Merchandising. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Merchandising. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The subject and content of commodity science
Product properties depending on the role in the product life cycle
Aesthetic and consumer properties of the goods
Assortment of goods
The concept of competitiveness
Methods and elements of product competitiveness
Competitiveness management
Quality of goods, quality indicators
Methods for assessing the quality indicators of goods
Quality control and product defects
Information Requirements
Information and compliance marks
Goods coding
Varieties of barcodes
Marking. Trademark. Escort marks. Indices
Information about commodity producers and goods
Information support for small and medium-sized businesses
Advertising as the main source of information
Expertise, its types
Examination of food products
Varieties of expertise
Counterfeiting and identification of goods
Technical regulation, technical regulations
Goals of standardization. Standardization bodies
National Standards
Confirmation of compliance
Declaration of Conformity
Certification
Compliance mark and conversion mark
The role of storage in the supply chain
Processes occurring during storage
Physical and physico-chemical processes
The effect of light, refrigeration and freezing on products
Food Preservation Chemicals
Canning methods
Bakery, lamb and rusks
Pasta. Groats. Flour
Onion vegetables and root vegetables
Potatoes and cabbage vegetables
Pumpkin, tomato and legume vegetables
Characteristics of pome fruits
Stone fruits and berry crops
Types of fruit and vegetable processing
Taste products. Soft drinks
Mineral waters and low alcohol drinks
Alcoholic drinks
Varieties of alcoholic drinks
grape wines
Characteristics of tea and coffee
Spices and seasonings
confectionery
Jelly and fruit candy
Chocolate and cocoa powder
Candy
Flour confectionery
Cakes, pastries, halva, oriental sweets
meat classification. meat branding
Packaged meat and offal. Meat export
Poultry and game meat
Sausages
Smoked meat products
Canned meat and semi-finished products
Quality of meat and meat products
Classification of commercial fish
Technological classification of fish products
frozen fish
Salting fish
Smoked, dried, dried fish
Canned fish, preserves, semi-finished products
Non-fish food products of the sea
Composition of milk and dairy products
Cottage cheese and canned milk
Dairy products
Oil and its varieties
Composition and types of cheeses
Dietary fats
Vegetable oils and combined fats

1. SUBJECT AND CONTENT OF COMMODITY

commodity science - a concept derived from the words "goods" and "know" (know). The literal interpretation is "knowledge of the product".

Product, as a product made for exchange or sale, due to the dual nature of the labor expended in its production, characterized by two aspects:

1. Exchange value - characterizes the commodity from the point of view of its exchange as things for other things in certain proportions.

2. Use value of goods - the usefulness of a product, its ability to satisfy certain human needs. Use value is characteristic of all products of labor, but it manifests itself only when a thing is consumed or used, since only when using or consuming a thing can its usefulness be assessed.

The subject of commodity science - study of the use value of labor products.

Merchandising in the modern sense - a scientific and educational discipline, the subject of which is the use value of consumer goods.

Common consumption goods - goods of agricultural, industrial and handicraft enterprises intended for sale in the sphere of circulation in order to meet the material and cultural needs of the population.

The purpose of commodity science - study of consumer values of consumer goods Products of labor - products that become a commodity in the presence of commodity production and commodity circulation.

The use value of the products of labor is subdivided into individual and public.

Objects with individual use value - products of labor produced not for exchange and sale, but for personal consumption.

Objects with social use value - products of labor produced for exchange or trade in order to meet the needs of society.

Social use value a unit of a commodity is defined as a unit use value.

The use value of a social product, that satisfies the needs of certain groups of consumers or the whole society, is defined as the total use value.

Single use value - the cost associated with meeting the personal needs of an individual or his family.

Total social use value of goods - the value that is created to meet the needs of society or its individual groups.

The use value of a commodity is determined by consumer properties inherent in it, manifested when the product is used by the consumer to satisfy material, cultural or biological needs.

2. PRODUCT PROPERTIES DEPENDING ON THE ROLE IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE PRODUCT

Classification of product properties, depending on the role they play in the life cycle of the product:

1. Functional properties - consumer properties of the goods, determining its compliance as an object of consumption or operation with the intended purpose.

2. Ergonomic properties of the product - consumer properties of the product, providing convenience and comfort of its consumption or operation at various stages of the functional process in the "man - product - environment" system.

Ergonomic properties - the convenience of using the product, which determines its ability to function, taking into account the structural features and properties of the body of each consumer.

A component of ergonomic properties - hygienic properties - characterizing the hygienic conditions of life and human performance in its interaction with the product and the environment.

3. Safety - ensures the safety of consumption and use of the product by a person. Safety is considered as a consumer property that provides protection for a person and his environment from the harmful and toxic effects of a product during its consumption, storage, transportation and disposal.

