was a teacher and taught at the gymnasium. In 1913, misfortune befell the Belozersky family: both parents of Andrei Nikolaevich died, and he remained an orphan. Difficult years began for the boy: for several years he simply wanders around relatives, and then ends up in the Gatchina orphanage, where life was also not easy. In the revolutionary year of 1917, in the spring, the boy was taken in by his own aunt, his mother's sister. They settled in Kazakhstan, or rather in the city of Verny (now this city is called Alma-Ata). Without having a secondary education, he manages to enter a higher educational institution - the Central Asian State University at the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. Later he starts working at this university. At first, Belozersky got a job as a laboratory assistant. After several years, in 1925, Andrey Nikolaevich was already starting to teach. Belozersky was lucky in the sense that during these years many outstanding biologists from both capitals (that is, both from Moscow and Petrograd) worked at SAGU. Andrey Nikolaevich Belozersky falls under the positive influence of the famous biologist A.V. Blagoveshchensky. It was under his leadership that Belozersky prepared his first scientific work, which was devoted to the concentration of hydrogen ions in extracts from the leaves of some mountain plants. It is no secret that it was during these years that the pseudoscientist, the biologist Lysenko, played the most important role in Soviet biology, whose point of view was fundamentally wrong and illogical. But Andrey Nikolayevich ventured into molecular biology precisely during these years. Belozersky began to look for DNA not only in animals, but also in plants. After some time, time of hard work, he discovered DNA in ordinary peas, and then in a number of other plants and even in bacteria. He concluded that DNA is not unique to animals. DNA is inherent in all living organisms. This discovery brought Andrey Nikolaevich worldwide fame. With his discovery, he helped revive such a science as genetics in the Soviet Union. Under Lysenko, genetics was not practically banned. Andrei Nikolaevich is invited to attend a number of prestigious scientific symposiums to be held in foreign countries (for example, Belgium and the United States of America). Naturally, nobody let Belozersky go there. Belozersky's name is associated with the discovery of not only DNA in plants, but also a number of other discoveries that deserve attention. In 1957, Belozersky and Spirin suggested that cells contain not only DNA, but also RNA. Following this, Andrei Nikolaevich successfully defends his doctoral dissertation. After a short period of time, in 1958, something happened that should have happened - Andrei Nikolaevich Belozersky, while Lysenko was still alive, was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Three years later, in 1962, Belozersky became a full member of the USSR Academy of Sciences, and nine years later something inexplicable happened: Andrei Nikolaevich Belozersky was elected vice president of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Why is this inexplicable? The fact is that the vice-president of the Academy of Sciences was a purely nomenclature position, it was always occupied by members of the Communist Party. Belozersky, on the other hand, was non-partisan in general, that is, he was not a member of the Communist Party. This can be explained by the fact that after Lysenko, Soviet biology (and molecular biology in particular) was in such a deplorable state that it practically did not develop. Now Soviet science was headed by a man who was not involved in anti-scientific agitation. Also, thanks to the efforts of Andrei Nikolaevich, a modern laboratory of biochemistry and microorganisms was organized (at that time it was called the laboratory of antibiotics); Department of Virology at the Biology and Soil Faculty of Moscow State University in 1964; with his support, the Protein Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Pushchino was established in 1968. In 1965, Belozersky established an interfaculty laboratory of bioorganic chemistry at Moscow State University. In order to show the importance of Andrey Nikolaevich Belozersky's contribution to the development of molecular biology, the laboratory organized by him in 1965 was renamed the AN Belozersky Institute of Physicochemical Biology. In the memory of his contemporaries and students, Andrei Nikolaevich remained as a person with a quick temper. But, despite his temper, Belozersky quickly calmed down and quickly smoothed out the aggravated situation. The principle of his attitude towards his students is also interesting: Belozersky believed that the student should surpass his teacher, he even himself recognized the primacy of his student. Andrei Nikolaevich did not consider himself some kind of outstanding scientist - he simply worked for the sake of science and for science. For his enormous contribution to the development of science, Andrei Nikolaevich was awarded many awards and prizes: 1) in 1951 he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labor; 2) in "space" 1961, Belozersky is awarded the first Order of Lenin; 3) in 1965, after only about four years, Andrei Nikolaevich was awarded the second Order of Lenin; 4) in 1969 he was awarded the third Order of Lenin; 5) in 1969 Andrei Nikolaevich was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor; 6) in 1971 in the German Democratic Republic he was elected a member of the German Academy of Naturalists - "Leopoldina". LECTURE No. 8. Biophysics 1. General concepts and history Biophysics is a science that studies the physical and physico-chemical phenomena that occur in living organisms. Also, this science studies the structure and properties of biopolymers, as well as the influence of various physical factors on living organisms and living systems. For the longest period in human history, the sciences were thought to be "immiscible". Many centuries passed, and mankind realized that for further development it is necessary to study "hybrid sciences". The world's first attempts to apply physical methods and ideas to the study of a living organism were made as early as the XNUMXth century. Further development of biophysics is associated with: 1) studying the works of Luigi Galvani. In his works, he put forward the existence of "animal electricity" (more about it will be discussed below); 2) the study of the works of G. Helmholtz, as well as the study and development of acoustics and optics; 3) the study of the mechanics and energetics of living organisms; 4) the study of the works of P. P. Lazarev and the works of Yu. Bernshtein, as well as the study of the ionic and membrane theory of excitation. Biophysics studies integral systems without decomposing them into their component parts. If, however, component parts are singled out, then in the process of such "allocation" of the particular from the whole, the properties of the integral system that are important for the further normal existence of the system will be lost. This will primarily have a negative impact on biophysical science itself. Polymers function normally only in the conditions of an undisturbed, integral system. Therefore, biophysicists must invent new techniques and research methods. The main feature of such methods is that they study polymers precisely in the conditions in which they live. If the properties and processes of the cell, important for the further normal existence, were violated, then, accordingly, its physical and chemical parameters also change. Under certain influences, a cell may lose a number of its abilities (for example, the ability to polarize), although the appearance of the cells may remain unchanged. But a cell can not only lose its abilities, but also acquire so-called artifacts. Artifact for biophysics are newly formed structures and compounds. The main feature of artifacts is that they are not present in undamaged cells, i.e., in whole cells. With the advent of microscopes, and then with the use of electron microscopes, the boundaries of the study of biology, chemistry, biophysics and many other sciences have significantly expanded. Scientists, using the methods of electron microscopy, are trying to reveal the details of the fine structure of a molecular substance. At the same time, they can stumble upon artifacts. What can this lead to? And here's what: 1) if the artifact is indistinguishable by external features, then this can lead to erroneous results. In addition to "external similarity", here also play a significant role such factors as the presence of sufficient knowledge of the scientist and the manifestation of his maximum attention in the process of studying the cell; 2) an artifact can be discovered if the scientist has sufficient knowledge and information, and also showed maximum attention. Biophysical science faces a number of complex theoretical and practical tasks. These tasks are within the competence of biophysics, and other sciences can assist it: 1) the issue of energy exchange in a biological substrate; 2) study of the role of submicroscopic and physico-chemical properties and structures in the vital activity of cells and tissues; 3) the emergence of excitation and the origin of bioelectric potentials; 4) issues of autoregulation of physical and chemical processes in living organisms. The significance of the fourth task, i.e., the task concerning the issues of autoregulation of physicochemical processes in living organisms, lies in the fact that supramolecular structures that are absent in living organisms were identified in histological preparations. It has been well established that living cells have the following properties: 1) the presence of an electrical potential between the cell itself and its environment; 2) a living cell maintains an ion gradient in potassium and sodium between the cell and its environment; 3) the ability to polarize electric current. These properties are unique to living cells. One of the most prominent roles in the history of the emergence and development of biophysics was played by the outstanding scientist Luigi Galvani. 2. Luigi Galvani, his theory. Dispute with Volt Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) - an outstanding scientist, he studied anatomy and physiology. Galvani became one of the founders of the doctrine of electricity. Luigi Galvani is also known for being the first to draw attention to the fact that electrical phenomena occur during muscle contraction (this effect, or rather, the phenomenon, was called "animal electricity"). Luigi Galvani was born on September 9, 1737 in Italy, in the city of Bologna. He did not plan to study science, but sought solitude and wanted to converse in his prayers with the Creator, God. Therefore, Galvani first prepared to take the veil as a monk, but he did not succeed in leaving to live in a monastery. Most likely, Galvani realized that the ascetic way of life was not for him, and world history acquired another outstanding scientist. Galvani entered the local university, after graduating from which in 1759 he began to prepare his scientific dissertation. Luigi Galvani spends whole years on his scientific work. In 1762, Galvani successfully defended his dissertation, which was called "On Bones". Galvani's success was so great that he immediately took the post of head of the anatomy department of the university, from which he had recently graduated. Thus, the work of the young scientist was appreciated. In parallel with his scientific work, Luigi Galvani was also engaged in practice: surgery and obstetrics. After 12 years, in 1774, Galvani, conducting an experiment on a frog, discovers "animal electricity". Luigi Galvani became interested in this phenomenon as a physiologist. He was interested in the ability of a dead drug to manifest itself as a living material. He changed the position of the metal wire in the body of the frog, changed the current sources and many other parameters. Conducting such an experiment, Luigi Galvani wanted to use natural electricity as a current source, but the weather was clear and there was not a cloud in the sky. The scientist, purely by chance, pressed the electrodes, which were stuck into the spinal cord of the frog, to the iron grate on which the frog was lying. Luigi Galvani was very surprised when he saw that the same contractions appeared as during the experiments that were carried out during a thunderstorm. Luigi Galvani was even more surprised when he found out that muscles contract even when there is no external current source. It turned out that the muscles begin to contract even when two plates of different metals are simply placed on them, connected by a conductor. Another well-known scientist, physicist Alessandro Volta, became interested in these experiments of the physiologist Luigi Galvani. Volta suggested that electricity resides in those two plates of different metals that Galvani used. And electricity arises when these plates are connected by a conductor. Thus, the physicist Alessandro Volta became an opponent in a scientific dispute with the physiologist Luigi Galvani. Thus began the greatest controversy between the two scientists. Alessandro Volta insisted that the source of electricity was metals, while another insisted that the source of current was animals. Both scientists conducted experiments to confirm their theory. Luigi Galvani, it seemed to him, found irrefutable evidence for his point of view, which consists of two elements: 1) proved that electricity arises without the participation of metals; 2) having removed the skin from the nerve of the frog's leg, Luigi Galvani brought it to the muscles. The muscle began to contract. Alessandro Volta, however, did not calm down and did not back down. He also gave very, very convincing evidence in favor of his point of view. Although both Galvani and Volta believed that only one of them was right in the dispute, after a long period of time it became clear that both points of view have a right to exist. Alessandro Volta was a compatriot of Luigi Galvani, as both of them were born in Italy, but in different cities. His most important contribution to the development of science was his invention of a fundamentally new direct current source. In 1800, Alessandro Volta created the so-called voltaic pillar. It was the first chemical source of electricity. The name of Alessandro Volta was immortalized by the fact that the unit of potential difference of the electric field (volt) was named after him. Volta received his well-deserved recognition in the 1800th century. In XNUMX, Napoleon Bonaparte opened a university in Pavia and Volta was appointed professor of experimental physics. Volta was also introduced to the commission of the Institute of France; a few years later he receives a gold medal, as well as the award of the first consul; he is invited to work in St. Petersburg. The Pope assigns him a lifetime pension, and in France he receives the Order of the Legion of Honor. Later, Volta moved to live and work in Austria, at the University of Pavia. By this time, the scientist had already been awarded the noble title of count. The Austrian authorities took care of Volt so much that they allowed him to work without attending the service, and also confirmed his right to a lifetime pension. In Pavia, Volta was dean of the Faculty of Philosophy. Alessandro Volta died on March 5, 1827 in his homeland, in the Italian city of Como. LECTURE No. 9. Time 1. Uniformity of time According to the dictionary of the Russian language S. I. Ozhegov, time is defined in eight terms: 1) in the philosophical sense, this is one of the main forms (along with space) of the existence of infinitely developing matter; 2) duration, the duration of something, measured in seconds, minutes, hours; 3) a period of one or another duration in which something happens, a successive change of hours, days, years; 4) a certain moment at which something happens; 5) period, era; 6) time of day, year; 7) suitable, convenient time, favorable moment; 8) the same as leisure. This suggests that time is a heterogeneous concept. It can be used in various senses. The theory of the concept of modern natural science, like philosophy, studies the concept of time in a general philosophical sense. Albert Einstein's theory of relativity played an important role in understanding time. Before the advent of this theory, the scientific world was dominated by the teachings of Isaac Newton, who claimed that time is absolute. The emergence of the theory of relativity played a major role in overcoming the teachings of Isaac Newton. Albert Einstein argued that there is a fundamental connection between time and matter (ie, mass) and motion. According to the theory of relativity, there is a possibility of relative time dilation at speeds close to the speed of light (this is the so-called "twin paradox"). Time is studied not only in philosophy, physics, the concept of modern natural science, but also in the social sciences. The concept of objective historical time has taken an important place in the social sciences. It, this objective historical time, has become the basis for culture, history, etc. What has the study of time given philosophy? This question cannot be answered briefly, because time has become one of the foundations for creating many scientific concepts: 1) Marxism; 2) positivism; 3) evolutionism; 4) the teachings of Sorokin; 5) Russian cosmism. Time is characterized by three main features: 1) uniformity; 2) continuity; 3) unidirectionality of time (or irreversibility of time). The homogeneity of time means that any phenomena that occur in the same conditions, but in different periods of time, proceed in the same way. Simply put, if, for example, you start writing some scientific work today (be it a report, an abstract, a dissertation, etc.), this does not mean that if you start writing it yesterday or tomorrow, then its content will be better or worse. In this case, the quality of our scientific work will be influenced, first of all, by such factors as our knowledge of the topic of the work, focus on writing the work, attentiveness, understanding of the literature read and studied (textbooks, manuals, monographs, legislation, etc.). 2. Continuity of time Continuity scientists-philosophers refer to the monological properties of space and time. What is continuity? The continuity of time, not only in philosophy, but also in other sciences, implies that between two periods of time (despite the fact that they are located very close) it is always possible to distinguish a third period of time. Life on Earth, the change of generations by new generations, is such a continuity of time. The continuity of life is ensured by the processes of synthesis and decay, each organism gives or releases what other organisms use. Mamardashvili M. K. writes that the next moment does not follow from the previous moment. Simply put, if we do something very well today, this does not mean that tomorrow the same thing will be done as well (i.e., as today) and in general we always do it just as well. Descartes in his scientific works argued that for the reproduction of a substance we need no less force than for its creation. Time cannot be stopped, since it does not depend on the will and consciousness of a person. This phenomenon has no breaks, no stops, and it never pauses. In ancient times, scientists believed that space - this is emptiness, and time is always the same for our entire Universe. Today it is reliably known that the view of ancient scientists and philosophers described above is incorrect. A significant role in the refutation of this point of view was played by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, which was already mentioned above. In particular, Einstein proved that time can, as it were, be refracted and change its course (the "twin paradox"). 3. Unidirectional time Unidirectionality of time - this is a logical sequence of successive phenomena, events, etc. From this property of time, we can conclude that the appearance of a consequence is always preceded by the formation of a cause. On the contrary, it can NEVER be: you can’t bake bread first, and then grind flour in order to bake this particular loaf of bread. If the formation of the cause precedes the occurrence of the effect, then this is a violation of the rules of formal logic. In philosophy, the property of unidirectionality is also called the "arrow of time". The passage of time is indeed very similar to the flight of an arrow: 1) the arrow was fired - the Universe appeared; 2) the arrow is in the process of flight - life is developing stronger and stronger; 3) the arrow falls - the end of all living things comes. But Henri Bergson, one of the leading French philosophers of the 20th century, argued that it is possible, as it were, to combine time layers. He based his theory of duration and time on mixing memories from the past with the present time, present events. Henri Bergson believed that such a mixing of time layers is an act of what is known and what is only being known. LECTURE No. 10. Behaviorism 1. Watson's behaviorism At the beginning of the XX century. Behaviorism has become one of the most influential trends in science, in particular in psychology. Term "behaviorism" comes from the English word behavior, which is translated into Russian as "behavior". What does behaviorism study? He studies the activity, behavior of the individual. One of the founders of behaviorism was an American researcher John Watson. Before studying the scientific work of John Watson, it is necessary to clarify what behaviorism is. This trend in psychology, as mentioned above, gained its influence at the very beginning of the past XNUMXth century. Behaviorism was similar to psychoanalysis. This similarity lay in the fact that both areas of psychology were opposed to those aspects of associationism that are associated with ideas about consciousness, but the grounds for such opposition were different. Behaviorists believed that such concepts as "awareness", "experience" and others are subjective. They thought so, because all this, that is, awareness, etc., is based on an unscientific method of research, but only on human self-observation. All studies had to be based only on the results of such studies, which were recorded by objective means. External and internal activity behaviorists called "reaction". First of all, they attributed movements to reaction, since this could be fixed with the help of objective means. John Watson derived the following formula: S - R. In this formula, S is a stimulus and R is a response. A stimulus causes the body to behave in a certain way and, accordingly, some kind of specific reaction follows. In classical behaviorism, it was believed that only a stimulus can predetermine the nature of the reaction that will occur in the future. From this we can conclude that it is necessary to conduct as many tests and experiments as possible, record the data obtained, and analyze them. With the help of analysis, it would be possible to derive and understand the relevant patterns. Behaviorists believed that such a scheme of stimuli and response extended not only to humans, but also to the rest of the animal world. The "favorite" animals of the behaviorists were dogs, cats, and rats. That is why they so much and so often referred to the results of IP Pavlov's experiments. The main reason for such popularity of I.P. Pavlov was that the patterns of the conditioned reflex studied by the Russian scientist were very similar to the patterns of behavior that scientists tried to derive through the John Watson S - R formula. The popularity of behaviorism was due to the simplicity of the presentation of this direction and, accordingly, the simplicity of its principles. Watson's formula was considered universal, but further research did not confirm this. In fact, everything turned out to be much more complicated: one stimulus can lead to the onset of many reactions. Therefore, scientists have reworked the formula S - R and introduced another instance. They called this instance "intermediate variables". Here, for the first time, behaviorists deviated from their main rule: that cannot be considered scientific if it cannot find its objective confirmation (that is, subjective). A new formula S - O - R was developed. Now the behaviorists considered that this new instance, although it could not be objectively confirmed, also exerted its influence on the onset of the reaction. Therefore, the stimulus does not work alone - it only works in tandem with an intermediate variable. 2. Skinner's neobehaviorism Like any direction, behaviorism has been subdivided into several types over time. One of these types was neobehaviorism. One of the most prominent scientific figures in this movement was B. F. Skinner. He also believed that science has no right to engage in something that cannot be objectively confirmed. Skinner believed that such studies, that is, those that were not objectively confirmed, were unscientific. They should not be carried out, as it will be wasted effort, time and money. Skinner emphasized the study of the mechanisms of human behavior. The main goal of his research is to learn how to "program" human behavior in order to achieve the maximum result by the customer of "programming". Skinner actively implemented the practice of the “carrot method”: he believed that a positive stimulus was more conducive to the formation of the desired behavior. His associates conducted several hundred experiments. As a result, it was found that this method is actually the most effective. Skinner was not engaged in clarifying the goals of education, he was more interested in how a particular individual would behave in a given situation. Absolutely not interested and not explaining in any way, at least to himself, why he conducts such research, he asks himself the question: how to conduct research. In his research, this scientist does not attach any importance to psychoanalytic sociology and gets into trouble with his concept. But that doesn't scare him. He believes that if behaviorism cannot give a specific answer to any question, then such an answer does not exist in nature at all. Because of this, Skinner does not deny, but does not agree with the fact that every person has creative beginnings. Creativity should prevail among scientists or, for example, an engineer at a factory, not to mention artists. What an engineer does is clear: he develops, designs new models. And the workers of the plant collect these models. If all people have the same creative beginnings, then who will collect models? Consequently, if there are many people with a developed creative beginning in a society, then this will only make society worse. Skinner also argued that the slave owner was in control of the slave. This is understandable: if a slave does not fulfill the requirements of his master, then he is punished, and if he does, then he is encouraged. But the slave also controls his master: punishments and rewards depend on how the slave behaves. A slave can choose his own manner of behavior. True, it should be emphasized that the slave has a minimum of reverse control - after all, he can be forced to fulfill some of the requirements of the owner, which the slave does not want to fulfill. The works of B. F. Skinner attract liberal psychologists, since Skinner argued that a person is formed only under the influence of society. There is nothing in the nature of man that could predetermine his further development. Skinner, unlike Sigmund Freud, is absolutely not worried about human passions. He believes that a person always acts in accordance with his "usefulness". Simply put, a person, before committing this or that act, reflects on his usefulness. Such thinking is instinctive, a person simply seeks to win the favor of society, to occupy his niche in it. From this we can conclude that a person considers the interests of society to a greater extent (hence, society should educate this in all its members) than with his passions. 