4. Product reliability indicators - product quality indicators that characterize the preservation of the main parameters of its functioning over time and within the limits corresponding to certain conditions of consumption or operation. Product reliability indicators:

1. Reliability - the ability of the product to continuously maintain performance for some time.

2. Product durability - characterizes the ability of the product to remain operational until the limit state occurs with the established system of maintenance and repair.

limit state goods - its destruction or the impossibility of further use due to physical or moral wear and tear.

Durability is rated: service life; resource of work, expressed by the duration of work (min, h).

3. Maintainability - characteristics of the product, which determines its ability to eliminate the causes of failure, detect and prevent failures in operation.

4. Preservation of goods - characterizes the ability of the product to constantly maintain its consumer properties during storage, transportation, sale, consumption or operation under the conditions established by regulatory and technical documentation.

The criterion of preservation for non-food products - shelf life (or service life) of the goods - the period during which the product is suitable for effective use for its intended purpose.

3. AESTHETIC AND CONSUMER PROPERTIES OF THE GOODS

Aesthetic properties of the goods - determine the ability of a product to express its social value and socio-cultural significance in sensually perceived signs.

Aesthetic properties indicators: marketable condition. rationality of form, integrity of the composition, conformity with style and fashion, design, color and pattern, characteristics related to the satisfaction of the spiritual needs of the population.

The aesthetic properties of goods are characterized by:

1. Information expressiveness - the ability of a product to reflect in the form of various socio-ethical ideas and ideas, the presence in the form of a product of a set of features that determine its difference from similar products, but subordinate to the main compositional design, compliance with fashion.

2. Rationality - reflection in the form of the product of the function performed by it, the design solution, the features of the manufacturing technology and the materials used, as well as the features of working with the product.

3. The integrity of the composition - displays the organic connection of all compositional features of the product and is characterized by the organization of the volume-spatial structure, plasticity, graphic rendering of the form and elements, and color tint.

4. The perfection of the production performance of the goods - is determined by the quality of execution of the visible elements of the form, the level of execution of the coatings, the cleanliness of the execution of the joints, their compliance with the artistic and constructive design, the clarity of the execution of brand marks, the level of execution of the accompanying documentation and characterizes its presentation.

Consumer properties of a product are based on a number of natural properties of the product.

1. Chemical properties - characterize the resistance of materials and products to the action of oxidizing agents, reducing agents, water, organic solvents, acids, alkalis and other media, as well as to the effects of climatic factors. The resistance of materials and goods to the action of the above media depends on the nature of the material, its chemical and physical structure, etc.

2. Physical properties: strength and deformation characteristics; weight; density; electrical, optical, acoustic, thermal and thermophysical characteristics.

The role of physical properties - play a major role in the design and manufacture of goods, determine the conditions and modes of their operation and the reliability of goods.

3. Physical and chemical properties materials include: sorption performance and characteristics.

The role of physico-chemical properties: play an important role in shaping the quality of products in terms of their hygiene and comfort.

4. Biological properties - characterize the resistance of materials and products made from them to damage by insects and rodents, microorganisms.

4. PRODUCT RANGE

Assortment of goods - a set of goods of various types and varieties, united according to consumer, trade, production or material and technical characteristics.

Industrial range - the range of products produced by the manufacturer (industry, a separate enterprise, an association of enterprises).

Trade assortment - nomenclature of goods that are in the sphere of circulation at wholesale and retail trade enterprises.

Quantitative indicators of the assortment

1. Assortment structure - the quantitative ratio of commodity groups, subgroups, types, varieties and names of individual goods in the general set of goods. Assortment structure indicators - indicators that have physical or monetary terms and are calculated as the ratio of individual groups, types, names of goods to the total number of goods included in the assortment.

2. Range breadth - the number of names of types or varieties of goods included in the range under consideration. The saturation of the market is the higher, the greater the breadth of the range.

3. Completeness of the range - the number of types, varieties and names of goods in a group of homogeneous products. The completeness of the assortment is characterized by the coefficient of completeness.

Completeness factor calculation is produced based on the ratio of the available assortment to the base one, determined by the supply contract, standards, assortment list. The completeness coefficient has the highest value in a saturated market. The higher the completeness of the assortment, the better the needs of the buyer are satisfied.

4. Stability of the range characterizes the fluctuations of its fullness and breadth during a specified period of time.

5. The degree of renewal of the assortment characterizes the share of newly introduced goods in their total assortment.

Assortment minimum - a list of types or names of goods, the presence of which at a trading enterprise of an established profile is mandatory. Now this concept has been replaced by the concept of "assortment list"

Assortment list - a documented list of varieties or types of goods that make up the established assortment. For trading enterprises, it is approved by local governments and its non-compliance is a violation of the rules of trade.

Product range management - actions performed in order to establish, provide and maintain a certain range of goods by regulating direct and reverse links between trade, production and the consumer.

The range depends on:

1. the level of development of industrial and agricultural production,

2. the level of scientific and technological progress, which allows mastering modern scientific and technological achievements to improve the consumer properties of goods.

5. THE CONCEPT OF COMPETITIVENESS

Enterprise competitiveness - the possibility of efficient economic activity and its practical profitable implementation in a competitive market.

Product competitiveness - a set of quality and cost characteristics of the product that meets the specific needs of the buyer.

Competitive is that product, the complex of consumer and cost properties of which ensures its commercial success.

Absolutely competitive products - new types of goods that have no analogues on the market. The practice of determining the competitiveness of a product is based on a comparative analysis of its total characteristics with competing products in terms of the degree of satisfaction of specific needs and the price of consumption.

The starting point for assessing the competitiveness of any product - formation of the purpose of a particular work: ' when determining the position of a product in a series of similar, it is enough to conduct their direct comparison according to the main characteristics; ' in a study focused on assessing sales prospects product in a particular market, the analysis involves the use of information, including information about the products that will enter the market, demand dynamics, expected changes in relevant legislation, etc.

Regardless of the purpose of the study, the basis for assessing competitiveness is study of market conditions.

Market research - the process of identifying the specialization of the market and its geographical location of the market capacity and the possible share of the enterprise on it; commodity and firm structures in the market; the severity of competition.

Study of competitors - the process of identifying the main competitors; brands of competitors' products; features of competing products; packaging properties of competing products; forms and methods of marketing activities; sales promotion methods, promotional materials.

Studying the needs of potential buyers - the process of identifying potential buyers, taking into account market segmentation; directions and ways of using goods by buyers; motives for buying goods; factors in the formation of consumer preferences; how the purchase is made and the aggregate demand for services.

Parameter groups:

1. Technical and regulatory parameters - destination parameters, energy-economic, parameters of compliance with national and international standards, regulations, legislative acts, etc.

2. Economic parameters - indicators of the total costs of the consumer for the acquisition and use of the product, determined by its properties, as well as the conditions of acquisition in a particular market and use.

6. METHODS AND ELEMENTS OF PRODUCT COMPETITIVENESS

Elements of product competitiveness:

1. product price competitiveness -

the ratio of the price level with the prices of a similar product of the main competitors; the effectiveness of the price differentiation system depending on the ratio of supply and demand, on the policy of competitors; attractiveness of the discount system;

2. product quality - technical and functional characteristics of the goods (functionality, reliability, safety, ease of use; food, energy, physiological value, safety, etc.), prestige of products;

3 competitiveness of sales, advertising and service systems.

Methods used in assessing competitiveness: differential, complex or special methods.

As a result of the comparison, one of the methods gives a specific conclusion:

- products are competitive in this market in the compared class of goods;

- products have low competitiveness in the compared class of products in this market;

- products are completely uncompetitive in this class in a particular market.

To measure the competitiveness of the analyzed product, it is necessary qualitative information that characterizes the beneficial effect of a given product and competing objects for the standard period of their service and the total costs for the life cycle of objects.

Useful effect - the return of an object, an integrated indicator as a system of particular indicators of the quality of an object used in specific conditions that satisfy a specific need. The useful effect of objects is measured in natural units, in monetary terms or in conditional points.

The formula for quantitative assessment of the competitiveness of goods:

K_a.o.=E_a.o./E _b.;

where K_a.o. - competitiveness of the analyzed product sample in a particular market; E_a.o. - the effectiveness of the analyzed sample of goods in a particular market, unit of useful effect / unit of cost; E_l.o. - the efficiency of the best competitor used in this market. Conditions for ensuring the competitiveness of the goods:

1. development of market relations and entrepreneurship, improved planning, international integration, effect of the mechanism of competition and antimonopoly legislation and the credit and financial mechanism on the growth of competitiveness.

2. ensuring the unity of the development of technology, technology, management, economics;

3. consideration in the unity of quality (beneficial effect) and total costs for products;

4. use of advanced methods research and development;

5. creation of a system for ensuring competitiveness object with a focus on the interests of the consumer.

7. COMPETITIVENESS MANAGEMENT

Tasks that need to be solved in the field of determining the competitiveness of goods:

- coordination of interests of consumers and producers;

- establishing the dynamic characteristics of the initial parameters and, on their basis, forecasting the competitiveness of goods;

- increasing the reliability of forecasts, taking into account the stochastic nature of the initial indicators and the indicator of competitiveness.

Competitiveness management - a set of measures for the systematic improvement of the product, the search for new channels for its sale and the improvement of after-sales service.

Product competitiveness management is carried out based on the analysis and forecasting of the dynamics of the life cycle. The life cycle of a product is determined international standards ISO 9000 series product quality management and includes: marketing, R&D; OTPP (organizational and technological preparation of production); manufacturing; exploitation and repair; replacement and recycling.

A systematic approach to assessing the competitiveness of a product - an approach in which the parameters of the "output" of a product or service are first formed: what to produce, with what quality indicators, at what cost, for whom, to whom to sell and at what price.

Defining "login" options - determination of the necessary resources for this process.

The need for resources and information is predicted after studying:

1.) the organizational and technical level of the production system (the level of technology, technology, organization of production, labor and management);

2.) parameters of the external environment (political, economic, technological, socio-demographic, cultural environment of the country and the infrastructure of the region).