3. Mistakes of behaviorists. sociobehaviorism Most US scientists who study aggression and its manifestations are adherents of behaviorism. Although they deviate from Skinner's views, they still believe that the object of study is not the person himself (as an individual), but the process of performing the action itself. In this they agree with Skinner's point of view and also reject the teachings of Sigmund Freud. Scientists believe that a person uses power for a reason, but in order to achieve the maximum advantage, a position in society that he considers respectful, although it actually is not, since "respect" is based on fear. We can name the following the main mistakes of behaviorists: 1) they do not understand that it is impossible to study the performance of any action in isolation from a specific person; 2) they do not understand that under the same conditions, using the same "stimuli", many variants of "reaction" can arise. Sociobehaviorism. Sociobehaviorism is a special branch of behaviorism that was formed in the 1960s. Actually, the novelty here was that a person can gain experience not only from his own mistakes, but also by studying and analyzing the mistakes of other people that accompany one or another form of behavior. This mechanism is the most important in the process of socialization, and on its basis the foundations of aggressive and cooperative behavior are formed. To better illustrate this, Canada's leading psychologist Albert Bandura conducted an experiment with four-year-old children. The meaning of the experiment was that all the children were divided into 3 groups and all of them were shown the same film, but with a different ending. The protagonist of this film was engaged in beating the doll. The film had three endings that were shown to the respective groups: 1) the first group was shown the end of the film, where the hero was praised for such treatment of the toy; 2) the second group was shown the end of the film, where the hero, on the contrary, was scolded for such treatment of the toy; 3) the third group was shown the ending of the film, where the character's behavior was treated neutrally. The children were then taken to a room with toys. Among the toys was the same doll as in the movie. Among the children who were in the second group, the manifestation of aggression towards the toy was significantly less than among children from other groups, although they remembered how the hero of the film behaved. Albert Bandura concluded that observation forms not only new forms of behavior, but also activates previously learned forms. Albert Bandura saw positive things in the fact that an adult punishes a child. An adult, punishing a child, shows his aggressive form of behavior. And this, oddly enough, finds its positive response in the subconscious of the child: he learns a possible form of aggression. However, Albert Bandura was opposed to the media, as well as films that promote violence, as they "train" the child in aggression. And also in sociobehaviorism it is again affirmed that a person forms his behavior in accordance with the interests of the society in which he is and lives. LECTURE No. 11. Man's place in the world 1. Sections and subsections of the "man-world" system Since ancient times, man has been trying to comprehend his place in the world. This problem is one of the key, because, perhaps, without comprehending his place in the world, a person cannot understand the meaning of his existence. Many philosophers have tried to comprehend this problem, which also raises the question of the laws of nature. Or rather, their relationship, that is, man and the laws of nature, as well as interaction. This interaction is manifested in the fact that a person cannot exist without nature, without natural phenomena. By planting wheat, or rye, or barley, or some other crop or plant, a person always hopes to get a very good harvest. But it is impossible to get it without rain, that is, without the manifestation of the power of nature. What else is the interaction between man and nature? "Help" from nature has already been described a little higher. The “help” of a person lies in the fact that he should not litter his environment, but, on the contrary, should take care of nature. This is very actively pursued by various environmental organizations both locally and internationally. Unfortunately, the works of these organizations do not have a very strong influence on the situation. The environment around us will be polluted until each individual person understands that the situation in the world depends on his actions. This relationship between man and the world can be divided into two parts: 1) human substrate system; 2) the substrate system of the world. In turn, these two systems are also divided into four subsystems: 1) ontological system; 2) epistemological system; 3) axiological system; 4) praxeological system. Now let's take a closer look at these subsystems: 1) ontological system, i.e. the doctrine of being as such. In relation to the man-world system, it looks like this: man exists only thanks to nature. Nature is the god of man. If she wants, a drought will come, floods will begin, and the entire crop of a person will perish. Or it may be quite the opposite: an unprecedented harvest will be born; 2) epistemological system. This system consists of scientific knowledge of an object, i.e. nature. Knowledge of the physical laws of nature is the key to it; 3) axiological system. The term "axiology" comes from the Greek word axios, i.e. valuable. This system establishes gradations, that is, a division between means and ends; 4) praxeological system. Praxeology comes from the Greek words praxis - business, activity, action, and logos - science. This system is associated with sociological research. Praxeology is concerned with the study of various fields of science in terms of their effectiveness. 2. Basic concepts highlighting the place of man in the world There are several concepts that highlight the place of man in the world. But they all correspond, as it were, to certain criteria and, most importantly, answer the following two questions: 1) can a person comprehend all the laws of the world order and the universe? And also to the question whether he needs it; 2) how should a person behave with nature, what strategy of his behavior should he develop? These two key questions each have their own character: the first question has an epistemological character, and the second has a practical and ethical character. First concept. The first concept states that a person can and even must know all the laws of the universe. He will need this knowledge of the laws of nature in order to be guided by them in his later life. This knowledge is acquired by a person "accidentally", rather, even unconsciously. Observing a certain phenomenon, seeing its result, a person builds his strictly logical conclusions. And he sees the presence of strict cause-and-effect relationships between the phenomenon and the ensuing consequence. Now, having such knowledge, a person will already do what is more profitable for him. It was on the basis of this concept that theoretical ideas about man and his place in the world in philosophy, religion, etc. were created. It also finds its reflection in many well-known philosophers. In particular, it can be found in B. Spinoza, B. Pascal, R. Descartes. But that's not all. The concept developed further, it was refracted and is already found in a new form by Kant, Hegel and Feuerbach. Theirs is more complex. A simpler interpretation of this concept is found in Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx and throughout Marxist philosophy. But this theory can be found not only among philosophers: many world religions are based on it. But only such religions, which are based on obedience to the commandments of God (Islam, etc.). Second concept. The essence of the second concept of the world view of man and his place in the world is that a man cannot change anything, even if he perfectly knows all the laws of nature. Simply put, a person is a chip that is carried by a wave. A chip can be thrown ashore by the surf; the current can drive her into the middle of the sea; the chip may sink. Man has no power over nature or over his own destiny. In the history of cultural studies, one can find a lot of examples confirming this concept. For example, the well-known myth of Oedipus. Oedipus learned that sooner or later he would kill his own father and marry his own mother. He is trying with all his might to escape from this, he does not want the fulfillment of what was destined for him by fate. But you can't beat fate. All the actions of Oedipus, aimed at ensuring that what was intended for him by fate, on the contrary, bring it closer. The philosopher Ecclesiastes generally called all human activity nothing but "vanity of vanities". He believed that a person is too weak, too insignificant, and therefore he will not be able to resist all the objective laws of the universe. Something similar is seen in Christianity. This world religion claims that God's will is above everything, and a person, no matter how hard he tries, cannot decide or do anything himself (Christ directly says that a person cannot even change the color of his hair from black to white and vice versa). The salvation of a person, according to Christianity, also does not depend on the person himself - everything is the will of God. The main thing, according to Christianity, is: 1) believe in the existence of God; 2) keep all the commandments of God. 3. Three groups of ideas about the place of man in the world In the history of culture, as a rule, three groups of ideas about the place of man in the world are distinguished. 1. Fatalism. The essence of fatalism is that nothing depends on a person. And since nothing depends on a person, it means that there is no point in undertaking anything. There is only one thing left to do: go with the flow, and wherever it takes you. Fatalism is inherent to a greater extent in the countries of the Near and Middle East. It is no coincidence that the Eastern peoples had so many folk proverbs on the subject of fatalism. Probably the most famous oriental phrase on this subject: we are all in the hands of Allah. It emphasizes that the Almighty does with us whatever He pleases. The word "hand" plays a particularly symbolic role here. What can be done by hand? You can stroke with your hand, you can hit hard with your hand. And it is not the hand that decides what to do, but the one to whom it belongs. And this decision is not taken without reason, but must be provoked by some action or inaction. Therefore, the Eastern peoples have such a mentality. They pray much more often than Christians. By their constant appeal to Allah, they emphasize: 1) respect, love for him; 2) that they are ready for any trials and hardships that Allah will send them. 2. The second group can be called moderate fatalism. Moderate fatalism lies in the fact that a person, although he understands that he cannot change anything by his actions, still continues to do something. Moreover, moderate fatalism is more common than absolute fatalism. Most likely, the reason for this prevalence lies in the fact that a person does not lose hope for the best, for a favorable outcome for him. Such examples are found both in fiction and in real life. For example, in the novel by A. Camus "The Plague" people are fighting the plague. They continue their struggle, despite the fact that their efforts are ineffective. In reality, everyone has this experience. For example, students have a lot of signs that relate to passing an exam (this is to put their record book under the pillow; the day before the exam, wear the shirt that you are going to wear to the exam for a while; never show your record book to anyone, etc.). However, these measures will be ineffective if a very difficult ticket comes across, which is the worst you know. In this case, you have to rely only on the baggage of your knowledge. 3. The third group is associated with intuition (or with the sixth sense) of a person. How often does a person do not what his mind tells him, but what his intuition tells him to do? Constantly. Almost all scientific discoveries were made with the help of intuition. This group assumes complete freedom of action of a person. It does not matter that intuition often fails us. The main thing is that a person acted exactly as he wanted, and not as he should have. In literature, you can meet heroes who either act on the basis of intuition or in accordance with strict logic. An example of the first hero is Natasha Rostova from Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace. Often she does what something inside tells her. She mercilessly orders to free all carts from household items. She orders the carts to be given to the wounded. Many other heroes of the novel who do not participate in hostilities simply do not pay attention to the number of crippled people they meet. As a result, the reader understands the correctness of Natasha's act. Natasha performs such actions throughout the novel. An example of the second type of hero, that is, a hero who relies only on strict logic, is Sherlock Holmes. The great detective solves the most intricate crimes that happen. He explains everything with strict logic. Moreover, his clarifying questions at first seem meaningless, irrelevant. Spending long hours on solving problems, Holmes builds the most correct logical chain. LECTURE No. 12. Molecules and atoms 1. Molecules Even ancient philosophers argued that all things, objects, and the person himself are composed of small particles. Unfortunately, at that time it was not possible to prove the existence of such particles. But as time went on, mankind invented the first microscopes. Thus, the existence of these particles, which were called molecules, was scientifically proven. Molecules have their own size and their own weight. Physics studies molecular kinetic theory. The essence of this theory is that thermal processes occur in any body. The molecular kinetic theory explains that all bodies are made up of individual, randomly moving particles. This movement generates heat. The molecular kinetic theory is based on three statements: 1) the substance consists of particles; 2) these particles are in random motion; 3) these particles are also in constant interaction with each other. Physicists have even developed a formula by which the size of molecules can be calculated. Moreover, the difficulty lies not in using this formula, but in understanding how to apply it. The simplest example of calculating the size of a molecule is the calculation of the size of an olive oil molecule. If you drop just one drop of olive oil into a vat of water, the oil will never occupy the entire surface of this vat (provided, of course, that this vessel of water is large enough). A drop of olive oil will take a maximum of 0,6 m2, and the volume of this drop is 1 mm3. Simply put, as the oil spreads over the surface of the water, it will create a layer. And the thickness of this layer will be equal to one molecule of olive oil. If the dimensions of the molecules are small enough, then the dimensions of the atoms are even smaller. The diameter of the atoms is approximately 10-8 cm. These dimensions are simply unrealistic to imagine. It is easier to resort to the method of comparison: "If the fingers are clenched into a fist and enlarged to the size of the globe, then the atom, with the same magnification, will become the size of a fist." The number of molecules due to their small size in each body is enormous. It is very difficult to count them. But it is known that with each exhalation, a person exhales so many molecules that if they were distributed evenly in the Earth's atmosphere, then each inhabitant of our planet would receive two or three molecules. Since molecules exist and move, it means that physical forces necessarily act between them. This has long been proven. There is an attractive force between molecules and atoms. If it were not, then all bodies would be in a gaseous state. But, in addition to the force of attraction, there is also a force of repulsion. If there were no repulsive force, then all the bodies would simply stick together into one big lump. Electric forces act between molecules. And they only work at short distances. And the nature of these forces is as follows: there is an interaction between electrons and atomic nuclei of neighboring molecules. At a distance that is equal to two or three diameters of a molecule, an attractive force begins to act. As the molecules begin to approach each other, the force of attraction begins to increase. When the distance between the molecules becomes equal to the sum of the radii of the molecule, it begins to decrease. 2. The structure of the atom As mentioned above, in ancient times, philosophers assumed the existence of molecules and atoms. Ever since man "firsthand" saw them, it was believed that molecules can divide, but atoms cannot. This was the main misconception of scientists. At the end of the XIX century. experiments were carried out that revealed that atoms can not only divide, but also turn from one to another. Since then, a new section has been singled out in chemistry, which has received the name "Structure of the atom". The real study of the structure of the atom began around 1897-1898. At that time, it was reliably established that cathode rays arise during electrical discharges in rarefied gases. The experiment with cathode rays was carried out as follows: air was pumped into glass tubes into which electrodes were soldered, and then electricity was passed through them. Cathode rays are invisible to the human eye, but the places they pass through "burn" with a light green light. Cathode rays do not propagate outside the tube, since glass is impenetrable to them. Scientists have found that cathode rays are made up of tiny particles. These tiny particles carry a negative charge, and their speed of movement is equal to half the speed of light. The mass and charge of an atom are known. Thus, the mass of an atom is 0,00055 carbon particles, and the charge is 1,602 times 10 to the minus 19th power. It should be noted that there is not the slightest connection between the mass of particles, the magnitude of their charge, and between the nature of the gas they make up. The size and charge of the particles do not depend on the substance from which the electrodes are made, as well as on other conditions of the experiment. Moreover, cathodic particles are known only in a charged state and cannot exist without their charges, cannot be transformed into electrically neutral particles: the electric charge is the very essence of their nature. These particles are called electrons. In 1911, Rutherford proposed his theory of the structure of the atom: 1) an atom consists of an atomic nucleus, which is positively charged; 2) a chemical bond between atoms of different elements is a manifestation of the interaction between two outer electrons of neighboring atoms. Despite the fact that Rutherford's model was the most modern at that time, it did not explain the main thing: why one atom always returns to its original position after a collision with atoms of other substances. This constancy was explained Niels Bohr. Bohr applied Planck's quantum hypothesis to Rutherford's model and proved that while an atom can only change its energy discontinuously, the atom exists only in discrete stationary states. The lowest of these states is the normal state for the atom. Now physics has explained what Rutherford could not explain. Bohr's theory was confirmed in numerous theories of such famous world scientists as Frank, Hertz, Stern, Gerlach, and a number of others. LECTURE No. 13. Christianity 1. The rise of Christianity Христианство - one of the most widespread world religions. Christianity was one of the reasons for the collapse of the great Roman Empire. Then, when this religion appeared, Rome was going through difficult times. One of the main reasons for this was the cooling of the citizens of Rome towards their gods, many simply stopped believing in them. The second reason was that there were many slaves in Rome. "Many slaves - many enemies" - said the Roman proverb. Christianity claims that God is one in three persons: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit. The meaning lies in the philosophical understanding of this unity, and it can be expressed as follows: 1) God is the Father. Our God is the Creator, it was He who created the Universe and all living things in it; 2) God is the Son. Jesus Christ in the Bible states: "I and the Father are one." From this we can conclude that God the Father is inseparable from God the Son; 3) God - the Holy Spirit means the eternal existence of God. He never appeared, since He exists forever, it is He who is the root cause of all living things. We know that man was created in the image and likeness of God. But few people know that before Eve, the first man, Adam, had another wife. Her name was Lilith. This name goes back to Sumerian times and sounds like Lilleik. Scientists learned about this when they discovered ancient tablets with the inscription: "May the Lord bless you and keep you from Lilith!". In literature, one can find two different beginnings of the legend about Adam and his first wife, Lilith. In general, the word "adam" is translated as "man". According to the first version, which is contained in the Bible, the first people were created in the image and likeness of God from dust ("adam" can also be translated as "dust"). And Eve was created later from Adam's rib. But more on that later. According to the second version, only Adam was created in the image and likeness of God, and Lilith was created as his assistant. Lilith turned out to be a very wayward and stubborn woman. She disobeyed and opposed the will of Adam. She believed that she had the same rights as Adam. Adam argued otherwise. Lilith was very angry with Adam. She went straight to Yahweh (this is one of the names of God) and, having seduced Him, she learned his Sacred Name, which no one could know, let alone pronounce aloud. Lilith could not resist and immediately said the sacred name aloud. In less than a fraction of a second, Lilith was expelled from the Garden of Eden. Lilith ended up on the coast of the Red Sea in a cave. There is a claim that she still lives in this cave. The woman was not left alone: she made love with demons, and later became the wife of the Demon King Asmodeus. Lilith became known as the mother of many thousands of demons, and her name from now on was this - Younger Lilith. She received her new name from the time she married Asmodeus. Adam at this time became sad and began to regret that Lilith was expelled. He came to Yahweh and began to ask Him to return Lilith. God had mercy on him and said that if Lilith wants to voluntarily return, then she will be forgiven, and if she does not want to voluntarily return, then one hundred of her demon children will die daily. With such a proposal, three angels went to Lilith, whose names were Senoy, Sansenoy and Semangelofa. Angels found the Younger Lilith: 1) according to one legend, in a cave; 2) according to the second version of the legend, Lilith was discovered in the middle of the sea, on high waves. She refused this offer. Senoya, Sansenoya and Semangelofa told her that if she did not agree, they would drown her. This threat worked, but Lilith still refused to return. She promised that she would kill small children. But not all: the younger Lilith promised that she would not touch the children who would be wearing amulets with outlines or with the names of Senoy, Sansenoy and Semangelof. Such amulets were found in reality, and the inscription on them was something like this: "Senoi, Sansenoy and Semangelof! Adam and Eve! Cast out Lilith!" In this case, the angels promised not to touch Lilith. But she didn't stop. And now she decided to take revenge on her ex-husband Adam. And she succeeded. Adam and Eve were expelled from the Garden of Eden. But what role did Lilith play here? After all, it is known that the expulsion from the Garden of Eden was due to the fault of Eve. When our forefathers lived in the Garden of Eden, they did not know anything bad. As a result, Eve was so naive that she believed the Serpent. Lilith here acted as a snake, but the voice with which she spoke did not belong to her, but to her husband Samael (or Satan). By this time, Lilith had become one of his four wives and had a new name - Elder Lilith. Having eaten the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of Good and Evil, Adam and Eve were expelled from Eden, as they violated the only prohibition that God set for them. But even on this, according to legend, Lilith did not calm down. She began to haunt Adam in his dreams and tempted him to conceive new demons. The legend also claims that Samael did the same with Eve, from whom Eve gave birth to Cain, who later became the first killer. Everyone knows the story of Cain and Abel. Cain was jealous of Abel for God and killed his brother, and he himself was cursed until the end of his days and wandered all over the world all his life. Meanwhile, God had mercy on Adam and Eve, and they had a third son, whose name was Seth. Adam at that time was about 130 years old. According to another point of view, Adam was much older: after the murder of Abel by Cain, he did not approach his wife for 130 years. An angel appeared to Adam, who told him the news that they would have a third son. Seth became the symbol of a heretical sect. This sect claimed that Sif - this is the Messiah. But much later this sect merged with the Christian Gnostics and became known as the "Sephites". 2. Ten Commandments Christianity regulates the moral life of man. This regulation is carried out using a kind of "mechanism". This "mechanism" consists of ten biblical commandments that were given by God to people through the prophet Moses: 1) do not worship and do not create other gods for yourself; 2) do not make yourself an idol; 3) do not take the name of the Lord in vain; 4) keep the Sabbath; 5) honor your father and your mother; 6) do not kill; 7) do not commit adultery; 8) do not steal; 9) do not bear false witness against your neighbor; 10) Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife. First commandment proclaims the idea of the existence of one God. The human soul, according to Christianity, can never go to heaven if he believed in two or more gods at once. God will not tolerate comparing Himself with non-existent spirits and mythical gods, since what is and what is not and could not be is incomparable. Second Commandment speaks of the inadmissibility of creating an idol for oneself. According to the Bible, when Moses talked with God, the people gave away all the precious things they had and made a golden calf out of them. They stopped praying to God, stopped fasting, and began to worship a new deity. At the same time, the philosophy of this deity boiled down to the fact that there were no prohibitions: people simply indulged in all sinful pleasures. Third Commandment Do not take the name of the Lord in vain. The Lord does not like being "disturbed" just like that. Most people around the world began to use the name of the Lord God as a common noun. And this, of course, became unpleasant to the Lord. God should be approached only during prayer. Fourth commandment - Keep the Sabbath. Fifth commandment tells us that we should honor our parents. Honoring parents should be roughly equal to honoring God. Parents, on the other hand, must plant seeds in the souls of their children, from which the reverence for them and the Lord will grow. Sixth commandment - do not kill. Murder is one of the worst human sins. The first murder is known to have been committed by Cain. Since then, the earth has absorbed human blood, and in the human soul, killing has become a way to solve the problem. Seventh Commandment - do not commit adultery. Adultery is a violation of marital fidelity. Marriage between a man and a woman presupposes love between them. A real marriage is made in heaven once and for all. The Lord forbade "gazing" at another woman or at another man to those who have already entered into a marriage. Eighth commandment - don't steal. Theft, according to the law, is the secret theft of another's property. But, despite the fact that in modern legislation theft does not belong to especially dangerous crimes, it is, along with murder, one of the most terrible human sins. Ninth commandment Do not bear false witness against your neighbor. Here the main point is that one cannot lie, that is, one cannot talk about what a person did not do or attribute to him what was not done by him, but by some other person. Tenth commandment - Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his house, nor his servant, nor his maidservant, nor his donkey, nor his donkey, etc. This commandment is similar in meaning to the seventh commandment. But the tenth commandment includes, besides adultery, envy. In Christianity, envy is one of the worst sins. A person should be content with what he has. You can't want something that someone else has (regardless of the value of that thing). You need to achieve everything in life yourself. envious person - a limited person, because he cannot get what he wants on his own. He is looking for easier ways to get this thing. And often these ways are theft or murder. 