"Tree" of product performance indicators - a system of indicators of the competitiveness of goods. Building a "tree" of indicators makes it possible to improve the quality of product competitiveness management.

The "tree" of product performance indicators includes six levels of indicators - from zero to five. Zero level indicators is the effectiveness of the product:

E = P_с/Z_с,

where P_с - beneficial effect of the product, 3 - total costs.

First level consists of the total beneficial effect of the product and the total costs for the life cycle of the product (LCT).

Second level includes generalizing indicators of product quality and costs by stages of the life cycle.

Third level - more specific quality indicators (durability, failure-free operation, maintainability, product shelf life, etc.).

Fourth level consists of private indicators of goods and cost elements.

Fifth level - factors influencing private indicators of quality and resource intensity of goods.

8. QUALITY OF GOODS, QUALITY INDICATORS

Quality - a set of product properties that determine its ability to satisfy certain needs in accordance with the purpose of the product. Product quality - compliance of goods with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation. The quality of the goods is characterized by: a complex of its inherent properties, and the degree of compliance of the product with functional, organoleptic, aesthetic requirements, which determine the possibility of satisfying human needs. Product properties - its objective features, manifested in the sphere of commodity circulation, consumption or exploitation. The properties of goods are characterized quality indicators, which are classified according to a number of characteristics. Important is the classification according to the number of characterized properties: single and complex quality indicators. Single quality indicator - characterizes one simple property of the goods. Comprehensive indicator of product quality - characterization of several of its properties.

Types of complex indicators

1. Group complex indicator characterizes a group of simple properties or one complex property.

2. Generalized complex quality indicator characterizes the whole set of properties by which the quality is assessed.

Usually, a comparative assessment of the quality of a product is carried out, comparing its quality indicators with baseline, those. with indicators characterizing the quality of products taken as a standard Basic indicators - indicators of the best samples of the goods of the same purpose, to the greatest extent satisfying the needs of users.

Relative indicator of product quality - the ratio of the quality indicator to the corresponding base indicator.

Product quality assessment - Establishing the conformity of the product to social needs.

Quality level - a relative characteristic of the quality of the goods, based on a comparison of the values of the quality indicators of the evaluated goods with the basic values of the corresponding indicators.

The specifics of determining the quality level: compare the set of quality indicators of the evaluated goods with a similar set of basic indicators:

К_у=Q/Q_bases

where K is an indicator of the quality level; Q is the numerical value of the quality indicator of the product being evaluated; Q_6a3 - numerical value of the base indicator. Integral indicator of product quality - the ratio of the total beneficial effect from the operation of the product to the total costs of its creation, circulation, storage, transportation, operation or consumption.

The formula for calculating the integral quality indicator:

K_u=K_o/3 = K_o/Z_п+Z_uh,

where 3, Z_п, Z_э - respectively, the costs of production and operation of the goods; production of goods; operation of the goods. To_о - an indicator that characterizes the main consumer properties of the product.

9. METHODS FOR EVALUATION OF QUALITY INDICATORS OF GOODS

The numerical values of the quality indicators of the product being evaluated can be established using objective or heuristic evaluation methods.

Objective methods for assessing the quality indicators of goods - methods based on determining property indicators by measuring or identifying deviations of these indicators from established requirements.

Types of objective methods for assessing quality indicators

1. Measuring method is based on the use of measuring instruments, reagents and other technical measuring instruments to determine the quality indicators of goods.

The advantage of the measuring method: objectivity, accuracy and the ability to express property indicators in units of a certain dimension: kilograms, meters, liters, watts, etc.

Disadvantages of the measuring method: the use in some cases of rather complex equipment, as well as the loss of samples of goods due to their destruction or damage during testing.

2. Registration method is based on the results of counting the occurrence of product failures for a certain period of operation, as well as the number of products with various types of defects and deviations from the requirements of regulatory documents.

Disadvantages of the registration method: the complexity and, in some cases, the duration of the observations.

3. Calculation method for determining the quality indicators of goods based on obtaining information by calculation. When using this method, quality indicators are determined by calculating them using formulas and various mathematical models.

Heuristic methods for assessing the quality of goods based on the use of the senses, intuition and generalized experience of people.

Varieties of heuristic methods:

1. Organoleptic method:

1. it is simple and can be carried out in any conditions without the use of special equipment;

2. based on the use of the human senses - smell, touch, sight, hearing and taste;

3. You can evaluate, for example, the hardness of materials, the smell of perfume, the sound quality of musical instruments, the type of products, etc.

2. Expert method for assessing the quality of goods based on a decision made by experts, it is one of the varieties of the organoleptic method that uses generalized assessments of a group of specialists (experts) to assess the quality of a product. The accuracy of the marks obtained in the scoring system largely depends on the qualifications of the experts and the correctness of the organization of the examination.

3. Sociological method of quality assessment is based on the study of the opinions of a wide range of consumers about the level of quality of the analyzed product. Information about the opinion of consumers is obtained by conducting questionnaires, oral surveys, conferences, auctions, sales exhibitions, etc.

10. QUALITY CONTROL AND GOODS DEFECTS

Goods quality control - procedure for checking the compliance of their quality indicators with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation and supply contracts.

Classification of defects depending on the possibility of detection: A clear defect in the goods - a defect, for the detection of which the relevant rules, methods and means are provided in the regulatory documentation, mandatory for this type of control. Hidden product defect - a defect, for the detection of which the relevant methods and means are not provided in the regulatory documentation.

Classification of defects by origin: Manufacturing defect is formed in the process of production of goods, due to a violation of the technological regime for the manufacture of the product. Non-manufacturing defect is formed after the completion of the production process of goods - during transportation, storage, sale, operation or consumption.

Classification of defects according to the possibility of elimination: Removable defects - defects, the elimination of which is technically possible and economically feasible. Fatal Defects - defects, the elimination of which is technically impossible and (or) economically inexpedient

Defect Significance - a relative value determined by the type, size, location of the defect, and characterized by the degree of its influence on the quality level of the goods in comparison with other defects.

Classification of defects depending on the degree of impact on quality: Critical defect -

a defect, in the presence of which the use of the goods for its intended purpose is practically impossible or unacceptable. Major product defects significantly affect the possibility of using the product for its intended purpose, its quality and duration of operation. Minor Defects do not significantly affect the use of the product for its intended purpose and its durability.

In the quality control process, good products and defects are detected. Yearly production - a product that meets all the established requirements Marriage - products, the transfer of which to the consumer is not allowed due to the presence of defects that are not allowed by regulatory documents. For some groups and types of products, sort division.

The procedure for establishing varieties

1) varieties are set according to a point or restrictive system. The most common point system, in which the normative documents for each of the varieties limit the type of defects, their number, size.

2) With a scoring system, deviations from the norm of the standard in terms of controlled indicators and defect parameters are evaluated in points.

3) By comparing the amount of points acquired by the product during the control, with the regulatory requirements of the standards, which provide for the allowable amount of points for each grade, the product is assigned to one or another grade.

11. INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS

The manufacturer or seller of the goods is obliged to provide the consumer (buyer) in a timely manner with all the necessary and reliable information about the goods offered for sale, ensuring the possibility of their competent choice.

Information submission form:

1.) labeling - information applied directly to specific goods, containers, labels, labels, etc.,

2.) in the form text document (passports, instructions for use, etc.) attached to a specific product.

Information regulation: must contain the following information:

- Name of product;

- name of the country of manufacture

- name of the manufacturer

- the main (or functional) purpose of the product or its scope;

- rules and conditions for safe storage, transportation, safe and efficient use, repair, disposal, etc.

- basic consumer properties;

- information about mandatory certification

- legal address of the manufacturer and (or) the seller.

Responsibilities of the seller or manufacturer: must provide necessary and sufficient information for the consumer on safety, efficiency, energy efficiency and other properties of the product.

Information requirements:

1. All information must be reliable and the conformity of the goods with the declared information must be a mandatory requirement for the manufacturer and seller.

2. The name of the product must comply with the state standards of the Russian Federation and the all-Russian classifiers of technical and economic information.

3. Imported goods that are not traditional for Russia must have names that comply with international, regional or national standards, or names used in the country of origin.

4. The use of the characteristics "Eco-friendly", "Manufactured without the use of harmful substances", etc. in the information about the product is allowed if there is regulatory documentation.

5. it is necessary to indicate the expiration date of the goods. Shelf life (or service life) is calculated from the date of

of manufacture and indicate directly on the product, shipping or consumer packaging using one of the typical wordings: "Best for (years, months, days)" and (or) "Best before (day, month, year)", and (or) "Use until (date, month, year)", "Lifetime (years, months, days, cycles)".

The mass of goods its main dimensions, volume and quantity of goods indicated in international system of units (SI). Trademark or trademark the manufacturer's name is placed directly on the goods, containers or on labels and labels.

12. INFORMATION AND CONFORMITY SIGNS

Information signs - symbols designed to evaluate the properties and identify the characteristics of the product.

Information signs notify:

1.) about the enterprise (firm) - the manufacturer (trademarks and service marks);

2.) on the conformity of the goods with regulatory documents (certification marks and marks of conformity);

3.) on the composition (packaging) of the goods and the content of individual components in it;

4.) about the rules for using the goods;

5.) on carrying out loading and unloading operations with the goods and their transportation;

6.) about the danger and risk arising from the use, storage, transportation and disposal of potentially hazardous substances, products and materials (warning symbols);

7.) about the rules for the disposal of packaging.

The functions of information signs are performed by: graphic symbols, drawings, letters, numbers, words, color and shape of the product or its packaging.

Trademarks and Service Marks - designations that make it possible to distinguish among themselves the goods and services of various legal entities or individuals.