3. Jesus Christ. His birth, life and death There is no doubt that Jesus Christ is a key figure in the Christian religion. Son of God, Savior, Messiah. He took all human sins upon himself, resisting the temptations of Satan. According to the Bible, Jesus was born about 2 years ago. It is from his birth that the modern chronology begins. An angel appeared to his mother Mary at night, who told her that she would have a son. The birth of a boy was predicted before his birth. Joseph, the husband of Mary, and Mary herself were very happy about this. They learned from an angel that their future son is the Son of God. It is he who will have to save humanity. At this time, King Herod learned that the King of the Jews had been born. Herod was a greedy, evil man; he thought that a baby was born who would take his throne in the future. Herod decided on an unprecedented step - he ordered to kill all newborn babies. But an angel appeared and ordered Joseph and Mary to urgently flee to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born. Numerous wise men came to the baby: the shepherds saw a new unusually bright star in the sky and followed it. This star pointed them to the door, behind which was a newborn baby. The Magi brought their gifts to baby Jesus, as they knew that before them was the true King of the Jews. Years passed. Jesus grew up and began to preach faith in his Father. He performed many miracles: 1) turned water into wine; 2) fed 5 thousand people with five loaves of bread and two fish. Moreover, there were 12 boxes of food left; 3) Jesus healed the sick; 4) Jesus raised the dead. For example, there is a legend according to which Christ raised Lazarus. A few years later, Jesus recruited 12 disciples who are called apostles in the Bible. All of them sacredly believed in the Divine origin of Christ, their Teacher. But there was also a traitor among them - Judas. He sold his Master for 30 pieces of silver. At that time, almost a hunt began for Jesus. The high priests of that time did not like the instructions of Christ, as they went against the policy of the church. They managed to bribe Judas, who promised to give them Christ. He said that Christ is the person he will kiss. Indeed, after the Last Supper, Judas committed his betrayal. Jesus was not at all angry with Judas - He knew about his fate. At the Last Supper, Jesus told his disciples that one of them was a traitor. Then Peter, one of his disciples, said that he would never betray or deny his Master. But before the roosters crowed three times, Peter denied Christ three times. Peter realized what he had done and became even more zealous in preaching his faith in Christ. According to the Bible, the apostle Peter stands at the gate that leads to paradise. Most likely, Peter is not allowed further because of his denial of Christ. But he did not go to hell either, because he realized his mistake and did everything possible to spread Christianity. Jesus Christ was captured and crucified on the cross. Crucifixion was the most shameful execution. So only slaves were executed. Having killed the body of Christ, the executioners did not kill his soul. 3 days after the crucifixion, Jesus resurrected, and another 40 days later he ascended on a cloud to his Father, that is, to heaven. The Bible states that a person who believes in God and Jesus is guaranteed a path to heaven. 4. Pentateuch of the prophet Moses The great prophet Moses was entrusted with an unusually difficult, but extremely necessary mission: he was to lead all the Jews out of Egypt. Moses managed to convince the Egyptian pharaoh to let his people go. But after a while, the pharaoh wanted to bring the Jews back, and he sent an army after them. The army caught up with the Jews at the shore of the Red Sea, but the sea parted, and all the people managed to escape from the Egyptians. Moses and his people had many difficulties during their journey: the Jews began to grumble at the prophet when they wanted to eat (then God sent them manna from heaven), and also when they wanted to drink (then Moses struck them water from the rock). In addition to this mission, Moses also wrote the Pentateuch. The first book. The first book has an extremely important role. It was completed around 1448 BC. e. and is called "Genesis". This book describes God's great plan for the destiny of mankind. But man refused responsibility before God. Despite the fact that the Lord offered man ways to solve this problem, man showed that his heart was capable of producing only evil. The Lord understood that His prohibitions had not been observed by humanity for a long time. He decided to cleanse the entire world of sin through the Great Flood. But the Lord did not want to destroy all people. He chose only Noah (descendant of Adam and Eve's third son Seth) and his family for salvation. They built a huge ark, where they housed themselves, and also placed a pair of each creature. But even after the flood the world was not cleansed of sin. The last straw in the patience of the Lord was the Tower of Babel. People began to treat God and the church so blasphemously that they decided to build a tower to the sky. God did not tolerate this and confused the languages of the people. Speaking in different languages, people were unable to continue building the tower. But the Lord did not stop loving people. He chose Abraham so that a new people would come from him. From Abraham came Isaac, from Isaac came Jacob, and from Jacob came his twelve sons, who were called the fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel. Among them stands out the favorite son of Jacob - Joseph. He was sold by his brothers into slavery to the Egyptian pharaoh. But in Egypt, Joseph was released. He deserved it by being able to do what the Egyptian sages failed to do - he explained to the pharaoh his two dreams: 1) seven fat cows and seven skinny cows; 2) about seven thick ears of wheat and about seven withered ears of wheat. Joseph returned home and forgave his brothers. Second book. The second book of Moses ("Exodus") tells how the descendants of the twelve tribes of the fathers of Israel were enslaved and driven to Egypt. Moses grew up, was brought up and lived in the palace of Pharaoh for forty years. It was to him that the Lord entrusted the mission to save the Jews. Ten “plagues of Egypt” were sent to Egypt. The trouble did not affect only those houses that were anointed with the blood of the lamb. In this way it was shown that Jews are no worse than others. If the inhabitants of Egypt disobey the Lord, they will suffer the same fate as the inhabitants of Israel. Moses, as already mentioned, led his people in the wilderness for forty years. None of the Jews who left Egypt, including Moses himself, ever reached the lands that the Lord intended. The second book also tells how the Lord commanded that a tabernacle be built so that the Jews could communicate with him. Third book. The third book is called Leviticus. It was written by Moses in 1448 BC. e. in the Sinai desert. She describes how God, at the very beginning of the existence of this tabernacle, gave Moses the 5 most important sacrifices of the Jewish people: 1) burnt offerings; 2) food offerings; 3) peace offering; 4) sin offerings; 5) service offerings. The Lord also said that not everyone should bring these sacrifices: only special persons - priests - should bring them. Aaron (brother of Moses) and his sons became priests. The Lord also gave the laws of worship, which can be divided into 3 groups: 1) hygienic; 2) liturgical; 3) symbolic. Also in this book a holiday is established - the Great Day of Purification. On this holiday, priests, in addition to their daily duties, had to perform a number of special duties. In addition, the third book mentions some other important aspects of Jewish life. Fourth book. The fourth book tells how the people of Israel lived in the desert. The Israelites received the law (i.e., commandments) at Mount Sinai. They set off. But due to the fact that the spies, of which there were 12 people, indulged in pleasure for too long on the land that God had prepared for his people to live in, they were late and returned only after 40 days. The Lord was angry with them and with all the people and made the Israelites walk in the desert for 40 years. Also in the fourth book it is said that the Israelites were divided into clans, according to the twelve tribes of Israel. At the same time, Levites were singled out, on whom special duties were imposed to serve in the tabernacle. This was followed by many laws: the law of purification, the law of sanctification, the law of Nazariteship. For the first time, Passover was celebrated in the desert. Also in the fourth book it is told that, although the Israelites constantly rebelled against God, they still followed Moses, and therefore followed God. The Lord led his people through the help of peculiar natural phenomena: "a cloud and a column of fire" (this is mentioned in the ninth chapter of the fourth book), and also with the help of two silver trumpets (this is mentioned in the tenth chapter of the fourth book). During the journey, the Israelites receive many laws that regulate the religious, moral and social life of man. Despite the fact that the Lord was very angry with the Israelites, everyone could still make peace with Him by offering Him a sacrifice. Unfortunately, Moses and his brother Aaron also lost their trust in God. Therefore, the Lord did not let them into the Promised Land. The people of Israel again began to wallow in sin, and the Lord sent the Bronze Serpent against them. Initially, the snake healed the Israelites from the bites of poisonous reptiles that were sent to the Israelites for their transgressions. After some time, the Bronze Serpent began to be called "Nekhushtan" and turned into an object of idolatry. In the course of the church reform, King Khizkiyahu ordered to break the image of the serpent. The Israelites entered the lands of the people of Midian, who were brutally exterminated by them. The two tribes of Israel liked these lands so much that they refused to go further and began to settle here. Fifth book. The fifth book (Deuteronomy) is different in that it contains mainly the speeches of Moses in which he explains to the Israelites the meaning of the Ten Commandments. In the same book, Moses predicts the birth of Jesus Christ and gives the corresponding law. In total, the following laws were given in the fifth book: 1) about idolatry; 2) on the consumption of meat; 3) about the Sabbath year; 4) about holidays; 5) on the administration of justice and a number of other laws. Moses also predicts that the people of Israel will fall away from the Law, but God will still show mercy to His people when Israel is scattered among all the peoples of the world. Moses said that the children of all the tribes of Israel would be gathered and returned to the glorious Promised Land. After the fifth book of Moses comes an appendix to it. This addition describes the death of the great prophet Moses. LECTURE 14. Islam 1. Origin of Islam Islam is a fairly young religion. It arose a little more than 16 centuries ago - approximately in the XNUMXth century. Islam has Christian roots, this can explain the fact that the Koran contains a norm called "dhimma". Dhimma is even more of a status. It provides, as it were, a more respectful attitude towards adherents of Christianity and Jews. Islam governs all aspects of personal and social life. It was also in Christianity, but modern Christian norms are simply guided by the creeds of the church. Islam still plays a very important role in the life of every Muslim. This religion predominates in about 36 countries with a total population of approximately 900 million people. Two thirds of these 900 million (ie approximately 650 million inhabitants) are Muslims, so Islam is widespread in such countries. In these countries, although it is said that the rights of adherents of other religions are not greatly infringed, they are made quite clear that they differ from adherents of Islam. The Qur'an forbids the forced conversion of infidels to Islam. Who are the infidels? Muslims claim that only their religion is the only true one, and they call themselves orthodox. Therefore, all others are false. The Koran allows only voluntary adoption of Islam. Leaving Islam is simply impossible: according to the Koran, this act is punishable by death. To convert to Islam, a person must complete a number of formalities: 1) cleanse yourself by washing, that is, take a shower; 2) to utter a ghadah, i.e. a sincere speech, which should express loyalty to Islam. In Muslim countries, the laws established in accordance with the Koran apply not only to Muslims, but also to all other people living in these countries (for example, in Muslim countries, a "dry law" is established that prohibits the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages). Also, the great importance of Islam is emphasized by the fact that it is forbidden to perform religious rites in private houses or premises that are not intended for the performance of these rites. The connection between Islam and Christianity lies in the fact that the Koran tells about the Son of God Jesus. However, Jesus seems to play a secondary role here. The Quran gives priority to the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam. 2. Prophet Muhammad Mohammed (or in other words, Muhammad, or Mohammed) was born into a poor Meccan family. His parents died when he was still young, so he was brought up in his grandfather's house. His grandfather was engaged in caravan trade, and the boy began to help him. At the age of 25, Muhammad married a wealthy Meccan widow named Khadija bint Khuwaylita. She bore him several sons, but the children died in infancy. But 4 daughters of the prophet also survived. While his wife was alive, Muhammad did not take other wives. Muhammad was very fond of solitude, he was quite educated and knew the basics of Christianity and Judaism. Once, having retired to the mountains in order to meditate alone, Muhammad heard a voice from outside and was very frightened. At that time Muhammad was 40 years old. Only after some time did he realize that he had been chosen by the deity as his messenger. From now on, his mission was that he had to preach faith in the one and only god Allah. For this purpose, the prophet went to the city of Mecca, where his preaching was ridiculed. But Muhammad still found his supporters, who were further persecuted. The authorities did not dare to oppose Muhammad himself, since he was under the protection of his kind, which was headed by Abu Talib. Many supporters of Islam could not stand the persecution and were forced to leave for other countries. Most of them settled in Ethiopia. But several years passed, and Muhammad's wife died, and Abu Talib also died. Thus, Muhammad is deprived of protection. He begins to zealously look for new supporters. Basically, he began to address people who came to Mecca on trade matters. At some point, the Meccans, who were already tired of this confrontation, offered an ultimatum to Muhammad. This ultimatum was that the mission of Mohammed was recognized, and Allah became the first of all gods. But the ultimatum was rejected: Muhammad claimed that Allah is the only God. Seeking protection and new supporters, Mohammed settles near the oasis. This settlement was called Yathrib. The inhabitants of this settlement were themselves pleased with the arrival of Muhammad. Yathrib was inhabited by both pagans and Arab tribes who converted to Judaism. By the time Muhammad arrived, they were mired in protracted internecine wars. To resolve disputes, according to the law, an arbitrator was needed. They were made by Muhammad. From the moment when Muhammad finally settled in Yathrib, the Muslims began a new chronology, and the settlement itself was renamed Mazhinat annabi ("City of the Prophet") or simply al-Madina (or Medina). Muhammad became not only a religious preacher, but also a political figure. He hoped for the help of the Arab tribes inhabiting Yathrib, but they openly ridiculed him and preferred to go over to the side of Mecca. Together with the Arabs, Mohammed was betrayed by some other pagan tribes. The position of the prophet is growing. The first mosque is being built - the house of Muhammad. In his sermons, the great prophet establishes norms and rules governing civil and family law. Bans were placed on pork, wine, and gambling. The special position of Muhammad was emphasized by the fact that some prohibitions did not apply to him. At the same time, open armed clashes between Muslims and Meccans began. Muslims begin to win victory after victory, which strengthens their confidence in the correctness of their religion. During one of the battles, Muhammad was wounded in the head, and the Muslims, who by this time had suffered significant losses, preferred to retreat. The Meccans, on the other hand, failed to build on their military success, and the following year they were again defeated. Islam is spreading in those territories of Arabia that border on Byzantium, as well as in Yemen and a number of other states. At the end of his life, the Prophet Muhammad decides to start spreading Islam in the north. Around 632, he unexpectedly dies for everyone. There is a point of view according to which Muhammad was poisoned. With the death of Muhammad, the direct connection of Muslims with Allah ceased. After his death, the community began to be ruled by caliphs - deputies of the Prophet in the implementation of the laws and rules commanded by Muhammad and set forth in the Koran. Muhammad was buried in the main mosque of Medina, the Prophet's Mosque. Despite the fact that after the death of his first wife, Muhammad married several times, he had no sons, but only a daughter. 3. Principles of Islam Like many other religions, Islam has its own principles. The most important of these is the principle of obedience. It lies in the fact that a Muslim is obliged to strictly observe the word of Allah, that is, to obey those precepts that are contained in the Koran. The Qur'an is said to have been given to Muhammad. This book was given to him by the archangel Gabriel. And in this one can see another relationship between Christianity and Islam. Also, another archangel is mentioned in the Quran - Archangel Michael, but the terms of his powers are not described. The Koran regulates all spheres of life of a true Muslim. This book even establishes civil and criminal laws. Muslims believe that the true interpretation of the Qur'an is the interpretation given by the Prophet Muhammad in his lifetime. An explanation of these interpretations is contained in the so-called hadiths, i.e. additional texts. Hadiths summarize the beliefs of Muslims: 1) to believe in one god, in the one and only Allah; 2) to believe in the angels sent by Him; 3) to believe that sooner or later the Day of Judgment will come; 4) to believe in the people sent by God, that is, in the prophets. It should be noted that the revelation of God is not only contained in the Qur'an, it is also contained in: 1) "the leaves of Abraham". Unfortunately, today traces of these books have been lost; 2) "sheets" of Moses, i.e. in the Pentateuch of the prophet Moses; 3) Psalms of David. Although in Islam the main role is assigned to the prophet Muhammad, other prophets are also spoken of. In particular, about Adam, Enoch, Father Methuselah, Abraham, David, Jacob, Moses, John the Baptist, Jesus Christ. Moreover, Jesus is assigned the role of a judge during the Last Judgment. Muslims believe in the divine origin of Jesus Christ. They say: why couldn't Man have been created without a father when Adam was created without a father or mother at all? But not everything was smooth within Islam itself. For centuries, there have been conflicts in which political and religious factors have mixed and mixed. The most serious of them are religious, since they leave a deep imprint in the souls of people. There are 3 groups of directions in Islam: 1) Sunnism; 2) Shiism; 3) Kharijism. Adherents of the first group make up the majority (about 90% of the total number of Muslims). The remaining ten percent are Shiites, and there are no representatives of Kharijism today. Kharijism was characteristic of the birth of Islam, when Islam was not yet a separate religion, but rather a sect. The main difference between the supporters of these directions is their attitude towards the Caliphate. The Sunnis claim that Muhammad's successors were his supporters, who were appointed in a wide variety of ways (up to a hereditary caliphate). The Shiites associated the legitimacy of the existence of the caliphate with the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad or the descendants of his son-in-law Ali. And the Kharijats believed that any devout Muslim who possessed the quality of virtue could lead the caliphate. The word "caliph" in Arabic means "deputy", "successor". Initially, the three successors of Muhammad were called caliphs. But then the caliphate began to play not only a religious, but also a political role. The procedure for the inauguration of the caliph was not initially established. The Umayyad dynasty, which came to power around the XNUMXth century, established its own characteristics: 1) the dynastic principle was established; 2) only a person of Arab origin could become a caliph, i.e. the parents of a child who in the future would take the position of caliph had to be Arabs; 3) it was clarified that the caliph is not the representative of the prophet, but of God. After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, the Abbasid dynasty came to power. This dynasty also continued to develop the caliphate. In particular, during her reign, changes were made such as: 1) the caliphate was established in Baghdad; 2) only the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad received access to it. Then the caliphate was transferred from Baghdad to Egypt. Here he passed into the hands of one of the Turkish sultans, whose name was Selim the Terrible. The caliphate was abolished relatively recently - in 1929 Ataturk abolished it. At this time, the caliphate no longer had any political or religious weight. From 1924 he played the role of a symbol, a symbol of Islamic solidarity. For many centuries, the caliphate performed only one function - it ruled over the community of believers. However, later this function began to be mixed with political functions - the head of the caliphate began to play the role of the head of state. This is especially noticeable in countries where Shiite Islam predominates. In these countries, the head of state, the imam, began to perform both political functions and the functions of a religious and spiritual mentor of the state. LECTURE No. 15. Buddhism 1. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism Buddhism is the world's oldest religion. It originated around the 18th century. BC e. in northeast India. Its founder, the Buddha, was Prince Siddhartha Gautama (later he received the name Buddha), but we will talk about him and his biography in the next question. Buddhism was most widespread at the end of the 447st millennium BC. e. At the beginning of the first millennium A.D. e. Buddhism had a great influence on Hinduism, but it was also supplanted by it by the 367th century. n. e. practically disappeared from India due to the opposition of the ideas of Buddhism to the caste system. At the beginning of the III century. BC e., it covered Southeast and Central Asia and partially Central Asia and Siberia. Then Buddhism was divided into XNUMX sects, disagreements between which led to the convening of councils in Raja Griha in XNUMX BC. e., in Vaishavi in XNUMX BC. e., in Patalirutra in the III century. BC e. and led at the beginning of our era to the division of Buddhism into two branches: Hinayana and Mahayana. Buddhism is based on four noble truths: 1) full awareness of suffering; 2) complete elimination of the cause of suffering; 3) full awareness of the need to end suffering; 4) full realization of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering. Buddhism claims that the main cause of our suffering is our own ignorance. The elimination of this cause of suffering will inevitably lead to what every person aspires to - to peace, happiness, the fullness of life. This can only be achieved through the so-called practices: 1) the practice of penetrating the ability into the essence. Simply put, it is the wisdom of man. Wisdom is the weapon with which our ignorance must be eliminated; 2) the first practice in itself means nothing without the practice of concentrating the mind. This practice means that a person is able to penetrate into the philosophical depths of being, as well as into the depths of other philosophical problems; 3) these abilities-practices (wisdom and concentration) appear only when a person begins to lead an ethically pure life; when the life path is not "stained" with immoral and immoral acts; 4) noble Buddhist truths affirm the principles of causality. This statement comes from the fact that our happiness, our unhappiness and suffering never just happen. They come from something. There are two such principles: 1) causal and interdependent dependence of all things and events; 2) maintaining a non-violent and harmless way of life. Buddhism preaches peaceful coexistence. This religion denies violence for the following reasons: 1) a person is a living being, and if so, it means that he does not want suffering for himself; 2) suffering has its causes and conditions of occurrence. The main work of early Buddhism is the Trip Ithaca ("triple basket"). It is in it that the principles of the structure of the world and the Universe are described, as well as the doctrine of the human soul. The universe in Buddhism has many layers, you can count 31 layers of being. All these layers are divided into 3 groups: 1) karmolok; 2) rupaloka; 3) arupaloka. The first group, karmolok, includes the first eleven layers. This is the lowest realm of being. Only karma is at work here. At higher levels, peculiar higher stages begin to appear. The second group (rupaloka) includes layers from the twelfth to the twenty-seventh. Here it is really no longer direct rough contemplation, but imagination, but it is still connected with the corporeal world, with the forms of things. The third level (arupaloka) is the highest level, it is detached from the bodily and material principles. 2. Buddha As already mentioned, the founder of Buddhism was Prince Siddhartha Gautama. According to the data that have survived to this day, Siddhartha Gautama grew up in the palace and did not need anything, he had everything that a person could wish for. They also say that all the bad sides of the world were hidden from Siddhartha Gautam, he thought for a very long time that everyone lives as well as he does. His mother's name was Maya. According to Buddhist legend, in a dream she saw a white elephant enter her side. Some time later, she gave birth to a son, who was also born in an unusual way - through the armpit. The boy was given the name Siddhartha, which means "one who fulfilled his purpose." A few days after giving birth, Siddhartha Maya's mother died. His father, the Raja, could not recover from grief for a long time. The father, although he knew about the origin of his son, did not want him a religious career. Therefore, he provided his son with everything he could, even married him to a good girl, who soon gave birth to a son, Siddhartha. But Siddhartha was thoughtful from early childhood. Some description of the Buddha has survived to this day (Buddha means "enlightened one"). To see the image of the Buddha, just look at any of his statues. One day the prince was hunting and saw that the birds were eating worms. He was very struck by the fact that some living beings eat other living beings. After some time, Prince Siddhartha Gautama, along with his charioteer servant Channa, was walking around the city. On this day, they accidentally met an old man who was covered with countless ulcers and abscesses, a funeral procession and an ascetic immersed in some of his thoughts. The prince was interested in this. He began to question his servant about what he had seen, and this driver told Siddhartha everything. Prince Siddhartha Gautama, it turns out, was not only surprised by what he saw and heard, but became very angry and, without delaying a day, ran away from home that very night and began to lead an ascetic life. He studied many philosophical systems and developed his own system based on them. Mara, the god of death, wanted Buddha to abandon his ideas, he intimidated him with terrible storms, with his formidable army, sent his beautiful daughters to seduce him with the joys of life. However, the Buddha overcame all obstacles and soon delivered in the "Deer Park", located near Varanasi, the first sermon - the basis of the Buddhism creed, where the main provisions of this religion were reflected. She was listened to by 5 of his future students and 2 deer. After the proclamation of the "four noble truths", surrounded by disciples-followers, whose number was increasing, the Buddha walked for 40 years through the cities and villages of the Ganges valley, performing miracles and preaching his teachings. Buddha died when he was about 80 years old. Buddhists say that the Buddha lay on his right side, put his right hand under his head, and extended his left along straightened legs (this is the so-called "lion pose"). The departure of the Buddha is called the "great transition to nirvana" (mahaparinirvana). This date, the date of the physical death of the Buddha, is celebrated along with two other important dates in Buddhism: 1) date of birth of the Buddha; 2) the moment when the Buddha received his sight. Currently, there is a scientific point of view that claims that the Buddha (aka Prince Siddhartha Gautama) did not exist at all. The Soviet researcher G. F. Ilyin says that the Buddha is a non-historical personality. This religion could not appear in a few years, it took shape over many centuries. But at the same time, G.F. Ilyin emphasizes that Prince Siddhartha Gautama could well have existed, but then he was not the founder of Buddhism, but only one of the preachers, a preacher who had due weight in society. LECTURE No. 16. Micro-, macro-, mega-world 1. Microworld The prefix "micro" refers to very small sizes. Thus, it can be said that microworld - it's something small. In philosophy, a person is studied as a microworld, and in physics, the concepts of modern natural science, molecules are studied as a microworld. The microworld has its own characteristics, which can be expressed as follows: 1) distance units (m, km, etc.) used by a person are simply pointless to use; 2) units of measurement of a person's weight (g, kg, pounds, etc.) are also pointless to use. Since it was established that it was pointless to use units of measurement of distance and weight in relation to the objects of the microworld, then, naturally, it was necessary to invent new units of measurement. So, the distances between the nearest stars and planets are measured not in kilometers, but in light years. Light year is the distance that sunlight travels in one Earth year. The study of the microworld together with the study of the megaworld contributed to the collapse of Newton's theory. Thus, the mechanistic picture of the world was destroyed. In 1927, Niels Bohr makes another contribution to the development of science: he formulated the complementarity principle. The reason that served to formulate this principle was the dual nature of light (the so-called wave-particle duality of light). Bohr himself argued that the emergence of this principle was associated with the study of the microcosm from the macrocosm. As justification for this, he cited the following: 1) attempts were made to explain the phenomena of the microcosm through the concepts that were developed in the study of the macrocosm; 2) in the human mind there were difficulties associated with the division of being into subject and object; 3) when observing and describing the phenomena of the microcosm, we cannot abstract from the phenomena related to the macrocosm of the observer and the means of observation. Niels Bohr argued that the "principle of complementarity" is suitable both for the study of the microworld and for research in other sciences (in particular, psychology). In conclusion of this question, it is worth saying that the microcosm is the basis of our macrocosm. Also in science it is possible to allocate "micromicroworld". Or, in other words, the nanoworld. The nanoworld, unlike the microworld, is the carrier of light, more precisely, the entire spectrum of electromagnetic processes, the foundation that supports the structure of elementary particles, fundamental interactions and most of the phenomena known to modern science. Thus, the objects surrounding us, as well as the human body itself, are not a single whole. All this consists of "parts", i.e. molecules. Molecules, in turn, are also divided into smaller constituent parts - atoms. Atoms, in turn, are also divided into even smaller constituent parts, which are called elementary particles. This whole system can be thought of as a house or a building. The building is not a solid piece, because it is built, say, with brickwork, and brickwork consists directly of brick and cement mortar. If the brick begins to collapse, then, naturally, the whole structure will collapse. So is our Universe - its destruction, if it happens at all, will also begin with the nanoworld and the microcosm. 2. Macroworld Naturally, there are objects that are much larger in size than the objects of the microcosm (ie, atoms and molecules). These objects make up the macrocosm. The macrocosm is "inhabited" only by those objects that are commensurate in size with the size of a person. Man himself can also be attributed to the objects of the macrocosm. And, naturally, a person is the most important component of the macrocosm. What is a person? The ancient ancient philosopher Plato once said that man is a two-legged animal without feathers. In response to this, his opponents brought him a plucked rooster and said: here, Plato, your man! The study of a person as an object of the macrocosm from the point of view of his physical data is wrong. First of all, we note that people - this is a whole combination of different systems: the circulatory, nervous, muscular, skeletal systems, etc. But besides this, one of the components of a person is his energy, which is closely related to physiology. And energy can be considered in two senses: 1) as movement and ability to do work; 2) "mobility" of a person, his activity. Energy is also called aura or qi. Energy (or aura) can, like the physical body, be developed and strengthened. The nervous system, muscular system, other systems, energy are not all the components of a person. The most important such "component" is consciousness. What is consciousness? Where is it located? Can you touch it, hold it in your hands, look at it? Until now, there are no answers to these questions, and, most likely, there will not be. Consciousness is an intangible object. Consciousness cannot be taken and separated from a person - it is inseparable. But at the same time, one can try to isolate the ingredients that make up human consciousness are: 1) intelligence; 2) subconscious; 3) superconsciousness. Intelligence It is the mental and mental capacity of a person. Psychologists say that the main function of the intellect is memory. Indeed, we cannot imagine what would happen to us if we had no memory at all. Waking up every morning, a person would begin to think: who am I? What am I doing here? Who surrounds me? etc. All our "working" skills belong to the subconscious. Skills are made up of repeatedly repeated and monotonous actions. To illustrate what skills are, it suffices to recall that we can read and write. Seeing some text, we do not think: what is this letter, but what is this sign? We just put letters into words and words into sentences. Superconscious. The soul of man belongs first of all to the superconsciousness. Soul - it is also an intangible object (it cannot be seen or held in hands). More recently it has been claimed that scientists have learned how much a soul weighs. Some scientists argue that at the time of a person's death, his weight decreases slightly, that is, the person's soul flies away. But this statement is unfounded, since what reasonable doctor would put a dying person on the scales and sit and wait for the patient to die? The Hippocratic Oath, which every novice doctor takes, says not to harm a person. The doctor will not sit, but save a human life. And in general, it is unrealistic to know the weight of the soul, since intangible objects do not have any weight. human soul is a religious value. All world religions are aimed at giving people the opportunity to save their souls after death (that is, to live forever after the physical death of the mortal shell of the soul - the human body). Good and Evil always fight for the soul. For example, in Christianity it is God and Satan. 3. Megaworld If microworld - this is the world of those objects that do not fit the units of human measurement, macroworld is a world of objects that are comparable to human units, then megaworld - this is a world of objects that are incommensurably larger than a person. In other words, all of our Universe is a megaworld. Its size is huge, it is limitless and constantly expanding. The universe is filled with objects that are much larger than our planet Earth and our Sun. It often happens that the difference between any star outside the solar system is dozens of times greater than the Earth. The study of the megaworld is closely connected with cosmology and cosmogony. The science of cosmology is very young. She was born relatively recently - at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. There are two main reasons for the birth of cosmology. And, interestingly, both reasons are related to the development of physics: 1) Albert Einstein creates his own relativistic physics; 2) M. Planck creates quantum physics. Quantum physics has changed the views of mankind on the structure of space-time and the structure of physical interactions. Also played a very important role theory of A. A. Fridman about the expanding universe. This theory remained unproven for a very short time: it was only in 1929 that E. Hubble proved it. Rather, he did not prove the theory, but discovered that the Universe is indeed expanding. Moreover, it should be noted that at that time the reasons for the expansion of the Universe were not established. They were installed much later, in our days. They were established when the results obtained through the study of elementary particles in modern physics were applied to the early Universe. Cosmogony. Cosmogony is a branch of the science of astronomy that studies the origin of galaxies, stars, planets, and other objects. Today cosmogony can be divided into two parts: 1) cosmogony of the solar system. This part (or type) of cosmogony is otherwise called planetary; 2) stellar cosmogony. In the 2nd half of the XX century. in the cosmogony of the solar system, the point of view was established, according to which the sun and the entire solar system were formed from a gas-dust state. This opinion was first expressed by Immanuel Kant. In the middle XVIII in. Kant wrote a scientific article called: "Cosmogony, or an attempt to explain the origin of the universe, the formation of celestial bodies and the reasons for their movement by the general laws of the development of matter in accordance with Newton's theory." The young scientist wanted to write this paper because he found out that the Prussian Academy of Sciences offered a competition on a similar topic. But Kant could not muster up the courage to publish his work. After some time, he writes a second article, which is called: "The question of whether the Earth is aging from a physical point of view." The first article was written at a difficult time: Immanuel Kant left his native Koenigsberg, trying to earn extra money as a home teacher. Having received nothing of value (except for his knowledge), Kant returns home and in 1754 publishes this article. Both works were later combined into a single treatise, which was devoted to the problems of cosmology. Kant's theory of the origin of the solar system was further developed by Laplace. The Frenchman described in detail the hypothesis of the formation of the Sun and planets from an already rotating gaseous nebula, taking into account the main characteristic features of the solar system. LECTURE No. 17. Ecology 1. Causes of ecological catastrophe Until today, a person does not understand that the level of his life directly depends on the state of nature and ecology. Mankind spends tens of billions of dollars to equip its armed forces, but never thinks that it would be better to spend this money on the restoration of the environment. Two aspects of the environmental problem can be distinguished: 1) environmental crises that are caused by natural processes; 2) environmental crises, which are caused by the anthropogenic impact on the ecology of human activity, as well as the irrational use of natural resources. The first reason is due to the fact that the onset of glaciers, volcanic eruptions, floods are, if I may say so, normal natural phenomena. Despite their destructiveness, they are not the result of the activity of the main "destroyer", i.e., man. Today we cannot, for example, predict when the next volcanic eruption will occur. This is due to insufficient research into the issue of predicting natural phenomena. The second aspect is that for centuries man has been uncontrollably using what the Earth has given him. Science fiction writers have stories about how nature begins to take revenge on man for this. In the literature, of course, this is even too embellished, but, in fact, this is what happens in reality. For example, the Aral Sea. Today, it is already difficult to call it a sea because of its small size - it already looks more like a lake. The Aral Sea is located on the territory of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. It began to dry up in the 60s. XX century, when the waters of the rivers flowing into it began to be actively taken for agriculture. The water of such rivers as the Amu Darya and Syr Darya does not reach the sea at all. As a result of such active water intake, the Aral began to dry up, its level is falling, and desertification is taking place in the adjacent territories. As a result of this desertification, the socio-economic structure of the Aral Sea region is changing dramatically. The main environmental problem is that our planet is not able to process all the garbage that remains after human activity. Unfortunately, the Earth does not have such a function as self-purification and repair. She needs help with this. Today there are various organizations that fight for the protection of the environment. Greenpeace is a prime example of such an organization. The main function of this organization is to observe how humanity spends natural resources and where it "hides" its garbage. At the stage at which humanity is today, it only harms itself, as well as the entire animal world. On our planet, there are such animal species that have educational, healing, etc. abilities. For example, dolphins are actively used in the treatment of psychological disorders. These amazing animals have incredible energy, and their good nature attracts adults and children. Dolphins themselves are glad that they can benefit a person, and a person answers them by polluting the oceans. Today, the question of regulating environmental problems with the help of legislation is ripe. Moreover, it is necessary to develop laws not in every country, but at the global level. Otherwise, there may be a conflict of laws. 2. The problem of the "third world" countries Third World countries" - These are developing countries where the socio-ecological situation is extremely aggravated. The characteristic features inherent in these countries are: 1) the natural originality of the tropical forest; 2) extremely high population density; 3) weak economic development. The countries of the "third world", as a rule, believe that the ecological problem can, should and is able to be solved by more economically developed states. However, it should be noted that the rules of conduct by which these countries (that is, the countries of the "third world") "live" are no better than those in developed countries. Thus, it is reliably known that the countries of the "third world" are actively cutting down tropical forests, which are otherwise called the "lungs of the planet." The process of restoration of tropical forests is practically not carried out. Deforestation of the tropics is 10 times faster than the process of their restoration. Scientists believe that if this continues further, then in 20-25 years in Southeast Asia there will be no forest at all. Third World countries are cutting down tropical forests for: 1) use of wood as fuel; 2) export to other countries; 3) farming. Moreover, special mention should be made of how they conduct agriculture, or rather, what deforestation serves in this area. As a rule, in these countries they use the "outdated" slash-and-burn system of agriculture. That is, trees are cut down and burned, and later a field is plowed in this place. More "modern" farming systems are beyond the reach of these countries. The destruction of tropical rainforests will lead to the following disasters: 1) the supply of oxygen to the atmosphere will decrease; 2) the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will increase, which, in turn, will lead to a "greenhouse effect" and the destruction of certain species of animals and plants. What is the "greenhouse effect"? It is known that carbon dioxide transmits solar energy, but at the same time it delays the thermal radiation of the Earth. Thus, the temperature will rise, the glaciers will melt. As a result, the level of the oceans will rise. Scientists know what it threatens for individual territories of the Earth, but no one even imagines the size of the disaster on a global scale. When the water level in the oceans rises, the island states will suffer the most, since they may be completely under water. Also, due to deforestation for fuel, desertification of the area may begin. Consequently, the amount of land that is suitable for plowing will be drastically reduced. And since there will be less arable land, there will be less food. This will be especially dangerous, again, for the countries of the "third world", since it is in them that a large increase in population is observed. According to the latest scientific data, the total area occupied by deserts and semi-deserts is two-thirds of the land. Over the past 25 years, over 9 million km have appeared.2. About 15-20% of the world's population lives in the territory occupied by deserts and semi-deserts. The opinion of the countries of the "third world" that the ecological problem should be solved by more developed states is not true. It must be solved only by joint efforts. LECTURE No. 18. The appearance of the first computers 1. "Pre-computer" period From the very beginning of time, from the very beginning of its history, man has had a need (apart from the need for food and rest) to count. Today, the following "counting machines" can be distinguished: 1) protozoa; 2) abacus and abacus; 3) arithmetic machines. Protozoa. To such simple "mechanisms" for counting are primarily fingers. Early man could only count up to two at first. If the number of items was more than two, then they simply said "many". To clarify this "many" man later learned to count all five fingers on each hand, and then put them in a dozen. Stones and sticks can also be attributed to this group of counting mechanisms. They were strung on a string or put in a special bag. It is known that the ancient shepherds counted their sheep and cows in this way. In the morning, when the cattle were just being driven out to pasture, the cows and sheep would pass by the shepherd, who would put a pebble or stick into his bag. In the evening, when the cattle were driven back, the cows and sheep again passed by the shepherd. The shepherd gradually, one by one, took out pebbles or sticks from the bag and threw them away. Thus, if the pebbles remained in the bag, it means that one cow or sheep got lost somewhere. Abacus and abacus. The abacus and abacus are very similar in meaning. The ancient Greeks counted on the abacus. This counting tool was made in the following way: they took a board, and then made vertical or horizontal slits in it. When it was necessary to count something, an object was moved along these slits. Gradually the abacus was modernized. Now for its production they used not a board with slots, but a special frame, or the balls were strung on special threads. Thus, some semblance of an account appeared. The famous Russian abacus began to be made in the XV-XXNUMXth century Prior to that, in Russian villages, a device for "board counting" was used. It looked like a Greek abacus. Accounts were very common, they can still be found, as well as people who know how to use them correctly. Arithmetic machines. The process of modernizing counting mechanisms has been and is ongoing continuously. In 1967, some of the works of the artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci were published. These works say that a great genius was trying to assemble the world's first mechanical counting machine. In the same works, a sketch of this work was also discovered: this mechanism was a thirteen-bit adding device with ten-toothed wheels. Around 1623, mathematics professor Wilhelm Schickard wrote to his great friend Johannes Kepler that he had created a machine that automatically added numbers. Unfortunately, at the moment there is no mention of Wilhelm Schickard's typewriter anywhere else, and the typewriter itself (if, of course, it was really assembled) has not survived to this day. But it is known that in 1643 the famous French philosopher and mathematician Pascal assembled such a machine, which they called "Pascalina". "Pascalina" consisted of discs with ten teeth. The required number was set on these disks in decimal system. The next stage in the development of computers is associated with the name of Leibniz. In 1694, he created a mechanism that could perform four arithmetic operations (ie, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division). This mechanism is in essence the world's first adding machine. The person in it himself sets both the numbers and the corresponding parameters, and determines the sequence of operations. The basis for modern electronic computers was laid back in the XNUMXth century. Charles Babbage. Charles Babbage - a famous mathematician who headed the Department of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge (which at one time was headed by Isaac Newton). It was Babbage who came up with the idea of using punched cards in computers. But Babbage did not have time to realize his idea. After his death, interest in his ideas faded for almost two decades. They returned to it only when the American Herman Hollerith created the world's first tabulator. The tabulator was based on Babbage's idea to use punched cards, and this device was created in order to speed up the process of processing the results of the United States Census of America. 