Trademark registration: a trademark in Russia is registered by the Patent Office in the State Register of Trademarks and Service Marks of the Russian Federation in the name of a legal or natural person for a period of 10 years, with the right to renew each time for 10 years.

Marks of conformity - designations applied to the goods and (or) packaging to confirm the conformity of the quality of the goods with the requirements of standards or other technical documents.

According to their affiliation conformity marks subdivide to:

1. National conformity marks - registered by national standardization and certification bodies and protected by national legislation.

2. Transnational marks of conformity - are used in a number of countries for the purpose of mutual recognition of the results of certification tests and control.

Varieties of transnational marks of conformity to standards:

- The European Committee for Standardization (CEN) established the mark "CEN", assigned to products that meet the requirements of the relevant European standard or CEN harmonization documents. In this case, the mark "CEN" is recognized by all parties to the agreement that are members of the European Committee for Standardization, namely the countries - members of the EEC and EFTA.

- sign CENELEC, introduced by the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization. Electronic systems marked with this mark of conformity may be accepted, implemented and operated by all countries - members of the community without additional control. The "CENELEC" conformity mark is currently registered as a certification mark in more than 40 countries around the world.

13. CODING GOODS

Goods coding - the procedure for assigning goods to the established digital, alphabetic or alphanumeric number - code.

Barcode (BC) - a trademark applied to a product or its packaging in the form of a bar or digital symbol read by a scanner. Barcodes - an integral element of the labeling of goods not only of imported, but also of domestic origin, which is a rectangle in appearance with a combination of dark and light stripes and digital designations

Application feature: the presence of a bar code is a prerequisite for export.

Advantage bar code is the ability to quickly transmit information about the product via an electronic communication system, i.e. Barcode is an effective means of telecommunication.

The barcode is intended for:

1. prompt identification of the goods and the manufacturer;

2. conducting trade transactions "without papers": HK reduces the costs of office work from 15% to 0,5-3% of the value of the goods;

3. automated accounting and control of commodity stocks;

4. Operational management of the process of commodity circulation: shipment, transportation and warehousing of goods (labor productivity for ensuring commodity circulation increases by 30%, in some cases - up to 80%);

5. information support for marketing research.

Areas of application of barcodes: industrial production; wholesale and retail trade warehousing; transport; customs control; insurance; healthcare; publishing house.

Features of the use of a bar code

1.) At present, the barcode is the condition of export to EEC countries, USA, Japan

2.) the price of goods put on the market without a bar code is reduced from 3 to 15% of the cost of the lot.

Currently, there are various international requirements for the classification and labeling of hazardous substances and materials (HMAs).

Information on the safe use of the substance on the label includes:

1.) depicted on an orange, yellow or red background graphic symbols characterizing the types of danger, caused by this substance

2.) text definition these types of danger consisting of the letter R of the Latin alphabet and numbers from 1 to 59, characterizing the types of danger;

3.) code of actions for safe use, consisting of the letter S of the Latin alphabet and the numbers from 1 to 60.

Environmental signs - are used to ensure safety for life, health and property of consumers and environmental protection, are applied to packaging and indicate the method of disposal of products. "Green Dot" - an environmental label that has become widespread in Germany. It is used to mark packaging that is covered by a return and recycling guarantee.

14. VARIETIES OF BAR CODES

There are several types of codes, among which the European type codes are the most common. EAN and American types UPC. EAN codes depending on the number of character characters subdivided into EAN-8, EAN-13 and EAN-14. When applying a barcode to a product or its inner packaging, thirteen or eight-digit symbols of the International Association for Commodity Numbering EAN (EAN-13 and EAN-8), as well as American universal UPC codes, are used. Used to mark transport packaging. code symbols EAN-13 and EAN(ITF)-14. EAN-14 codes are larger than EAN-13 and do not require high quality printing. However, if the product is sold to the customer with packaging, only EAN-13 codes apply, since the EAN-14 code is not readable by scanning devices installed in stores.

Classification of barcodes by structure: discrete: signs are separated by interdigit intervals; continuous: there are no separator characters; bidirectional: can be read in two directions - left to right and right to left.

The EAN-13 barcode number includes:

the first 2 (3) characters - the code of the organization's data bank, registered the manufacturer and goods (issued the product number);

5 (4) characters - the code of the enterprise producing or selling the goods;

5 characters - product code;

1 character (last) - the check digit is calculated by arithmetic operations and is intended to check the correctness of reading (scanning) of the bar code.

Rules for applying a barcode:

1.) requirements for the size of the barcode: the minimum possible code sizes - 21,0 х 30,0 mm; maximum - 52,5 х 74,6 mm.

2.) color performance: the color of the strokes can be black, blue, dark green or dark brown; white is recommended as a background, but yellow, orange, and light brown can also be used. Red and yellow tones are not used for printing strokes, since they are not distinguished by a scanner.