2. How the world's first personal computer was created In 1960-1970. computers already existed, but they were huge machines that took up an entire room. Only very wealthy organizations and government agencies could afford to buy such a computer. For two Americans (Steve Jobs и Steve Wozniak) the goal of life has become to provide people with relatively small computers. It all started with the fact that both Steves were very different from the young people of that time: both were interested in electronics and were not interested in the youth trends of that time. One day, Steve Wozniak's mother gave him one of the issues of a magazine devoted to electronics. There was an article in this magazine about how telephone hooligans assemble certain devices. With these devices, they scammed the telephone company and made free calls to any city in the world. It was from this moment that the "criminal" path of Jobs and Wozniak began, they designed such a device and began to implement it. At that time, they both studied at the university and therefore began to sell the invention to their roommates. Some time later, they arranged the supply of these devices to the famous Beverly Hills area. Some of the buyers were still caught, but neither Steve Jobs nor Steve Wozniak was ever caught by the police. The Americans did not engage in their criminal activities for long: about a year after they began selling their devices, the Bell telephone company improved its technology, and such deception no longer took place. Some time passed, Steve Jobs was expelled from the university, but he managed to get a job at Atari. And Steve Wozniak began to attend a specialized circle in which engineers shared their thoughts on creating portable computers. In 1975, Popular Mechanics magazine announced that the world's first portable computer was being sold. The joy of the members of the circle knew no bounds until they saw this computer with their own eyes. It was not even a computer, but only a computer set. Moreover, the buyer had to assemble it himself, install the operating system, additionally buy a monitor, a disk drive and a number of other devices. As a result, the price of Altair-8800 increased from $375 to $3000. Steve Wozniak, disappointed in the acquired computer kit, begins to design his own computer. He was joined by his friend Steve Jobs. Since Wozniak's employer, Hewlett-Packard, was not interested in his invention, young entrepreneurs began to sell their goods themselves. They received the first order for fifty computers from the owner of three electronics stores for a total of $25. There was a long dispute between Wozniak and Jobs about how to name their company. Wozniak wanted a name that would be as close to technical terms as possible. But he eventually gave in to Jobs. Jobs chose the name "Apple Computer" for two reasons: 1) based on some of their memories; 2) to appear in the telephone directory in front of Atari. Apple's first computer wasn't perfect either. In particular, it was without a case, without software, without a keyboard. Even before the Apple computer was sold out, work began on the preparation of Apple 2. This computer was already with software, and with a plastic case, and with a keyboard. In addition, Jobs and Wozniak made it "colored", and also equipped it with devices that reproduce sound, and left a few empty nests. These free slots were intended to further upgrade the computer and connect new devices to it. 3. "Microsoft" Microsoft is the largest software company in the world today. Its leader, billionaire Bill Gates, is the richest man in the world. Bill Gates lives by the motto: "I'll be the boss." His parents simply obeyed the will of the boy when they realized that he would never obey their will. For a while, Bill was into acting, but then he moved into computer software. Bill did not study seriously. Therefore, everyone was surprised when he graduated with honors from the ninth grade and became one of the top ten students in the United States of America. Bill Gates took up computers seriously at about 12-13 years old. It was during this period that he and his friend Paul Allen created a computer terminal for their school and wrote two of the simplest (today) programs for it. After leaving school, Gates enters Harvard University, but does not graduate from it. Around 1974-1975, Paul Allen went to visit him, but on the way he saw a new issue of Popular Electronics magazine. This issue talked about "Altair", which so disappointed Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs. It was from this moment that Gates and Allen began to work seriously on software. Contacting the Altair manufacturers, Gates deceived them by saying that he and Allen had developed a version of the Basic programming language that could be used in the Altair (also the Basic programming language was later used in the Apple 2 computer). In fact, none of them have yet begun to develop this programming language. Gates and Allen quickly got down to business. The whole difficulty lay in the fact that they saw "Altair" only in a magazine, and they could not purchase it, since they did not have such funds. A month and a half or two months later, the programming language was written, and Gates and Allen went to the Altair manufacturers. They were afraid that Basic might not work on this computer, but all their worries were in vain - Basic worked fine. While Gates was at Harvard, he and Allen created Microsoft. Moreover, they considered such company names as Microsoft, Allen and Gates Inc. When Gates was 26 years old, he created the famous MS-DOS operating system, which is installed on computers to this day. In 1985, the Windows operating system was released. In 5 years, the third version of this operating system is coming out. In 2000, Bill Gates stepped down as president of Microsoft and was replaced by Steve Ballmer. It is worth noting that when applying for a job at Microsoft, it is not so much work experience that is taken into account as non-standard thinking and IQ level. This principle of hiring was established by Gates himself, because he believes that thinking outside the box is one of the factors that affect the success of a job. At different times, Gates's fortune was estimated at different amounts. The maximum was 120 billion dollars. He bequeathed to his three children to allocate only $10 million a month from Microsoft's income, and ordered the rest to be given to charity. LECTURE No. 19. Informatics 1. The concept of information What is information? Since ancient times, people began to receive a large amount of information. Moreover, from various fields of knowledge: from the most ordinary information about everyday life to the calculation of astronomical data. Information can relate to processes that occur in the surrounding world and are perceived either by special recording devices, or directly by a person, or rather, by his senses. Also, information can be contained in a message that informs about something. For example, from newspapers or on television, where messages from other countries of the world are regularly shown. These messages are political, social, economic in nature. Thanks to such information, humanity begins to imagine the state of affairs in a particular country, a certain region, as well as in the whole world. In distant primitive times, information was transmitted orally, that is, from one person to another. With the development of writing, it began to be fixed on material media (first on papyrus, and then on paper). More recently, just a few decades ago, information began to be stored in digital form. In the middle of the XX century. the concept of "information" has acquired a general scientific meaning. Information is transmitted from person to person, from person to machine, from machine to machine. The exchange of information is carried out not only between these objects, but also between the cells of the body, between animals. Also, a number of scientists argue that trees also have the ability to exchange information. Trees in case of any danger or trouble send certain signals to their neighbors. Having received such a signal, for example, a signal of illness, the tree begins to intensively produce an antidote. Every cell contains a genetic code. This genetic code is the well-known DNA. Cell information is passed from generation to generation through complementary base pairing. Despite the fact that the genetic code of different organisms is naturally diverse, some of them can be distinguished. general properties: 1) redundancy; 2) specificity; 3) versatility; 4) discreteness; 5) "punctuation marks" of the genetic code. redundancy. The meaning of this property is that the genetic code includes a very large number of nitrogenous bases. Therefore, genetic codes are formed by so-called triplets, i.e., a combination that consists of three nucleotides. Specificity. This property lies in the fact that triplets are individual and can correspond to only one amino acid. Versatility. The meaning of this property is that the genetic code is universal for both bacteria and mammals. discreteness. These same triplets are never overlapped, and it is impossible to count DNA from a molecule if the nitrogenous bases of different triplets were used. "Punctuation marks" of the genetic code. Simply put, there are triplets in cells that separate information about proteins, preventing it from mixing. Information is also an important philosophical issue. There is no doubt that information processes are a reflection of objective reality. The position on the inseparable connection between information and reflection has become one of the most important in the study of information and information processes and is recognized by the absolute majority of Russian philosophers. Information in wildlife, unlike inanimate nature, plays an active role, as it participates in the management of all life processes. Information is also studied in such a science as cybernetics. Cybernetics is closely connected with a number of other sciences (for example, with logic, philosophy, mathematics). The main task of cybernetics is to decide whether it is possible to create artificial intelligence. Scientists-philosophers argue that it is impossible to create artificial intelligence. Or rather, you can create it, but it will never replace the human mind. Scientist P. Armer proposed the idea of an "intelligence continuum", the essence of which was that computers can be classified according to the level of development of their intellect. Armer also proposed to develop a kind of scale, according to which it would be possible to carry out such a classification. He suggested that a person conduct a dialogue with a computer and ask him questions from various fields of knowledge. If a person could not distinguish the answer of a computer from the answer of another person, then such an electronic computer would be considered a machine with a developed intellect. 2. Calculus systems Everyone knows that the computer "speaks" in its own language, the language of numbers. Everyone seems to know this language. But many do not know that the computer "speaks" not in simple, but in a special language of numbers, which is called the number system. Not everyone can learn this language, because it is very difficult. It would seem that there is something difficult - to rearrange the numbers in the digital series. It's not all that simple. Very often it happens that the wrong number put there leads to the failure of the entire program. Therefore, when a programmer "communicates" with a computer, he must be extremely attentive. Computers perceive everything in a binary system, i.e. the presence or absence of a signal. The binary system uses only two digits: zero or one. Zero indicates the absence of a signal, and one indicates its presence. Counting in binary goes like this: 01,10,11,100, etc. But time did not stand still, and computer technology developed along with it. Today, the hexadecimal system is already used. This system includes the following components: 1) numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9); 2) letters of the Latin alphabet (A, B, C, D, E, F). Accordingly, the calculation here is carried out in a completely different, more complex way. LECTURE No. 20. The human nervous system 1. What is the nervous system One of the components of a person is his nervous system. It is reliably known that diseases of the nervous system adversely affect the physical condition of the entire human body. With a disease of the nervous system, both the head and the heart ("motor" of a person) begin to hurt. Nervous system is a system that regulates the activity of all human organs and systems. This system causes: 1) the functional unity of all human organs and systems; 2) the connection of the whole organism with the environment. The nervous system also has its own structural unit, which is called a neuron. Neurons are cells that have special processes. It is neurons that build neural circuits. The entire nervous system is divided into: 1) central nervous system; 2) peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and nerve nodes extending from the brain and spinal cord. Also conditionally, the nervous system can be divided into two large sections: 1) somatic nervous system; 2) autonomic nervous system. somatic nervous system associated with the human body. This system is responsible for the fact that a person can move independently, it also determines the connection of the body with the environment, as well as sensitivity. Sensitivity is provided with the help of human sense organs, as well as with the help of sensitive nerve endings. The movement of a person is ensured by the fact that with the help of the nervous system, skeletal muscle mass is controlled. Scientists-biologists call the somatic nervous system in another way animal, because movement and sensitivity are peculiar only to animals. Nerve cells can be divided into two large groups: 1) afferent (or receptor) cells; 2) efferent (or motor) cells. Receptor nerve cells perceive light (using visual receptors), sound (using sound receptors), smells (using olfactory and taste receptors). Motor nerve cells generate and transmit impulses to specific executing organs. The motor nerve cell has a body with a nucleus, numerous processes called dendrites. A nerve cell also has a nerve fiber called an axon. The length of these axons ranges from 1 to 1,5 mm. With their help, electrical impulses are transmitted to specific cells. In the cell membranes that are responsible for the sensation of taste and smell, there are special biological compounds that react to a particular substance by changing their state. In order for a person to be healthy, he must first of all monitor the state of his nervous system. Today, people sit in front of a computer a lot, stand in traffic jams, and also get into various stressful situations (for example, a student received a negative grade at school or an employee received a reprimand from his immediate superiors) - all this negatively affects our nervous system. Today, enterprises and organizations create rest rooms (or relaxation rooms). Arriving in such a room, the worker mentally disconnects from all problems and just sits and relaxes in a favorable environment. Employees of law enforcement agencies (police, prosecutors, etc.) have created, one might say, their own system to protect their own nervous system. Victims often come to them and talk about the misfortune that happened to them. If a law enforcement officer, as they say, takes to heart what happened to the victims, then he will retire as an invalid, if at all his heart can withstand until retirement. Therefore, law enforcement officers put, as it were, a "protective screen" between themselves and the victim or the criminal, that is, the problems of the victim, the criminal are listened to, but an employee, for example, of the prosecutor's office, does not express any human participation in them. Therefore, you can often hear that all law enforcement officers are heartless and very evil people. In fact, they are not like that - they just have such a method of protecting their own health. 2. Autonomic nervous system autonomic nervous system is one of the parts of our nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for: the activity of the internal organs, the activity of the endocrine and external secretion glands, the activity of the blood and lymphatic vessels, and also, to some extent, the muscles. The autonomic nervous system is divided into two sections: 1) sympathetic section; 2) parasympathetic section. Sympathetic nervous system dilates the pupil, it also causes an increase in heart rate, an increase in blood pressure, expands the small bronchi, etc. This nervous system is carried out by sympathetic spinal centers. It is from these centers that peripheral sympathetic fibers begin, which are located in the lateral horns of the spinal cord. Parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the activity of the bladder, genitals, rectum, and it also “irritates” a number of other nerves (for example, glossopharyngeal, oculomotor nerve). Such a "diverse" activity of the parasympathetic nervous system is explained by the fact that its nerve centers are located both in the sacral spinal cord and in the brain stem. Now it becomes clear that those nerve centers that are located in the sacral spinal cord control the activity of organs located in the small pelvis; nerve centers located in the brain stem regulate the activity of other organs through a number of special nerves. How is the control over the activity of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system carried out? Control over the activity of these sections of the nervous system is carried out by special autonomic apparatus, which are located in the brain. Diseases of the autonomic nervous system. The causes of diseases of the autonomic nervous system are as follows: a person does not tolerate hot weather or, conversely, feels uncomfortable in winter. A symptom may be that a person, when excited, begins to quickly blush or turn pale, his pulse quickens, he begins to sweat a lot. It should also be noted that diseases of the autonomic nervous system occur in people from birth. Many believe that if a person gets excited and blushes, then he is simply too modest and shy. Few people would think that this person has some kind of disease of the autonomic nervous system. Also, these diseases can be acquired. For example, due to a head injury, chronic poisoning with mercury, arsenic, due to a dangerous infectious disease. They can also occur when a person is overworked, with a lack of vitamins, with severe mental disorders and experiences. Also, diseases of the autonomic nervous system can be the result of non-compliance with safety regulations at work with dangerous working conditions. The regulatory activity of the autonomic nervous system may be impaired. Diseases can "mask" as other diseases. For example, with a disease of the solar plexus, bloating, poor appetite can be observed; with a disease of the cervical or thoracic nodes of the sympathetic trunk, chest pains can be observed, which can radiate to the shoulder. These pains are very similar to heart disease. To prevent diseases of the autonomic nervous system, a person should follow a number of simple rules: 1) avoid nervous fatigue, colds; 2) observe safety precautions in production with hazardous working conditions; 3) eat well; 4) go to the hospital in a timely manner, complete the entire prescribed course of treatment. Moreover, the last point, timely admission to the hospital and complete completion of the prescribed course of treatment, is the most important. This follows from the fact that delaying your visit to the doctor for too long can lead to the most unfortunate consequences. Good nutrition also plays an important role, because a person "charges" his body, gives him new strength. Having refreshed, the body begins to fight diseases several times more actively. In addition, fruits contain many beneficial vitamins that help the body fight disease. The most useful fruits are in their raw form, because when they are harvested, many useful properties can disappear. A number of fruits, in addition to containing vitamin C, also have a substance that enhances the action of vitamin C. This substance is called tannin and is found in quinces, pears, apples, and pomegranates. 3. Central nervous system The human central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord looks like a cord, it is somewhat flattened from front to back. Its size in an adult is approximately 41 to 45 cm, and its weight is about 30 gm. It is "surrounded" by the meninges and is located in the brain canal. Throughout its length, the thickness of the spinal cord is the same. But it has only two thickenings: 1) cervical thickening; 2) lumbar thickening. It is in these thickenings that the so-called innervation nerves of the upper and lower extremities are formed. Dorsal brain is divided into several departments: 1) cervical; 2) thoracic region; 3) lumbar; 4) sacral department. The human brain is located in the cranial cavity. It has two large hemispheres: the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. But, in addition to these hemispheres, the trunk and cerebellum are also isolated. Scientists have calculated that the brain of a man is heavier than the brain of a woman by an average of 100 gm. They explain this by the fact that most men are much larger than women in terms of their physical parameters, that is, all parts of a man's body are larger than parts of a woman's body. The brain actively begins to grow even when the child is still in the womb. The brain reaches its "real" size only when a person reaches the age of twenty. At the very end of a person's life, his brain becomes a little lighter. There are five main divisions in the brain: 1) telencephalon; 2) diencephalon; 3) midbrain; 4) hindbrain; 5) medulla oblongata. If a person has suffered a traumatic brain injury, then this always negatively affects both his central nervous system and his mental state. When the psyche is disturbed, a person can hear voices inside the head that command him to do this or that. All attempts to drown out these voices are futile and in the end the person goes and does what the voices ordered him to do. In the hemisphere, the olfactory brain and basal nuclei are distinguished. Also, everyone knows such a comic phrase: "Strain your brains", that is, think. Indeed, the "drawing" of the brain is very complex. The complexity of this "drawing" is predetermined by the fact that furrows and ridges go along the hemispheres, which form a kind of "gyrus". Despite the fact that this "drawing" is strictly individual, there are several common furrows. Thanks to these common furrows, biologists and anatomists have identified 5 lobes of the hemispheres: 1) frontal lobe; 2) parietal lobe; 3) occipital lobe; 4) temporal lobe; 5) hidden share. The brain and spinal cord are covered with membranes: 1) dura mater; 2) arachnoid; 3) soft shell. Hard shell. The hard shell covers the outside of the spinal cord. In its shape, it most of all resembles a bag. It should be said that the outer hard shell of the brain is the periosteum of the bones of the skull. Arachnoid. The arachnoid is a substance that is almost closely adjacent to the hard shell of the spinal cord. The arachnoid membrane of both the spinal cord and the brain does not contain any blood vessels. Soft shell. The pia mater of the spinal cord and brain contains nerves and blood vessels, which, in fact, feed both brains. Despite the fact that hundreds of works have been written on the study of the functions of the brain, its nature has not been fully elucidated. One of the most important mysteries that the brain "guesses" is vision. Rather, how and with what help we see. Many mistakenly assume that vision is the prerogative of the eyes. This is wrong. Scientists are more inclined to believe that the eyes simply perceive the signals that our environment sends us. Eyes pass them on "by authority". The brain, having received this signal, builds a picture, that is, we see what our brain “shows” to us. Similarly, the issue with hearing should be resolved: it is not the ears that hear. Rather, they also receive certain signals that the environment sends us. In general, what the brain is, mankind will not find out to the end soon. It is constantly evolving and developing. It is believed that the brain is the "residence" of the human mind. LECTURE No. 21. The human skeletal system 1. The skeleton of the human body Everything has its core, its foundation. The main function of the skeleton - to support the body of something. For example, in order to create some kind of sculpture or monument to some outstanding person, the sculptor initially creates (except for creating a "miniature version" of his future creation) what will be the basis of this monument. The sculptor uses wire or a wire-like material to make the "bones" of the sculpture. And then he sticks clay or plaster on the resulting "bones". The wire base helps to maintain the shape of the sculpture or monument. It is easy to imagine what will happen if this wire is not able to withstand the weight that was "hung" on it. Gradually, the entire creation of the sculptor will be destroyed, parts of the monument will stagger, hang out and simply come off and fall. So the skeletal system (of both humans and other vertebrates) performs a similar "supporting" function. All the internal organs of a person are attached to the bones and held by them. If a person did not have bones, then he would not be able to move, breathe, or speak. He wouldn't be able to live at all. Bone - This is a complex formation, which is a combination of bone tissue, bone marrow, articular cartilage, nerves and blood vessels. Outside, the bones are covered with a special film - the periosteum. It is in this periosteum that many vessels and nerves are contained. Although the periosteum is a very thin film, it is very strong. In human anatomy, depending on some factors, There are 4 types of bones: 1) tubular bones; 2) spongy bones; 3) flat bones (or, in other words, wide bones); 4) mixed bones. Tubular bones. The tubular bone consists of: 1) diaphysis, i.e. "compact" bone. Inside it is the bone marrow; 2) two epiphyses. Simply put, epiphyses are the small bones of the upper and lower extremities. The epiphyses have an articular surface, which is covered with cartilage. Spongy bones. Spongy bones include the small bones of the hands and feet. They are covered with some substance and consist mainly of spongy material. They also include (except for the small bones of the hand and foot) vertebrae and ribs. Flat, or wide, bones. Flat, or wide, bones include the bones of the pelvis and skull. These bones serve as a "receptacle" of the internal organs of a person. The pelvis is formed by the pelvic bones, as well as their muscles and the fasciae of the perineum (which, in turn, are divided into anterior and posterior parts). Also, in addition to the above, the structure of the pelvis includes the sacrum and coccyx. The skull is conventionally divided into: 1) brain department; 2) front department. The immediate seat of the brain is the brain region of the skull. This section is formed by bones: the frontal bone, two parietal bones, the occipital bone, two temporal bones, the sphenoid bone and the ethmoid bone. The facial part of the skull is formed by paired maxillary bones, zygomatic and lower jaw. Moreover, it should be noted that the lower jaw is unpaired, and it is also the only movable bone of the skull. Mixed bones. Mixed bones include those bones that are formed from several parts. All human bones are interconnected by: 1) joints; 2) ligaments; 3) membranes; 4) cartilage; 5) seams. Joints. Joints are movable connections between bones that allow them to move relative to each other. Ligaments. Ligaments are bands or plates that help joints strengthen bones. Ligaments can regulate the movement of bones, they connect both bones and internal organs of a person. Webbed. The membrane is not only a very thin, but also a very strong and elastic shell that animal organisms have. Cartilage. Cartilage is one of the types of connective tissue. It is inherent in all vertebrates and some invertebrate animals. Cartilage in the human body covers the auricle, larynx, trachea, and bronchi. Most of the skeleton of the embryo is made up of cartilage. The seam. Suture in medicine is understood in both anatomical and surgical senses. In anatomy, a suture is where bones (such as many bones of the skull) meet. In a surgical sense, a suture is a way of joining body tissues that have been surgically cut. The skeletal system is very strong. The bone is able to withstand heavy loads when it is compressed and fractured. The main constituents of bone are calcium and phosphorus compounds. Despite its sufficient strength, the bone may still not withstand too much compression and fracture. During a person's life, the skeletal system undergoes many different changes. So, in human embryos, that is, in the prenatal period of life, the bone consists of cartilage. Around the seventh or eighth week of intrauterine life, the first ossification points appear. Then, already by the birth of a child, almost all diaphases ossify. It is reliably known that the bones of children contain a greater amount of minerals. This leads to the fact that children's bones are more flexible and elastic. In old age, the amount of minerals in the bones is sharply reduced. Consequently, the bones become more fragile. This is why there are so many fractures in the elderly. Physical exercise has a great influence on the skeletal system. People who exercise frequently or play sports have significantly larger and more massive bones than those who do not exercise. Nutrition has a great influence on the development of the human skeletal system, especially in childhood. If, along with food, vitamins are not supplied to the child’s body, then he will lag behind in his development and get sick very often. It is known that a lack of vitamin D leads to rickets, and a lack of vitamin A leads to the fact that the child begins to lag behind his peers in growth. Vitamin D deficiency is most common in urban areas. This is due to the fact that the environment in large cities (in which, naturally, there are industrial enterprises) is very polluted. Those emissions that industrial enterprises make into the atmosphere make it difficult for sunlight to penetrate, which contributes to the formation of vitamin D. Also, a lack of calcium leads to dysfunction of the skeletal system. Pregnant women, as well as nursing mothers, experience a particularly great need for calcium, since they, together with breast milk, give the child and calcium, which is contained in the mother's body. In the event that the "freely available" amount of calcium in the mother's body is not enough, then this substance begins to be released from the mother's bones. As a result, a negative calcium balance occurs in the mother's body. To compensate for the given calcium, doctors advise pregnant and lactating mothers to consume more milk and dairy products, because they contain a lot of calcium. The bone consists of: 1) 95% of collagen protein; 2) 5% of non-collagen proteins, fats, carbohydrates. The elasticity of the bone depends on the presence of organic substances in it, and the hardness of the bone depends on the presence of minerals in it. The ideal ratio of mineral and organic substances in the bone leads to the fact that it becomes quite strong and elastic. Vitamin A (or retinol) is found in the green leaves of plants such as spinach, red pepper, parsley. Vitamin A ensures the normal growth of the body, with its help our eyes adapt to light of varying intensity. Signs of vitamin A deficiency are: 1) pallor of the skin; 2) dry skin; 3) the tendency of the skin to peel; 4) the tendency of the skin to keratinization; 5) the formation of acne and pimples; 6) the formation of pustular skin diseases; 7) dry scalp; 8) dullness of the scalp; 9) fragility of nails. As a result of a lack of vitamin A, a person develops photophobia, a person does not see in the dark (the so-called night blindness). Scientists have calculated that an adult's need for vitamin A per day is approximately 1,5 mg, and a child's need is from 0,5 to 1,5 mg per day. In addition to spinach leaves, parsley and red pepper, plants such as: 1) apricot; 2) carrots; 3) dill leaves; 4) sorrel leaves; 5) also a lot of vitamin A is found in the liver of animals. One of the most important features of vitamin A is that it is preserved during canning. Unlike the body of some animals (especially carnivores), the human body, along with vitamin A, can also use those substances from which this vitamin is synthesized. Predatory animals cannot consume substances from which vitamin A is synthesized, because their body needs a ready-made vitamin. Predators extract this vitamin for themselves from the liver of their prey, because, as mentioned above, it is this part of the body of animals that is very rich in vitamin A (or retinol). Today, the pharmaceutical industry has established the production of this vitamin. Remember at least the fish oil that children consume. 2. Diseases of the skeletal system There are many diseases of the human skeletal system. Based on the generalization of data on these diseases, they can be classified into many groups: 1) diseases of traumatic origin; 2) inflammatory diseases; 3) dystrophic diseases; 4) dysplastic diseases. Diseases of traumatic origin. To diseases of traumatic origin include primarily cracks and fractures of bones. Despite the fact that the bone, as has been said more than once above, is strong enough, but it can also break. A fracture occurs when a bone cannot withstand the pressure that is placed on it. Health professionals recognize two types of fractures: 1) open fracture; 2) closed fracture. The main difference between these types of fractures is that with an open fracture, the bone (or bone fragments) sticks out. An open fracture is more complex. A crack is formed when, so to speak, the bone still withstood the pressure exerted on it. And a little more - and there would be a fracture. The fracture causes very deep and very complex transformations in the human body. These transformations are due to the fact that there is a breakdown of certain substances (for example, tissue proteins and carbohydrates), and the metabolism in bone tissue is also disturbed. Diseases of an inflammatory nature. A striking example of an inflammatory disease of the bone system is osteomyelitis, i.e. inflammation of the bone marrow. When the disease begins to progress, this inflammation begins to spread to the rest of the bone tissue. There are several types of osteomyelitis: 1) purulent osteomyelitis; 2) tuberculous osteomyelitis. Purulent osteomyelitis is caused by the so-called pyogenic microbes, and tuberculous osteomyelitis is otherwise called tuberculosis of the bones and joints. dystrophic diseases. These dystrophic diseases are caused by malnutrition, endocrine or toxic causes. One of the most famous and most dangerous diseases of this group is rickets, which will be discussed below. dysplastic diseases. Diseases of this group are caused by a violation of the shape of individual bones, which leads to a violation of the structure of the entire human skeleton. Rickets remains one of the most common diseases in young children today. One of the main causes of rickets is a lack of vitamin D. With rickets, minerals do not enter the child's bones (or they do, but in insufficient quantities). Due to the lack of these minerals, the bones become very flexible and cannot support the weight of the child's body. Therefore, in children who are sick with rickets, crooked legs. The head and belly of such children are usually disproportionately large. Their teeth begin to erupt very late, their fontanelles do not overgrow for a very long time, and the parietal and frontal tubercles are enlarged. Adults also have, so to speak, their own rickets. Adults can suffer from osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Osteomalacia - this is a disease of the human skeletal system, when, due to a lack of vitamin D, the bones become very flexible. As a rule, osteomalacia can be observed in pregnant women or women who have recently given birth to a child. It is clear that due to the fact that the bones have become very flexible, they are easily bent. Osteoporosis - Another disease that adults can suffer with a lack of vitamin D. With osteoporosis, the bone tissue and the bones themselves become very porous. Vitamin D deficiency can be due to the following reasons: 1) due to a violation of the activity of the intestines and kidneys of a person, vitamin D is not absorbed; 2) bad ecology; 3) insufficient ultraviolet irradiation. Osteochondrosis also belongs to diseases of the skeletal system. The term "osteochondrosis" comes from two Greek words: osteon, which means "bone", and chondros, which means "cartilage". osteochondrosis - This is a dystrophic process in bone and cartilage tissue, mainly intervertebral discs, manifested by pain, limitation of movement in the affected joints. Also, one of the most common diseases of the skeletal system is the curvature of the spine. Our spine is a support for the entire skeletal system, so it is important to monitor its "straightness". Spinal curvature occurs when: 1) insufficiently developed muscles and back muscles in particular; 2) there is a prolonged static load, i.e., when a person is in the same wrong position for a long time. A special role in the formation of the correct posture of the child should be played by the secondary school. School teachers, especially primary school teachers, must ensure that the child is sitting correctly so that the student's chair is not far from his desk. State authorities also set special requirements. These requirements apply to the height of the chair and desk. If these requirements are not met, schools will be held accountable. But the child can bend in the classroom and not only because he has a too uncomfortable desk or chair. He may do this because of poor eyesight or hearing, and also because of poor lighting in the office where he spends most of his time and where he works. At home, it is up to the parents or legal guardians to ensure that the child sits correctly. Also, a curvature of the spine may occur due to the fact that the child sleeps on too large a pillow or on a bed that is too soft. Timely correction of a defect in posture will help prevent curvature of the spine. Responsibility for this lies both with the child himself and with those persons who are watching him. In general, it should be said that curvature of the spine is of 3 types: 1) scoliosis; 2) lordosis; 3) kyphosis. Scoliosis. Scoliosis is the most common type of spinal curvature. It is observed in children and adolescents aged five to fifteen years. As a rule, congenital and acquired scoliosis are distinguished. Congenital scoliosis is a consequence of improper development of the vertebrae, while acquired scoliosis, as its name suggests, is acquired as a result of the child sitting in an “incorrect position.” Particularly complex and severe scoliosis leads to disruption of the functions of internal organs. Kyphosis. Kyphosis is a type of curvature of the spine, which is divided into subtypes: 1) arcuate kyphosis; 2) angular kyphosis. With arcuate kyphosis, any part of the spine, so to speak, "evenly" bends towards the back. And with angular kyphosis, a sharp curvature of any one (usually very small) section of the spine occurs. Lordosis. Lordosis is, as mentioned above, one of the types of curvature of the spine. As a rule, lordosis is acquired. The reasons for its appearance may be congenital injuries of the hip joint, as well as excess weight of a person. With congenital injuries of the hip joint, the body's center of gravity tends to shift backward. In order not to lose balance, a person must bend in the opposite direction, i.e. forward. A characteristic feature of lordosis is pain, which is caused by load redistribution. To correct lordosis, corrective gymnastics is prescribed. Correction of the defect of posture is achieved through physical education and sports. But in this case, one should not go too far, because excessive and uncontrolled sports and physical education can lead to the fact that a person will develop osteochondrosis. Osteochondrosis is often called an occupational disease of athletes. Therefore, all sports and physical exercises should be carried out under the strict supervision of a specialist. Small children are also taken to correct scoliosis, in addition to sports training, and for therapeutic massage to the doctor. Therapeutic massage is performed only by specially trained people (i.e. massage therapists) as directed by a doctor. Moreover, the relatives of the child can massage him on their own only on condition that they have undergone special instruction from a medical worker. Massage has a tonic effect on the human body. LECTURE No. 22. The human muscular system 1. The concept of the muscular system We have already considered the issue of the human skeletal system, and found out that without it a person cannot survive. But in direct connection with the human skeletal system is the muscular system. It is the muscular system that ensures the movement of a person, it also ensures that a person can talk and chew. Without muscles, a person would stand still, like a monument or an idol. Thus, we can say that the human skeletal system, together with its muscular system, constitute the musculoskeletal system. In anatomy, the following types of muscles are distinguished:. 1) smooth muscles; 2) striated muscles. Smooth muscles, or rather, smooth muscle tissue, form the shells of the walls of blood vessels. Striated muscles form tissue that attaches to various parts of the skeleton. Therefore, they are also called skeletal muscles. The striated muscles are divided into 3 groups: 1) muscles of the body; 2) muscles of the head and neck; 3) muscles of the upper and lower extremities. The muscles of the body include the muscles of the back, chest, and abdomen. The muscles of the head include facial and chewing muscles. The muscles of the upper and lower extremities include the muscles of the shoulder girdle and the muscles of the legs. The main property of muscles is their ability to contract. Therefore, the muscles are very elastic. With active sports and physical education in the muscles, the content of a substance called myofibrils increases. In well-developed, trained muscles, the amount of myofibril is greater, and in weak muscles - less. The cardiac muscle differs from striated and smooth muscles in that it contracts automatically (all other muscles begin to contract only under the influence of nerve impulses). The heart muscle works non-stop throughout a person's life. 2. Diseases of the human muscular system Like all other human systems, the muscular system is also prone to disease. The treatments for these diseases are quite extensive and depend on the degree of muscle damage. For example, with a bruise, a person can get by with "home" remedies, but with a muscle rupture, everything is much more serious. If there is a complete rupture of the muscles, then urgent surgical intervention is necessary. In case of incomplete, i.e. partial, muscle rupture, therapeutic exercises, massage, as well as physiotherapeutic measures are prescribed. During surgery, torn muscle segments are sewn together. Malformations of the muscular system lead to the formation of diaphragmatic hernias. In case of metabolic disorders, muscle necrosis occurs. Also, the cause of muscle necrosis may be the fact that tumors, injuries are located in the immediate vicinity, or arterial vessels are clogged. There is also such a disease as muscle atrophy. Muscle atrophy is expressed in the fact that muscle fibers become much thinner. As a rule, muscle atrophy is observed in people who are in advanced, advanced age. LECTURE No. 23. Human circulatory system 1. The concept of the human circulatory system For the first time in evolution, the circulatory system appears in annelids. They are quite simple and consists of two vessels: 1) abdominal vessel; 2) dorsal vessel. Blood flows through the abdominal vessel from front to back, and through the spinal vessel in the opposite direction. The blood of annelids can be either red or green. It all depends on the type of respiratory pigments. The human circulatory system is much more complex. This system consists of a whole set of organs: the heart, as well as blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries). Heart - This is a hollow organ located approximately between the right and left lungs. It has very powerful heart muscles called the myocardium. It is these muscles that move the blood. The apex of the heart is directed downward, forward and slightly to the left. Therefore, heartbeats are felt so well in the left side of the sternum. Blood vessels. Aorta It is the largest vessel in the circulatory system. The blood is "thrown out" into the aorta, and then spreads through the arteries and smaller blood vessels - the capillaries. The blood contains erythrocytes and leukocytes. Erythrocytes have the shape of a biconcave disk, in another way they are also called red blood cells, since they are red in color due to their hemoglobin content. The main function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen to the cells of the body, as well as transport carbon dioxide to the lungs. leukocytes - blood cells with well developed nuclei. In another way, leukocytes are called white blood cells. This is not true, because leukocytes are generally colorless. The main function of leukocytes is the recognition and destruction of foreign cells and compounds that are in the body. 2. Diseases of the human cardiovascular system There are the following diseases of the human cardiovascular system: 1) coronary heart disease; 2) hypertensive heart disease. Ischemic heart disease. Coronary heart diseases include diseases such as myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, cardiosclerosis. All these diseases are periodically exacerbated. Simply put, periods when the disease does not manifest itself in any way alternate with periods when the disease "activates". The basis of coronary heart disease is the deterioration of the blood supply to the muscles of the heart. With the help of scientific experiments, it has been proven that coronary heart disease is more widespread among people who smoke. Hypertensive heart disease. Hypertensive heart disease - this is a disease of the human cardiovascular system, in which arterial pressure constantly or almost constantly rises. Moreover, hypertension is not caused by a disease of the kidneys or adrenal glands. A kind of trigger for hypertension is nervous tension. Therefore, for people with hypertension, the doctor prescribes not only vasodilators (since there is an opinion that high blood pressure is caused by vasospasms), but also drugs that calm the human central nervous system. LECTURE No. 24. The role and influence of historical political figures on world development 1. Peter the Great The future great Russian Emperor Peter I was born on the night of May 30, 1672. His father was the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and his mother was Natalya Kirillovna. With Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Peter was already the fourteenth child, and with Natalya Kirillovna, he was the first-born. The mother of Peter the Great, Natalya Kirillovna, came from the Naryshkin family. A month after the birth of the child, he was christened in the Miracle Monastery. June 29, that is, the day when the newborn was baptized, was the feast of Saints Peter and Paul. Therefore, the baby was named Peter. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered to take measurements from the newborn and write an icon on them, which was done. According to the annals of those times, the famous painter Simon Ushakov painted the icon. Subsequently, this icon accompanied Peter everywhere, he never parted with it. The icon depicted the Holy Trinity and the Holy Apostle Peter. Time passed, and Peter Alekseevich grew up. Despite the fact that in his mother's room he was entertained with rattles and harps, he was more drawn to military toys - soldiers and cannons. His joy knew no bounds when Alexei Mikhailovich gave him a children's gun. Peter lost his father early. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich died in 1676. The eldest son of Alexei Mikhailovich (from another marriage) Fyodor was crowned king. The new tsar took an active part in Peter's upbringing. He was very upset because his little brother was not taught to read and write. Natalya Kirillovna explained this by the fact that there is no worthy teacher. Finally, such a teacher was found. It was deacon Nikita Moiseevich Zotov. Zotov was not strict with little Peter, he allowed the young heir to the throne to lead the way of life that he liked best. Peter used this very much and often: driven by innate curiosity, he climbed the attics, and also often fought with archery children. When Peter got tired of his amusements and sat down somewhere to rest, Zotov approached him and began to tell instructive stories from his life. Nikita Moiseevich was a very patient and kind person. Although he himself was poorly educated, he knew the Holy Scripture perfectly. Already as an adult, Peter often recalled quotations from the Holy Scriptures and discussed the interpretation of a passage in the Gospel. It was from Zotov that Peter adopted the knowledge that it is better to trust your eye than all calculations and drawings. Zotov achieved this easily and naturally: when the boy got tired of running around and sat down to rest, Zotov approached him and began to tell stories from his life. At the same time, Nikita Moiseevich carved wooden toys. Peter then began to repeat after his teacher. Noticing a military string in the boy, Nikita Moiseevich began to teach him the basics of military affairs, diplomacy and geography. The teacher constantly brought books with color illustrations to young Peter. Later, he began to write out "amusing notebooks" with color illustrations especially for Peter. These illustrations depicted the military equipment of different states, including warships. Peter learned to write quickly, but, unfortunately, he made many mistakes. Already in adulthood, the emperor himself wrote the alphabet and dreamed of a book on the history of the fatherland all his life. The upbringing of Natalya Kirillovna also had an important influence on the character of Peter. While still a baby, Peter spent a lot of time in his mother's burner, that is, a small room with a low ceiling. Ever since then, the emperor has fallen in love with such rooms. Wherever he went, they built a small house for him, which had a very low ceiling. There is such a case: when Peter I was in France on a diplomatic visit, he was offered a luxurious apartment in the Louvre. Peter did not like this apartment, and he ordered to equip his bedroom in the former dressing room. The tsar, the future emperor, Peter I was constantly engaged in some kind of craft. He did not stop even when ambassadors came to him. Envoys from other states often saw Peter planing boards or carving chess pieces. The year 1682 has come. Tsar Fedor dies, and Tsarevich Ivan and Tsarevich Peter begin to claim the throne. Ivan was the brother of the deceased Tsar Fedor and the half-brother of Peter. They had one common father (Aleksey Mikhailovich), but different mothers. Ivan and Fedor came from the Miloslavsky family. Rivalry began between the Miloslavskys and the Naryshkins, they began to weave political intrigues. As a result, the Naryshkins emerged victorious from this fight. But the Miloslavskys did not want to calm down. They started a rumor among the capital's archers that the Naryshkins had killed Ivan. Streltsy rebelled and went to the Kremlin. Natalya Kirillovna wished to calm the rioters. She went out to them together with Ivan and Peter. Seeing that Ivan was alive, the archers still did not immediately calm down. Young Peter saw all this rebellion, everything that the archers did, and, most likely, it was at this time that Peter hated them. The Naryshkins lost. But for the first time in the history of the Russian state, 2 princes were crowned king at once: Ivan, who became Ivan V, and Peter, who became Peter I. Immediately after the wedding to the kingdom, Natalya Kirillovna and Peter I left Moscow for the village of Preobrazhenskoye. For the first time in his life, Peter began to enjoy absolute freedom. No more nannies and mothers ran after him. Therefore, he, along with a whole group of his peers, began to run away into the fields and forests. In winter, they amused themselves by building snowy towns and fortresses and taking them by storm. Peter was distinguished by the fact that he was always among the first attackers. He was interested in everything related to military affairs. He examined all the pantries of Preobrazhensky and found there a mass of old rusty guns and other weapons. The armor was brought to him specially from the Armory. Peter armed his friends and created his own army, which became known as "amusing", because it was created for the entertainment of Peter. It was from this amusing army that many famous commanders and politicians came out. For Peter, their opinion was of unusually serious importance. It happened that the king made a decision based only on the opinion of his friends. Created for entertainment, the army soon became a real regiment. Adult men from among the court families were already accepted into it. Near the village of Preobrazhenskoye was the German settlement, in which the Germans, Swiss, and Dutch lived. Peter began to visit them and soon became fluent in German and Dutch. The sovereign became especially friends with the Dutchman Franz Timmerman, who began to teach him algebra, geometry, the basics of artillery science, as well as the construction of fortresses and fortifications. Then Peter had another passion - a passion for ships. He began to study navigation and constantly moved from Preobrazhensky to Arkhangelsk, closer to the sea. During this time, the number of people wishing to enroll in the amusing army has increased dramatically. Peter managed to make two regiments out of everyone. One was located in Preobrazhensky, and the other - in the village of Semenovskoye. For these regiments, military uniforms were sewn, which at first differed, but then they came to a single uniform. Natalya Kirillovna was very afraid that Peter was more interested in war than in politics. She convinced her son that Sophia (Peter's half-sister, who became ruler when Ivan and Peter were married) herself wanted to take the Russian throne and her full-length portrait with state attributes of power was already ready. Natalya Kirillovna decided to marry her son. She chose her future daughter-in-law on her own. Her choice fell on Evdokia Lopukhina. But even marriage could not distract Peter from his military hobbies. In 1689, Sophia decided to go on a pilgrimage to the Donskoy Monastery and gathered archers for her protection. But a rumor was spread among the archers that while Sophia was not in the capital, Peter would kill Ivan and his sisters. Having learned about the rebellion of the archers, Peter I went to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and took refuge behind its walls. But Sophia's time was running out anyway. She lost her supporters every day, and in the end, Peter the Great ordered her to renounce and go to a monastery. Under Peter the Great, the metallurgical industry began to develop. It is known that in the time of Peter the Great there were about two hundred large and small enterprises throughout Russia. Most of these businesses were owned by merchants. Also the owners were nobles and peasants. In St. Petersburg, the Admiralty shipyard and the Arsenal for the manufacture of weapons were built. At the beginning of the XVIII century. about 10 thousand people worked at the Admiralty shipyard. Over a decade and a half, 58 large ships and more than 200 small ones were built. In addition to St. Petersburg, there were shipyards in Preobrazhensky, on Olonets, in Karelia, in Voronezh, in Tavrov. In Tula, as well as in Sestroretsk and St. Petersburg, new arms factories were built. In 1724, a protective customs regime was introduced. Its meaning was that high customs tariffs were set for those goods that could already be produced in Russia. Also, under Peter the Great, a new system of division of nobles was introduced. In 1722 the "Table of Ranks" was published. This table provided for the division of service into civil and military. It contained 14 classes (both in the military and in the civil service). Now any person could become a nobleman. A person who reached from the fourteenth to the ninth rank acquired personal nobility. Personal nobility meant that only this person had all the noble privileges and duties, and his children were not nobles. A person who reached the eighth grade was recognized as a hereditary nobleman, that is, the children of this person were noblemen. Also, a title of nobility could be granted by a special decree of the emperor. Thus, the personality of Peter was formed independently, he was not interested in political intrigues, he was more of a "man of action". 2. Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte, Buonaparte) was born on August 15, 1769 on the island of Corsica. His parents were the Corsican nobles Charles and Laetitia Buonaparte. In addition to Napoleon, the family also had 3 daughters and 4 sons. Young Napoleon entered the Royal Military School in Brienne, and then to the Paris Military School. Napoleon began his military career with the rank of junior lieutenant. Even Nostradamus predicted that a man would come who would change short clothes for long ones. A man who will be one of the greatest personalities in the history of the world. And indeed, such a person came - Napoleon. In a rather short period of time, Bonaparte showed his great military talent. He especially distinguished himself at the Battle of Toulon. He carried out a brilliant military operation. The result of this operation was the capture of Toulon by the French. Thus, at the age of 24, Napoleon became a brigadier general. The soldiers, one might say, idolized Bonaparte. He knew how to awaken in them the desire to go forward and win. The Austrians could do nothing with the French army. The Italians enthusiastically greeted Napoleon. They began to become infected with his revolutionary ideas. The French win victory after victory. The French Directory, seeing the successes of Napoleon, in 1798 sent Bonaparte to Egypt. At the same time, a political crisis is brewing in France. The French government is powerless to prevent it. A. V. Suvorov wins back from the French all those territories that Napoleon conquered. In France, the regime of the consulate is proclaimed. Legislative power was divided among several bodies. Bonaparte took all executive power into his own hands. On November 9, 1799, Napoleon proclaimed himself First Consul. There were also positions of the second and third consul, but they were formal. Napoleon and his government are drafting a constitution. At the popular vote, it is adopted by an absolute majority of votes (about 3 million people voted for the constitution, and only 1,5 thousand voted against). Bonaparte finally consolidates his power by becoming first consul for life in 1802, and in 1804 - emperor of France. Napoleon begins to return all those lands that he took from Austria and England during his Italian campaign. The local population of Italy again welcomes him with joy. Emperor Bonaparte built his domestic policy on the fact that the interests of the peasants intersected as much as possible with his interests. Therefore, in 1804, the French Civil Code, also called the Napoleonic Code, was adopted. Napoleon establishes the institution of prefects of departments and subprefects of districts accountable to the government. An apparatus of police spies is being created, and a state French bank is being established. Realizing that the mass media have a strong political influence, Bonaparte closes one hundred and sixty out of one hundred and seventy-three Parisian newspapers. The remaining newspapers became controlled by the government. By concluding a concordat with the Pope in 1801, Napoleon thus emphasized that Catholicism is the faith of the majority of the French. But at the same time freedom of religion was preserved in France. In order to develop the economic policy of France, as well as for military purposes, Napoleon forced the allies of France to sign a decree on the continental blockade. The emperor's calculation was simple: he wanted a crisis to break out in England, which actually happened. In England, an economic crisis began, associated with the overproduction of goods. However, Napoleon did not take into account the fact that the British produced such a high-quality product (for example, the textile industry) that it was not possible to replace it with a similar product. As a result, the French economy collapsed. France did not enter into hostilities with the British, because England had a very strong fleet. Gradually, the authority of Napoleon began to decline. The bourgeoisie realized that it could not break Europe. The coming to power of a new emperor ensured the rise of the country's economy. Consequently, wages began to rise. The support of the proprietors was ensured by the fact that Napoleon reserved for the persons who acquired national property and church lands during the revolution. Therefore, they were willing to join the army. But then a new economic crisis broke out. And it was at this time that Napoleon decided to eliminate Russia, which he was very afraid of. On June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War began. Napoleon entered Russia. Russian troops were forced to retreat, because: 1) the number of the French army exceeded the number of the Russian army; 2) to repulse the enemy, it was necessary to combine all possible forces. The Russian army was divided into 3 large groups, which were under the command of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, P. I. Bagration, A.P. Tormasov. The armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration united. Russian Emperor Alexander I was in the army of Barclay de Tolly. Realizing that the Russian army could not survive, Alexander I issued an appeal to start a guerrilla war. Napoleon's army gradually approached Smolensk. She suffered heavy losses due to constant skirmishes with Russian partisan detachments. Of the 640 French who invaded the Russian Empire, only about 200 reached Smolensk. Alexander I, meanwhile, encourages the actions of the nobles to form a people's militia. At this time, the legendary commander M.I. Kutuzov returned to the capital. Alexander I appoints Kutuzov commander in chief. Arriving in the army, Kutuzov brought hope to the hearts of the soldiers. Kutuzov understood that at the moment it was necessary to retreat and look for a place to fight. Thus, both armies - Barclay and Bagration - reached the Borodino field. The famous Battle of Borodino began. The number of the Russian army was approximately 130 thousand soldiers, and the French army - 135 thousand. Relying on erroneous data, Kutuzov assumed that there were at least 190 thousand soldiers in the enemy camp. On August 24, 1812, the Battle of Borodino began. The battle lasted 3 days. On August 26, Kutuzov decided to leave the battlefield. Thus, the road to Moscow was opened to Napoleon. Napoleon immediately entered the ancient capital. For several days he waited for Alexander to beg for mercy. The French emperor even wrote three letters to Alexander in which he offered to surrender. Kutuzov left Moscow for a reason. There will be an army - there will be hope for a worthy end to the war. A few hours after Napoleon entered the city, a fire broke out. According to some sources, this happened through the fault of the French, and according to others, Kutuzov ordered to set fire to the capital. Winter was approaching, there was no provisions in Moscow (during a six-day fire, 75% of the city buildings burned down), Napoleon began to hastily leave the city, placing all his reserves on the way to Moscow. Thus, another prediction of Nostradamus came true - this man from the White Country will run. The anti-Napoleonic coalition grew, which included the Russian Empire, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden. In October 1813, the battle of Leipzig took place, which was called the "Battle of the Nations". Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat and after the Allies entered Paris, he abdicated and was exiled to the Mediterranean Sea, to the island of Elba. Numerous emigrants began to return to France. The returnees wanted everything to be as it was before Napoleonic times. But society, despite the exhaustion of the war, began to resent. This was taken advantage of by Napoleon, who fled from the island of Elba and was enthusiastically received in all the cities that met on his way. Napoleon became emperor again. But his "second term" did not last long and in history was called a hundred days. Napoleon suffered a final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, which took place on June 18, 1815. He was taken prisoner by the British. The British sent Bonaparte to a new place of exile - to the island of St. Helena. Here he no longer enjoyed such a wide range of rights as on the island of Elba. Napoleon Bonaparte died in 1821 from a serious illness. This is how a simple man, with the help of his talent, ruled almost all of Europe. Those territories that Bonaparte captured were ruled by Napoleon's "governors". These "deputies" were members of his family. The phrase "who was nothing will become everything" fully describes the life path of Napoleon Bonaparte. With the only caveat that he again became nothing. LECTURE No. 25. Mythology 1. The myth of Prometheus The Greeks have a myth about Prometheus. Prometheus was a titan. At one time, he helped Zeus gain power on Olympus, but then he stole fire from Olympus and gave it to people. For this act, Zeus was very angry with his former ally. Prometheus fell in love with people, he began to try to make their life easier. He took away the gift of foresight from people, leaving it only to the elect, he began to teach people everything that he himself knew. Having taught people to build ships, Prometheus showed them how wide the world is. Prometheus also taught people to read and write. Zeus did not know the secret of Prometheus. The fact is that in the first years of his reign, Zeus was a very cruel god, he built his power on unquestioning obedience. Everyone was afraid of the thunder god Zeus. Prometheus told Zeus that the day would come when the son of Zeus would overthrow his father from Olympus. The Thunderer demanded that the titan tell him the name of the woman from whom his son would be born, but the proud Prometheus refused. Then the faithful servants of Zeus, Strength and Power, in the Scythian country led Prometheus to the rock. The gloomy god Hephaestus, who was also the son of Zeus, trailed behind Strength and Power. Prometheus was his great friend, so Hephaestus suffered greatly from what he had to do. And his mission was to chain Prometheus to a rock, to drive an iron rod into his chest, which would more tightly chain the titan. Despite the fact that Prometheus was a friend of Hephaestus, the fear of the fury of his father in Hephaestus prevailed. The chained titan, when everyone left, turned to the ocean, the sun and the sky with a prayer. He called them to witness what Zeus had done to him. The Oceanids, his cousins, arrived at the voice of Prometheus. It pained them to watch their cousin suffer, but there was nothing they could do. Then the Ocean itself came to Prometheus. He invited Prometheus to yield to Zeus. The ocean said that he himself would immediately set off on his journey to Olympus to Zeus. But the proud titan dissuaded Ocean from this act. Prometheus was visited by Io, the daughter of the river god Inach, who was turned into a cow by Zeus. A gadfly chased Io and constantly stung her, so Io's body was bloody. Io, crying in her voice, turned to Prometheus: when will my suffering end? The wise titan answered her that Io would still have a long way to go, she would visit many countries, but in the end her appearance would be returned to her. And she will become the mother of a whole family of heroes. The God of Thunder could not calm down and sent Prometheus even more suffering. Zeus made the rock, to which the titan Prometheus was chained, fall into the abyss. But the titan was not afraid of this either. Then Zeus sent the most terrible torment. Every morning, an eagle flew to Prometheus, which tore the flesh of the titan and pecked at his liver. In the evening the eagle flew away, and during the night the liver of Prometheus grew again. The same thing happened again in the morning. No matter how painful Prometheus was, he did not succumb to torture and still did not betray his secret to Zeus. He knew that the time would come, with which his savior, the greatest hero of all time, would come. And that time has come. Hercules came to the aid of Prometheus. He broke the chains binding the titan, pulled the steel bar from his chest, and killed the eagle that was pecking at his liver. And only then did Prometheus reveal his prediction. The Titan knew that a mortal would come for him and free him. But someone had to go to the underworld of the dead instead of Prometheus. This fate was chosen for himself by the wisest centaur Chiron, to whom Hercules inflicted an incurable wound. 2. The myth of the exploits of Hercules And who was Hercules? This mythical hero was the son of Zeus and an ordinary woman. In Rome, he is better known under the name of Hercules, in the mythology of other countries there are also stories about such heroes. According to legend, a tribe called Teleboi stole herds from the Mycenaean king Electrion. Trying to return them, all the sons of Electrion died. The king of Mycenae despaired and said that whoever returns his flocks will get the beautiful Alcmene as his wife. Soon there was a man who returned the stolen goods. His name was Amphitryon. But the young couple did not live long in Mycenae. During the wedding feast, Amphitrion killed King Electryon and was forced to flee to Thebes. Alcmene was burning with the desire to take revenge on the tele-boys for the murdered brothers. And her husband went to fulfill her wish. While Amphitryon was not at home, Zeus saw Alcmene. God liked the young woman very much, and he appeared to her at night in the guise of her husband. Alcmene and Amphitryon were to have two boys, one of whom was the son of Zeus. The Thunder God knew about this and was very proud of it. He announced to all the gods of Olympus that a glorious hero from the Perseus clan would soon be born, who would later rule the entire Perseus clan. The wife of Zeus, the goddess Hera, was very angry. She, with the help of the goddess of deceit Ata, demanded that Zeus swear in his words, which he did. Then Hera made sure that on that day a son was born to the wife of the Perseid Sthenelus. The boy was born very weak, later he became very cowardly. Hera returned to Zeus and reminded him of his oath. Only now did Zeus realize that he had been deceived. Then he grabbed the goddess of deceit Ata and threw her from Olympus to the people, ordering her never to return. Since then, Ata has been living among people. With Hero, he concluded another agreement, according to which the son of Zeus gained complete independence from Eurystheus (son of Sthenelus) and immortality. To do this, he had to perform twelve feats, which Eurystheus would instruct him to perform. Alcmene and Amphitryon soon had two sons: Alkid, who later became known as Hercules, and Iphicles. Hercules grew up as a physically strong child. The goddess Hera, violating the contract, sent two poisonous snakes into his cradle, but the boy easily strangled them. Amphitryon and Alcmene wanted Alcides to grow up comprehensively developed. They hired him a teacher, who was Lin, brother of Orpheus. But the boy did not like these activities, and one day Lin, angry, hit him, and Hercules hit him in return. Lin was killed, and Hercules was tried but acquitted. Amphitrion sent Hercules to tend the flocks. Many years later. Hercules entered the service of Eurystheus. Eurystheus himself did not personally meet with the son of God, but transmitted all orders through his messenger. The first feat of Hercules. For a short time, Hercules lived a calm and measured life. Eurystheus ordered him to kill the Nemean lion. This lion settled in the vicinity of the city of Nemea and constantly attacked herds and people. Hercules, with great difficulty, but still found the lair of the Nemean lion in the mountains. It was even more difficult for him to wait for him there. The owner of the lair was a very scary beast. The Nemean lion was much larger and stronger than any other lion, his parents were Echidna and Typhon. The huge fangs of the lion were frightening, and its skin was so strong that three arrows of Hercules flew off from it. But the hero was not afraid, he hit the lion on the head with his club. The beast, not expecting this, fell, and Hercules grabbed him by the neck and strangled him. Hercules brought the body of his slain enemy to the city of Nemea. He also arranged the Nemean Games in this city, which were held every two years and were dedicated to Zeus. At the time of the Nemean Games, wars ceased throughout Greece. The second labor of Hercules. The next feat of Hercules was to go to the city of Lerna. In the swamps located near the city, another brainchild of Echidna and Typhon settled - the hydra. The Lernaean Hydra had a snake body and nine dragon heads. One of these heads was immortal. The hero did not go to battle alone. He took with him Iolaus, the son of Iphicles. Approaching the swamps, Hercules ordered Iolaus to wait for him here, while he himself went ahead. He fired many arrows at the hydra, which made her angry. Getting out of her hiding place, she wanted to straighten up to her full height, but Hercules did not let her do this: he pressed her to the ground and began to cut off the heads of the hydra. But all his labors were in vain, because two new ones grew in place of the severed head. Hydra, realizing that she alone could not defeat Hercules, called for help from a huge cancer. Cancer, coming out of the grove, grabbed Hercules by the claws by the legs. The hero could not resist, but Iolaus came to his aid. Iolaus killed the cancer, and then he set fire to the thicket. Hercules continued to cut off the heads of the hydra. The hero understood how to defeat his opponent. He ordered Iolaus to cauterize the neck, from which the head had just been cut off. Finally, that single immortal head was also cut off. So that the hydra could never get out again, Hercules buried it, and put a huge rock on the "burial place". Then the son of Zeus cut the body of the hydra into pieces and lowered his arrows into her poison. Now the arrows of Hercules have become deadly, the wounds from them have become incurable. The third feat of Hercules. Eurystheus did not let Hercules rest for a long time. Immediately after his arrival, Hercules is sent back on the road. For an even more difficult and dangerous task. In the forests of the city of Stimfal, terrible birds began to nest. Cruel and bloodthirsty, they attacked both animals and people. Stymphalian birds had copper claws with which they tore flesh. And their feathers were an even more terrible weapon. The feathers of the Stymphalian birds were made of bronze, they could freely rise up and start the "bombardment". Feathers seemed to become arrows, and they struck on the spot. Zeus ordered the goddess Pallas Athena to help Hercules in every possible way. It was this goddess who gave the son of the god of thunder two copper tympanums that Hephaestus forged. Hercules stood on a high hill (next to the forest where these birds nested) and, with the help of the gifts of the goddess, made a terrible noise. The frightened birds rose up and attacked Hercules, but were struck down by his deadly arrows. The remaining birds flew away to the Black Sea coast and never returned. The fourth labor of Hercules. The goddess Artemis created a beautiful Kerinean doe, which was sent as a punishment to people. This doe destroyed all the crops in its path, but it was very beautiful. Her horns were made of gold and her feet were made of copper. The deer never knew fatigue, she was constantly in motion. That is why Eurystheus wanted to get her. He ordered Hercules to get the Kerinean doe and bring her back alive. Hercules searched for her for a long time, and then for a whole year he pursued the doe throughout all the lands. Having reached the Danube, the doe ran in the opposite direction. Hercules, who could not catch her at the river, again set off in pursuit of her. Then he took out his arrow, pulled the string of his bow and wounded the Kerinean doe in the leg. Then the goddess Artemis immediately appeared. She was very angry with Hercules, saying that it was her doe and he did not dare to touch her. Then Hercules knelt before the beautiful goddess and said that he honors all the gods of Olympus, including Artemis, but he does not consider himself equal to the gods, although Zeus is his father. The gods themselves, said Hercules, ordered me to serve Eurystheus and carry out all his orders. It was on his orders that he, Hercules, was to catch the Kerinean doe. Artemis, having heard such words from Hercules, had mercy and forgave him. Fifth Labor of Hercules. A little time passed, and Eurystheus ordered Hercules to hit the road again. This time, the path of the glorious hero lay in the vicinity of the city of Psofis, where a monstrous boar lived on Mount Erimanthe. This boar killed everyone who got in his way. Not far from this city lived a friend of Hercules. This friend was called the centaur Fall. Foul was so delighted with the appearance of Hercules that he opened a vessel with wonderful wine for him. The main mistake of the centaur was that he opened this vessel without the permission of other centaurs. The other centaurs, smelling the fine wine, got angry and attacked Fall's house. Taken by surprise, Hercules began to defend himself. He began to throw burning brands at the attacking centaurs and put them to flight. Hercules started chasing them. The centaurs took refuge in the house of another friend of Hercules - the centaur Chiron. Hercules was in a terrible rage. Therefore, breaking into Chiron's dwelling, he fired one of the arrows smeared with the poison of the hydra. He wanted to hit the enemy, but hit Chiron. Hercules immediately came to his senses and began to help the centaur wash the wound, although both knew that it was useless. Chiron did not want to suffer for a long time and voluntarily (instead of Prometheus) descended into the kingdom of the dead. Hercules, angry with himself, immediately went to carry out his task. He found the boar's lair and kicked it out. For a long time the boar tried to escape from the hero, but got stuck in deep snow. Then Hercules tied him up and carried him to Mycenae alive. King Eurystheus of Mycenae, seeing a boar, was so frightened that he climbed into a bronze vessel. The sixth labor of Hercules. King Eurystheus of Mycenae ordered Hercules to go to King Augeus. King Avgiy possessed great treasures. He was especially famous for the fact that he had a large barnyard. Augius had three hundred bulls that had white legs, two hundred red bulls, twelve white bulls (which were dedicated to the god Helios) and one special, most beautiful bull. Hercules made the following deal with Avgiy: he, Hercules, cleans out the entire barnyard in one day, and Avgiy gives him a tenth of his herds. The king thought that it was impossible to do this, that is, to clean out the entire barnyard in one day, and therefore agreed. Hercules dismantled two walls in the fence that surrounded the barnyard, and then changed the direction of the flow of the waters of two rivers: Alfea and Peneus. King Avgiy deceived Hercules and did not fulfill his promise. For this, Hercules took revenge on him. When he, Hercules, freed himself from the power of the Mycenaean king, he gathered a huge army and defeated the army of Augeas. He killed Augeas himself. The seventh labor of Hercules. The god Poseidon gave the king of Crete Minos a beautiful bull. The Cretan king was supposed to sacrifice him to Poseidon, but he felt sorry for such a beautiful bull. He, hoping that Poseidon would not unravel the deception, sacrificed another bull. Poseidon was just furious with Minos. He sent him a curse in the form of a bull that came out of the sea. The Cretan bull rushed all over the island and destroyed everything in its path. It was for this bull that Eurystheus sent Hercules. The hero was able to sit on the back of a bull and swam across the sea on it. Arriving in Mycenae, Hercules gave the Cretan bull to Eurystheus. But the Mycenaean king was afraid to keep such a terrible beast in his herd and set him free. The Cretan bull again began to destroy everything in its path. In the end, he reached the Marathon field, where he was killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. The eighth labor of Hercules. Eurystheus ordered Hercules to get King Diomedes. The path of Hercules lay through the country, which was ruled by his friend - King Admet. Hercules did not know at what difficult time for Admetus he arrived. Once upon a time, Apollo told Admet that his life would be extended if someone else voluntarily descended into the kingdom of Hades instead of him. Sensing the approach of death, Admet began to make a corresponding request to all people. But no one was willing to give his life for his king. Even the elderly parents refused. But there was a woman who agreed. It was the beloved wife of Admet - Alcestis. Before her death, Alcestis said goodbye to everyone, and Admet, killed by the impending loss, asked her to change her mind. But the woman loved her husband too much. The time has come when Alcestis died. Admet ordered everyone to mourn for eight months. And it is at this time that Hercules comes. Admet says nothing to him and arranges a real feast for the hero. But Hercules sees that something is wrong with his friend, and asks to tell everything. Admet speaks in a confused and unclear way, from which Heracles concludes that Admet's distant relative has died. During the feast, Hercules asks for a servant to join him, but he refuses. Noticing the sad expression on the servant's face, Hercules asks to tell about what happened after all. When Hercules heard the whole truth, he felt very ashamed - while his friend is experiencing the death of his wife, he is feasting in his house. The hero sees only one way to atone for his guilt - to save Alcestis. Hercules secretly makes his way to the tomb with Alcestis and waits there for Tanat, who is about to fly in for his victim. When the god Tanat arrives, Hercules grabs and ties him up. The knots were so strong that God could not untie them. And then Hercules offered to make a deal - in exchange for his freedom, Tanat must return Alcestis. And God agrees. Thus, Hercules returns happiness and love to the house of his friend Admet. The ninth labor of Hercules. The ninth task of Hercules was to get the girdle of the Queen of the Amazons, Hippolyta. This belt was presented to Hippolyta by the god of war Ares, and he, the belt, liked the daughter of the king of Mycenae Admeta. Hercules gathered a small but strong army. This army included many glorious heroes, one of whom was Theseus. The glory of Hercules also reached the lands of the Amazons, so when the heroes came to them, Hippolyta wanted to voluntarily give up her belt. But Hera prevented this. The stepmother of Hercules took the form of an Amazon and began to slander the newcomers: they came, she said, to take Hippolyta hostage. Believing Amazons grabbed their weapons. The battle was terrible, but the army of Hercules won. Then Hippolyta exchanged her belt for one of the Amazons, which Hercules captured. Another Amazon, whose name was Antiloa, Hercules gave as a reward to Theseus. The tenth labor of Hercules. King Eurystheus ordered Hercules to drive him the herd of Geryon. The hero, without delay, went on a solo journey. He was to reach the westernmost lands. Hercules made a long journey to the Ocean, and having reached it, he thought: how would he reach the island of Eritheia, where the herds of Geryon graze. Then the sun god came to his aid. Helios invited Hercules to use his chariot. The delighted hero at the moment reached the desired island. But the herds were guarded by the two-headed dog Orfo and the giant Eurytion. Hercules easily defeated both. When he drove the herds to the chariot, Geryon himself appeared. It was a huge giant who had three heads, three bodies, six arms and six legs. Gerion threw three spears at once and covered himself with three shields, but Hercules launched his arrow, which hit the giant in the eye, and then the second and third arrows flew. Geryon was defeated. Having transported the herd to the other side, Hercules thanked Helios and went home. But when he drove the herd through Italy, one of the cows sailed to Sicily. Hercules left the herd to Hephaestus and went in search of a runaway cow. King Erike, the son of Poseidon, drew attention to this cow. He challenged Hercules to a duel. The winner received a cow. Hercules easily killed Eryx and took the cow to her herd. But Hera made the herd fall ill with rabies and fled. Most of the cows Hercules never found, and those that were found, he drove to Mycenae, where King Eurystheus sacrificed them to Hera. Eleventh labor of Hercules. Eurystheus ordered Cerberus, the three-headed dog Hades, to be brought to him. Hercules had to go down to the realm of the dead, where he saved the captive Theseus. Hercules reached the throne of Hades, brother of Zeus, and said why he went down to him. Hades agreed to give up his dog on the condition that Hercules find him and defeat him. The hero searched for the dog for a long time, but still found him. Hercules grabbed the dog by the neck and began to choke him. The dog gave up. Hercules took him to Mycenae, but Eurystheus was frightened of the formidable dog and asked Hercules to return Cerberus to Hades, which the hero did. The twelfth labor of Hercules. King Mycenae ordered Hercules to bring him golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. The difficulty was that no one knew the way there. Nobody, except for the sea elder Nereus, from whom Hercules learned the way. While Hercules was going for apples, he had to fight with the son of the goddess Gaia Antaeus. The giant invited everyone to fight him and always won. Antey killed his opponents, and no one knew the secret of the giant's strength. But Hercules found out this secret: Antey was given strength by his mother Gaia, Hercules simply raised the giant above the ground and strangled him. Arriving in the garden for apples, Hercules saw the titan Atlas, who held the sky on his shoulders. Atlas asked Hercules to stand in his place while he went for apples, and Hercules agreed. Atlas, returning with apples, decided to get rid of his burden by cunning: he offered Hercules to support the firmament for the time being, and for now he would take the apples to Mycenae. Hercules figured out this trick and said: "Well, I agree, but let me first make myself a pillow, which I will put on my shoulders." The titan again shouldered the firmament, and Hercules went home. 3. Mythology of the ancient Slavs Our ancestors, the ancient Slavs, like all other peoples of the world, had their own idea of the world and the place of man in this world. Myths are, first of all, an expression of a point of view on many philosophical and eternal problems. Attempts to give a motivated and the only correct answer to these questions have been and will be made for a long time, until this answer is found. As a "legacy" from the ancient Slavs, we got a lot of beautiful myths and legends that tell about how the ancient gods lived and, of course, how the Universe and man appeared. The Slavs claimed that at the very beginning of time the whole world was in deep darkness. But then the Golden Egg appeared, from which Rod hatched - the parent of everything that exists now. With