3.) place the bar code on the back wall of the package in the lower right corner, at a distance of at least 20 mm

4.) on each package place only one EAN or UPC code, however, if the product is registered in two associations, two codes are applied at opposite ends of the package.

Applying a bar code to a product or its packaging: printing method: high quality printing is provided by original layouts (master films) produced by specialized companies; in the form of self-adhesive labels, labels, etc.

Barcode reading equipment:

1. stationary and portable laser scanners that allow reading the bar code at various distances from the goods: from 60 cm to 5-6 m;

2. POS terminals equipped with barcode reading systems;

3. optical contact readers in the form of pens, pencils, laser guns, etc.

15. MARKING. TRADEMARK. SIGNS OF SUPPORT. INDICES

Basic information about the product contain in marking, technical documentation (passport, technical description, etc.) and accompanying documents.

Information reflected in the marking: about manufacturers and enterprises serving the goods; about the standards to which the product complies; certification information; manufacturer's warranty; service life of the goods; main consumer properties: for non-food products - dimensions, mass, consumed electricity, safety, etc.; for food - composition, weight, calorie content, contraindications for use.

When marking goods for products and packaging applied special designations - trademark and accompaniment marks. Trademark - an officially designed graphic image, original name, a special combination of numbers, letters or words, with which the company distinguishes its products, and which is provided with legal protection.

Purpose of using the trademark:

1.) is used by the manufacturer or seller to identify their goods and distinguish them from the goods of other manufacturers or sellers;

2.) protects the exclusive rights of the manufacturer or seller to use the brand name and brand mark, emblem.

Escort marks - inform the consumer about the hazardous properties of various substances and materials, since improper handling of them can lead to injury and / or damage the environment.

Consumer information that the product is safe to consume is reflected safety sign. Products manufactured in these EEC countries and meeting safety requirements are additionally affixed with the CE mark.

Signs introduced in Germany "Tested for safety" и "Studyed for suitability for food production"; Evidence of environmentally friendly products is the sign "Blue Angel". "Green Dot" means that the production of goods is environmentally friendly, and the packaging is recyclable. In the US, UK and Scandinavian countries, the sign is used "recycling" - products that can be recycled or obtained from recycled materials.

Indexes - the letters "E" and the numbers on the food packaging and indicating the food additives allowed for use. The letter "E" in indices stands for "Europe". Indexes E100- E182 dyes used to color food products in various colors; E200 and further - preservatives; E300 and further - antioxidants; E400 and further - stabilizers (retain consistency) E500 and further - emulsifiers (support the structure of products); EbOO and further - flavor and aroma enhancers; E700 and further - spare indices; E900 and then - antifoam agents. E1000 - glazing additives; sweeteners.

16. INFORMATION ON MANUFACTURERS AND GOODS

Studying firms, determining their place, significance and opportunities in a specific market niche - essential preconditions for business success.

The analysis of the activities of firms allows us to decide as the choice of the most competitive product; determination of competing firms, their strategies and tactics; development of optimal options for action, etc. Many different sources of information are used to study these problems.

The main sources of information about competing firms:

- data published by the firms themselves; directories on firms;

- information provided by specialized data banks;

- periodicals publishing special materials about firms, etc.;

- reports, brochures, information and advertising materials, catalogs, etc.

Company prospectuses contain brief information about the history of their development, a general description of their activities with an indication of their place and market share, a description of technological processes, new types of products, etc.

company catalogs - are published by manufacturers producing standard equipment, consumer goods, etc. They contain information about various types of manufactured products, indicating technical characteristics.

Extensive information about the current activities of firms is published by many newspapers and magazines.

Company directories - publications publishing systematic information about firms. They contain information about the direction of the organization's activities, data on the main manufactured goods, their characteristics, etc.

Commodity directories built on the principle of "commodity-firm":

- names of goods and commodity groups are placed alphabetically;

- for each product, the organizations engaged in its production or trade are indicated in alphabetical order.

Industry directories allow you to obtain information about firms in one or more related sectors of the economy.

Varieties by geographical coverage of industry directories: national, regional; international.

Criteria for summarizing information: production of certain types of products of this industry; specialization in the trade of this type of product. Special catalogs and reference books contain information about the goods manufactured by firms, their trademarks and distribution systems dedicated to major industry international exhibitions.

Banks (bases) data, are formed for commercial purposes by consulting and publishing organizations, as well as large computer firms specializing in the production and marketing of software products.

17. INFORMATION SUPPORT FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM BUSINESS

In Russia under the Entrepreneurship Support Fund (FPP) created the Federal Information and Analytical Center (FIAC) and a network of regional information and analytical centers (RIAC)

Development of the information support system small business operates on the basis of three structures: SIOMP (regional centers of the Information Support System for Small Business); Chamber of Commerce and Industry (CCI); Entrepreneurship Support Fund (FPP).

Information sources in the activities of entrepreneurs: newspapers and magazines; federal authorities and personal contacts, specialized information centers.