the help of the power of Love (Mother Lada, which Rod himself gave birth to), he managed to destroy his shell. As a result, the Universe appeared with its countless number of star worlds, including our earthly world. Here we see some similarities with the Big Bang theory. The Slavs also attributed to the "merits" of the Sort that he divided Yav (i.e., the real world) and Novi (i.e., the spiritual world), and also separated Truth from Krivda (from lies, untruths). Then Rod took up the fact that he began to appoint the gods to "positions": for example, the thundering Thunder was approved in the fiery chariot. Numerous children of Rod also took their places: the sun god Ra, who, according to legend, came out of the face of his father Rod, took a place in a golden boat, and the Moon in a silver one. Rod emitted from his mouth the Spirit of God - the bird Mother, with the help of the Spirit of God, Rod then gave birth to the Heavenly Father - Svarog. Svarog was destined to complete the "construction" of the world. When he finished doing this, he became the master of the World. Svarog also approved 12 pillars that support the firmament. Rod also gave birth to the god Barma, who constantly whispered prayers and recited the Vedas. Then the waters of the World Ocean were created, it was in them that the World Duck appeared, which gave rise to many other gods. The clan gave birth to the Cow Zemun and the Goat Sedun, who created the Milky Way. Rod churned the Milky Way with the Alatyr stone, and Mother Earth Cheese was created from the oil obtained after churning. The myth of the stone Alatyr. What kind of stone is this, Alatyr? According to ancient Slavic tradition, Alatyr appeared at the beginning of time. He lay at the bottom of the Ocean, from where he was raised by the World Duck. Since the stone was very small, she decided to hide it in her beak. But Svarog did not allow this. He spoke the magic word and the stone began to grow. He got bigger and bigger. In the end, the World Duck dropped it. Stone Alatyr fell, continuing to grow. The Slavs called Elbrus Alatyr, there was also Alatyr in the Urals, the Altai Mountains were also called Alatyr-mountains. If we assume that Alatyr is still Elbrus, then its ancient names become clear to some extent: Bel-Alabyr, White Mountain, Belitsa. The White River flows from Elbrus, and at the foot of the mountain was the White City. In fact, the Baksan River flows down from Elbrus. Until about the XNUMXth c. n. e. she was called Altud, or Alatyrka. The root "alto" means "gold" (hence the word "altyn" came from). The Alatyr stone has a philosophical meaning, it is neither heavy nor light, neither big nor small; he is a sacred stone, is the focus of the Knowledge of the Vedas. The legend says that Svarog, with his hammer blows on Alatyr, knocked out sparks from him. And from these sparks the gods were born. The mythical creature Kitovras (like the ancient Greek centaurs) built a temple of the Most High on this mountain. It follows that Alatyr is also a stone for sacrifices. It is on it that the Almighty sacrifices himself. Alatyr, as is known from the legend, fell from the sky. The laws of Svarog were carved on it. Thus, this sacred stone "connected" two worlds: heavenly and earthly. Alatyr also had his own intermediaries, who also acted as his symbols - these were the book of the Vedas that fell from the sky, as well as the magical bird Gamayun. Alatyr is a triune system: it is the true path (the path of Rule) between Yavu and Naviu. The Alatyr stone unites all the worlds in itself, therefore it is one. The legend of Svarog, Semargl and the Great Black Snake. As mentioned above, Svarog hit the Alatyr stone with his hammer and struck sparks from it. Gods were born from these sparks, including the Fiery God Semargl. Under Semargl there was a horse with a golden mane. The banner of this god was smoke, and fire became his horse. A strong wind rose from Semargl - this is how the god of the winds Stribog was born, who fanned the flames of Svarog and Svarozhich (this was also called Semargl). By this time the World Duck had given birth to the Great Black Snake, who began to envy Svarog. The serpent also decided to hit Alatyr with his hammer. But when he hit him, black sparks flew from the stone, from which the forces of evil, evil demons were born. The brave Semargl began to fight with the Black Snake, but lost. The Black Serpent captured the whole earth, the Sun went out, complete darkness came. Semargl did not want to give up, he went up to heaven to his father Svarog for help. The Black Serpent was frightened and decided to fly after the god of fire and secretly penetrate into the heavenly forge of Svarog. The serpent was able to lick through the three vaults of heaven with his tongue, but Svarog and Semargl grabbed him and harnessed him to the plow. Having plowed the whole land, they divided it into two parts: Yav and Nav. In Yavi, they began to rule themselves, and in Navi, the Black Serpent began to rule. Svarog was worshiped not only by the Slavs. It is known that in India he was called Tvashtar (in Slavic Tvastyr - the Creator). Tvashtar was revered in India, his image merged with the image of Lord Shiva himself, and the so-called Brahminists identified the Word of Svarog with Brahma. Somewhat later, in the popular mind, the place of Svarog and Semargl was taken by Boris-Gleb and Nikita Kozhemyaka. It was said that they were blacksmiths. Their smithy stretched 12 versts in the sky, it had 12 doors. They also had 12 assistants. The legend of the god Perun and the Skipper-Beast. Perun was the god of princes and warriors. He also came from the god Svarog. According to legend, Mother Sva was Perun's mother. When Perun was still very small, the evil Skipper-Beast came to earth. He destroyed everything in his path. However, it was destined for him to die at the hands of Perun. Therefore, the Skipper-Beast kidnapped the baby, put him to eternal sleep and hid him in a dungeon. Three hundred years have passed. Perun's brothers decided to find him. To this end, they turned into birds: Veles turned into a Sirin bird, Khors turned into Alkonost, and Stribog became Stratim. For a long time they were looking for their brother. To find out where he is after all, the gods made a dangerous journey to the Skipper Beast itself. However, he decided to deceive them, but Veles, Khors and Stribog did not succumb to tricks. After some time they found Perun. However, it was not easy to revive him - living water was needed. For her, the brothers asked the magical bird Gamayun to fly. They explained to the bird where to find it: near the Riphean mountains, beyond the Eastern Sea. Gamayun brought them Surya, i.e. living water. The awakened Perun, straightening his shoulders and straightening his long beard, immediately began to prepare for a campaign against the Skipper-Beast. Having received the blessing of Mother Lada, Perun went to the Dark Kingdom. It was very difficult to get there, because on the way there were serious, for many insurmountable, obstacles. So, the first obstacle that Perun encountered was the forest. Mighty roots and branches intertwined together so that no one could pass through this wall. Perun was not afraid and threatened the forest that if he did not part, then he, Perun, would break all the trees into small chips. The forest was frightened and missed the god of warriors and princes. The next obstacle that Perun encountered was the rivers. The current in these rivers was very fast, and the banks were very steep. Stones constantly poured into the water from the shore, but Perun ordered the rivers to part. The rivers were very frightened and parted. The third obstacle that Perun encountered was steep mountains. Perun ordered them to disperse to the sides, and the mountains obediently let God through. Perun continued his march. Then Perun met the Magur bird (Indra's bird). A huge bird sat on twelve oaks, and in its claws it held a miracle-yudo fish-whale. Magur could whistle like a snake and growl like a beast. From her voice, leaves fell from the trees, and the grass pressed against the ground. But this bird turned out to be very weak: Perun shot her right wing, and she, having fallen from her perch, ran away. Moving on, Perun found his own sisters. The Skipper Beast kidnapped them three hundred years ago, and they've been herding fire-breathing snakes ever since. The enemy severely mutilated the beautiful sisters: now they had bark instead of skin, and grass instead of hair. Perun ordered his sisters (Zhiva, Marena and Lele) to go to the Riphean mountains. There they were to find a milky river, and then a sour cream lake. In order to get rid of Skipper Beast's spell, they had to first bathe in a milky river and then in a sour cream lake. Perun himself continued on his way. He soon found Skipper Beast's lair. The monster's palace was made of human bones, and the whole tyn was hung with skulls. The Skipper-Beast was not afraid of Perun, because he did not know that Veles, Khors and Stribog found their brother and revived him. When Perun killed his enemy, he raised his body high above his head and threw it to the ground. The earth could not stand it, and the body of the Skipper-Beast fell into the bottom. And Perun filled up the resulting gorge with the Caucasus Mountains. Perun and Diva. Once, walking in a beautiful garden, Perun met a beautiful girl, Diva. Diva was the daughter of the god Dyya, the god of the night sky, and the goddess Livia, the goddess of the moon. Perun fell in love with the beautiful daughter of the gods at first sight, but she was very capricious and impregnable. Perun did not wait long and invited Diva to play a wedding. But, having heard Perun's proposal, the girl simply burst into tears and ran away. Perun nevertheless decided to achieve his goal and went to Diva's father, the god of the night sky Dyu, but he did not go empty-handed. Perun wanted to appease the god of the night sky with his gifts. It should be said that Perun nevertheless married his chosen one. And the Bottom King of the Black Sea Serpent played a significant role in this. While Perun was at Dyy, Diva liked the Black Sea Serpent, who was the Bottom King. The serpent also did not postpone his matchmaking and immediately went to his chosen one. Having made an offer to Diva, the Black Sea Serpent received a sharp and categorical answer - Diva refused to marry him. The Black Sea Serpent got angry and, as legend has it, turned into a three-headed serpent. One of his heads was throwing sparks, another head "breathed" the icy wind, and the third loudly demanded that Diva be immediately married to him. The Black Sea Serpent was soon pacified, because the god Dyy flew to the aid of his daughter along with his future son-in-law Perun. Dyi and Perun turned into huge eagles. They began to fight with the Serpent, began to throw lightning at him. At first, the Black Sea Serpent repulsed his opponents, but then all Svarozhichs flew to the aid of Dyu and Perun. Then the Black Sea Serpent was very frightened and, as the legend says, dived back into the Black Sea. Then only Diva agreed to marry Perun. They played a magnificent and cheerful wedding, and it was then that Veles fell in love with Diva. He began to persuade Diva to run with him. The young wife refused, saying that Veles would anger Rod with this proposal. But much later, Diva still fell in love with Beles. By the way, it will be said about who the god Veles was. Veles was the son of the Cow Zemun. He was the god of wealth, the god of all cattle. Along with this, he was also assigned the role of a guide to the afterlife. According to another point of view, Veles was the god of wisdom. He was most revered in Southern Rus'. He was cast out of heaven. Later, Storm-Yaga, the goddess of death, became his wife. According to legend, her hut stood on the border of two worlds. God Veles played an important role in Sadko's life (this will be discussed below). It should also be said that Veles in Northern Rus' was one of the supreme heavenly gods. Perun and Devana. A daughter was born to Perun and Diva. The legend says that the girl inherited the beauty of her mother and the power of her father. In Roman mythology, she corresponds to Diana, the goddess of the hunt. According to legend, Devana was able to turn into a forest animal, swim in the water like a fish, and fly like a Magur bird. One day, Devana was driving through an open field, two huge wolves were running in front of her, a bird was sitting on each shoulder: on the right - a falcon, and on the left - a white gyrfalcon. The god Veles rode after her and tried to draw Devana's attention to himself: he shouted like an animal, whistled like a nightingale. But it was all in vain: she did not even turn around in his direction. The god Dazhbog rode to meet Devan (he was the god of the entire universe, it was from him that all Russian people originated, it was he who defeated Koshchei). Dazhbog was also the son of Perun, he was delighted to meet Devana and hurried to ask her about where she was heading. Devana replied that she was going to Iriy (a paradise among the ancient Slavs, which was located in the mythical Ripe Mountains and in which Svarog ruled) and that she wanted to take the throne of Svarog. Dazhbog hastened to Perun. He wanted to warn his father about what Dewan wants to do. Perun, as soon as he heard about this, immediately tried to stop his daughter. The heart of a loving father was worried about his daughter. But verbal persuasion had no effect on her, and then Perun was forced to fight with his own daughter. Devana was armed; since she had a long way to go, she amused herself by throwing her mace hundreds of miles ahead, and then picking it up and throwing it forward again. When the spears and maces of Devana and Perun were broken, then Devana turned into a Lioness, and Perun turned into a Lion. The result of this terrible battle was that the Lion defeated the Lioness. But Devana did not give up and turned into a Magur bird, and Perun became an Eagle. And again Perun defeated his daughter, but Devana continued to resist. She turned into a Whitefish. Then Perun called for help Makosh (the goddess of fate) and her two assistants: Dolya and Nedolya. The share weaved a happy fate, and Nedolya - an unhappy one. Makosh, together with his assistants, tied a frequent net. It was with his help that Devana was caught. And only now the foolish daughter of Perun realized her mistake. She understood that everyone should take their place, and also with special gratitude bowed to her father, the god Perun. In connection with this myth, the proverb is also recalled: "It is not the place that colors the person, but the person the place." Sadko. Sadko lived in the most beautiful city of those times - Tsar-grad. This city stood out for its architecture: beautiful and high temples, wide squares, a tower made of white stone. Sadko was a simple gusler. One day he decided to go down to Lake Ilmen and play there. Sadko played very cheerfully, so cheerfully that he could not even stand it and the god Ilm Ozerny came out to him from Lake Ilmen. Ilm thanked Sadko and said that he had not had such fun for a long time. Ilm told Sadko to argue with all the merchants in the city for all the goods in the shops. According to this dispute, Sadko was supposed to catch a fish with a golden feather in Ilmen Lake. The merchants argued with Sadko: after all, in nature there are no fish with feathers, especially with golden ones. But Lake Ilm helped, and Sadko won the argument. Overnight, he turned from a gusliar into a rich merchant. Sadko decided to engage in trade. Veles himself helped him in this. In gratitude for this, Sadko built a beautiful temple in honor of Veles in Constantinople. Sadko traveled a lot around the world for his trading business. According to legend, he had thirty equipped ships. Sadko visited the paradise island - Berezan, another paradise island Buyan and many other places. He was returning home along the Black Sea, and suddenly a strong storm arose. Only here the sailors remembered that during their entire long journey they had never once paid tribute to the god Chernomorets. Panic had already begun to rise on the merchant ships when everyone saw a miracle: a fiery boat was sailing towards them, and in it were the servants of Chernomorets. When the servants of Chernomorets sailed up, they demanded not tribute, but Sadko himself. Sadko decided to sail with them. They sailed to Chernomorets itself. It turned out that the Sea King had a real feast. Therefore, Sadko was ordered to play the harp. Hearing the sounds of the harp, Chernomorets began to dance. Then the god Veles appeared before Sadko, who said that the more Chernomorets dances, the stronger the storm at sea becomes and the more people die. Then Sadko broke his harp. Chernomorets thanked the guslar by giving him his daughter Ilmara as his wife. They played a merry wedding, and Sadko and his young wife went to bed. Waking up in the morning, Sadko found that he was lying near the walls of Constantinople, and his ships were sailing towards the city. Some historians claim that on the basis of the legend about Sadko, the legends about Odysseus and Sinbad the Sailor appeared. As for the Greek legend of Odysseus, historians say he performed the same feats as Sadko. Odysseus also sailed in the Black Sea, but then for some reason he was transferred to the Mediterranean Sea. Veles. According to legend, the god Veles was born several times. The first time he was born by the Heavenly Cow Zemun, and his father was the god Rod. The legend claims that they tried to steal the newborn Veles. This attempt was made by the son of Viy, the god of the underworld, Pan. According to legend, Pan lifted the cradle with the newborn Beles and carried him. Pan carried the baby over the ocean, but suddenly Veles began to grow and become heavier. In the end, Pan could not hold him and dropped him down. Veles fell down into the blue waters of the ocean. His cradle washed up on the shores of Taurida Island. Here he fought the kite and thereby saved Azovushka, the Swan Princess, who was the spirit of the Sea of Azov. Veles and Azovushka fell in love and got married. According to legend, they began to live in a beautiful palace on Buyan Island, and a magical oak and spruce grew next to the palace. This legend was reflected in one of his works by the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Only his hero's name was not Veles, but Guidon. And this work is called "The Tale of Tsar Saltan." Some time passed, the god Dyy overlaid people with an unbearable tribute. Then Veles stood up for the people. He managed to defeat Dyu and also destroy his palace, which was built entirely of eagle feathers. Dyy himself was thrown to the very bottom - to the underworld, to Viy. Then people began to praise their savior Veles, but Dyy was not with Viy for long. He managed to rise to the ground again and arrange a feast. This feast was conceived on purpose. Dyy invited Veles to the feast, telling him that he wanted to make peace. In fact, Dyy wanted to give Veles a glass of poison. Veles did not suspect a dirty trick and came to the feast. And drank this cup. Thus, Veles himself was visiting Viy. But the power of love is very great: Azovushka herself descended into the underworld, to Viy. She managed to persuade the underground god to let Veles go. And Wii agreed. Then the lovers Azovushka and Veles went to look for a way out of the numerous underground halls. After some time, they found a gate that led outside, but it turned out that only Azovushka could get out. Veles, on the other hand, lost his physical body, and therefore he could get out only by being reborn. But even here Azovushka did not leave her beloved - she began to wait with him. Veles died and was born many times, he was also Taurus (that is why the island, to which the cradle with the baby Beles was nailed, was called Taurida; "taurus" means a bull, so Veles was also called Veles Bykovich). Azovushka also died and was born many times. Veles was also born to his mother's sister, the Heavenly Cow Zemun Amelfa. He had a sister, whose name was Altynka. As the legend says, when Veles and Altynka were small, Amelfa sent them to learn to read and write. Reading the book, the brother and sister learned that Svarozhichi and Dyevichi had once freed from the captivity of Viy clouds - cows (their mother's sisters). But then it turned out that the Svarozhichs took the whole herd for themselves. The brother and sister were very indignant and decided to accomplish a feat: to return the clouds - cows. And they succeeded. All Svarozhichs were extremely angry about this, and Dazhbog gave chase. But Veles in his new life learned to play the harp from other gods. When Dazhbog heard Veles' harp playing, he instantly forgot why he was catching up with them, and exchanged the whole herd for Veles' harp. Some more time passed. Veles asked Svarog to forge a plow for him and give him an iron horse. When he got what he wanted, he began to teach people various sciences. Namely: how to plow the land, how to sow, how to reap, how to brew beer, etc. The legend also claims that it was Veles who gave people the first laws and the first calendar, and also divided people into classes. Moreover, in educating people, Veles did not hesitate to use his strength, especially he did not like those who did not listen to him. In the end, people complained to Ameltha about her son, and she called him to her and scolded him. But what child would like to be scolded, as he believes, for a just cause? Therefore, Veles did not pay attention to this complaint, but arranged a feast with his squad. Later, the combatants offered to arrange a competition: who is stronger. Gradually, the competitors staged a real battle. Veles, seeing this, tried to separate his warriors, but then someone hit him in the ear. God got angry, gathered his squad and began to fight with simple men. Then the men ran for the second time to complain about Veles Amelfe. Amelfa sent her youngest daughter Altynka for Beles. Veles loved his younger sister and therefore followed her to his mother. The mother, realizing that her words had no effect on her son, locked him in the cellar. And the battle continued. The men began to defeat the vigilantes. Altynka saw this, she took pity on her brother. She secretly ran from her mother to the cellar where Veles was locked, and released her brother. Veles, breaking free, rushed to the aid of his squad. The legend claims that Veles uprooted a hundred-year-old elm that grew near the cellar and ran to help with him. The men lost that battle, obeyed Veles. They brought gold and silver to the god, and Veles drank a cup with them and made peace. As the legend says, when Diva rejected Veles, he went where his eyes looked. Went to the bank of the Smorodina River. In the forest near this river he met three giants: Dubynya, Gorynya and Usynya. Dubynya uprooted centuries-old trees; Gorynya turned huge mountains; The son-in-law caught sturgeons in the river with his mustache. Veles made friends with them, and then they went on together. So they reached the bank of the river, and on the other side stands the hut of Buri-Yaga. Veles knew that Storm-Yaga was his wife in one of her past lives. The hostess was not at home, and the travelers settled down for the night. In the morning they left Gorynya alone in the hut, and they themselves went hunting. Storm-Yaga flew to her home, saw that there was someone in her hut on chicken legs, and went into the hut. She went into the hut and killed Gorynya. She cooked dinner from his corpse and ate it, and then again flew away on her own business. The hunters returned home in the evening, and Gorynya was killed. His brothers and Veles were very upset, but nothing can be done. The next morning, only Dubynya remained in the hut, but the fate of Gorynya also befell him. And on the third day the same fate befell Usynya. On the fourth day, Veles himself met with Burya-Yaga, and a battle began between them. Then Burya-Yaga recognized in Veles her husband Don (one of the incarnations of Veles), and Veles recognized her ex-wife Yasunya Svyatogorovna in her. They reconciled and decided to live together as husband and wife. But Amelfe did not like such a daughter-in-law. She locked Storm-Yaga in the bathhouse, where she killed her. She put the body of her daughter-in-law in a coffin-deck, which was allowed to float on the sea. Veles managed to find and revive his wife, but he could not marry her, because the law did not allow marriage without parental blessing. In general, Veles never sat at home. He wandered around the wide world, and also fought with the god Dyem, his descendants and those who worshiped them. But Dy's supporters did not decrease, and Veles saw the meaning of his struggle in the struggle itself. But the time came when he decided to ask for the forgiveness of his sins. To do this, he had to get to the Alatyr stone in the Iry garden. He could get to him in two ways. Short way: in just 7 weeks it was possible to get to the place, but it was necessary to sail along the Pa-river and Smorodnya, past Buyan. But this road was guarded by giants - they threw stones at ships passing by and drowned them. On the other road, it was necessary to sail for two hundred years: from one ocean to another, from one sea to another, etc. Therefore, Veles decided to sail a short way. When they sailed to the place guarded by the giants, Veles went ashore and found Gorynya on the top of the Sarachinskaya mountain. But before that, he met a black skull. Veles kicked this skull, in response he heard that it was a good fellow no weaker than Veles himself. Then he saw the Black Stone. It was written on the stone that the one who begins to amuse and have fun near this stone, namely, to jump over this stone, will remain here forever. But Veles was not up to it. He told Goryn why he was going to the Iry garden. The giant god let him through, taking a promise from Veles to pray for them, who remained here forever. When Veles reached Alatyr, he began to earnestly pray for forgiveness. After his prayer, he bathed in the Milk River, and then went back. The way back again lay past that same Black Stone. Veles went ashore, went up to the stone and began to have fun: jump over the stone. Then the prediction written on the stone came true: Veles became one of the guardians of the Currant River, as well as the Ra River and the Black Stone itself. Conclusion The theory of the concept of modern natural science is a very multifaceted science. It cannot be said that it is independent, because it depends on history, physics, chemistry, biology, biophysics, biochemistry and a number of other sciences. Studying these sciences together, we study the theory of the concept of modern natural science. Famous and outstanding personalities who have made discoveries in the field of physics, chemistry, biology, biophysics, biochemistry and a number of other sciences are the founders of the concept of modern natural science. Therefore, one cannot belittle the role of man in science and art, he "acts" on a par with the laws of nature. It is human thought that pushes science forward, to new achievements, and helps humanity to develop. It is the whole set of natural sciences (physics, anthropology, chemistry, astronomy, biology) that provides the most complete scientific picture of the world. In the theory of the concept of modern natural science, there are three signs of science: 1) construction of a mathematical object of the object under study, expression of the phenomenon under study in a mathematical expression; 2) obtaining empirical material; 3) mental generalization of physical and mathematical types. Thus, the concept of modern natural science is a whole set of natural sciences that give a person an idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbhis origin, structure, his place in the universe and his cultural and historical development. Studying this course, it is impossible not to get in touch with the secrets of the universe. Many peoples explained the creation of the Universe in their own way, but in these stories there are a lot of similar descriptions. Author: Filin S.P.
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