Problems hindering informatization of regions: unpreparedness of state structures and lack of infrastructure; high cost of communication channels, low quality of their work, organizational difficulties, etc.; the problem of collecting, processing and bringing to consumers information about manufactured products.

In modern conditions, to address this issue, the most effective product cataloging system, on the basis of which databases about products are created using personal computers. The goals of creating the State Product Cataloging System (GSKP):

1. automated accounting of the range of products manufactured in the country and regions;

2. providing state and local self-government bodies with analytical information about manufactured products and their main characteristics;

3. providing enterprises and other consumers with data on the range of products, their manufacturers and regulatory documents, according to which they are produced.

The information provided by SGSK to consumers allows solving the following problems:

- evaluate the competitiveness of the developed and manufactured products;

- carry out marketing research and identify possible markets;

- monitor compliance with the mandatory requirements of safety and environmental standards

- provide information about products subject to mandatory certification.

Measures to provide the necessary information:

1.) GOST R 1.0-92 includes a requirement for manufacturers to submit information about products in the form of catalog sheets to the bodies of the State Standard of Russia;

2.) the Rules for filling in and submitting catalog sheets of products have been developed, which are the methodological basis for the creation of the SGKP;

3.) a state territorial distribution system of factual information has been developed, including territorial databases and the "Products of Russia" database.

18. ADVERTISING AS THE MAIN SOURCE OF INFORMATION

One of the most important places in information activity belongs to advertising.

Advertising effectiveness: Advertising achieves the greatest result when serving groups of goods with a high degree of standardization and unification, when goods are designed for a capacious market, are sold at a low price and are new.

Advertising - all kinds of non-individual activities carried out by a specific legal entity to provide and promote ideas, products and services on the market.

Advertising contributes to: increase in profits; stabilization of economic growth; expanding the scale of production and demand. Advertising tasks: information, persuasion; reminder.

Two groups of ads:

- advertising of specific products (the goal is to increase sales volumes);

- advertising of the company and its activities

RџSЂRё product advertising use two stages of advertising:

1. creating an initial demand for a product or group of products (general advertising);

2. creating a stable demand for a specific type of product (selective advertising).

The first stage applies at the initial stages of promoting a product or group of products on the market and is intended to form a general idea of the product. At the same time, the degree of "recognition" of the product at this stage is often a more important factor for future sales than its commercial characteristics.

From the moment the market is saturated with the advertised product, second stage to maintain or accelerate the pace of implementation. He has a differentiated approach to advertising the individual, most significant characteristics of the product.

The main task of selective advertising - bring to the consumer specific information about the name of the product, its purpose and benefits, quality, safety or harmlessness, competitiveness, place of possible purchase, etc.

Purpose of selective advertising - directly or indirectly show the competitive advantages of the proposed product and thereby increase or maintain the existing sales volume.

Classification of selective advertising depending on the time interval:

1. Instant Advertising focused on obtaining a specific result (purchase of goods) for a short period of time (day, week).

2. Delayed Ads is aimed at preparing the buyer for multiple purchases.

Advertising of the company's activities - aimed at creating a favorable image of the name of the enterprise itself. Such advertising is called image-advertising or image-driven advertising.

19. EXPERTISE, ITS TYPES

Экспертиза consumer goods are carried out at the request of trading organizations, industrial enterprises, law enforcement agencies, government bodies, state control and supervision, railway stations and seaports.

Commodity expertise is carried out by experts of departments of examination of commercial and industrial chambers, bureau of technical examinations or bodies of the state supervision and control.

Reasons for conducting a commodity examination. When there is disputes between manufacturers (seller) and buyer for: product quality; damage to goods during transportation; damage to goods in case of accidents and natural disasters; return by the buyer of goods with defects.

В the process of commodity examination establishes:

1. Compliance of goods with labeling and shipping documents;

2. compliance of goods with quality and safety requirements;

3. the nature of the defects and the reasons for their occurrence - production or as a result of improper operating conditions;

4. the level of deterioration in the quality of the product or its suitability for further use;

5. the validity of the disposal or destruction of low-quality products of its write-off

Features of commodity examination in case of disputes about the quality of goods:

- carried out at the request of the buyer

- the customer of the examination must submit to the expert a contract for the supply of goods, regulatory and technical documentation or a sample of the goods, accompanying documents.

- the examination must be carried out in the presence of the parties authorized to participate in the examination.

- during the examination, the quality of goods is determined and the place and causes of damage to the goods, the amount of loss of its value are established.

Examination of goods damaged during transportation at the request of traders and other organizations, it is carried out only upon presentation by the customer of an act drawn up upon opening the container in the presence of a representative of an uninterested party. AT the act is reflected the condition of the container, the amount of damaged goods, the nature of the packing

Examination of goods in cases of damage during accidents and natural disasters, as well as during long-term storage is carried out at the request of the interested party with the presentation of a properly executed statement and an act on damaged products. In the act of examination reflect the number of damaged products and the causes of defects.

Examination of goods returned by buyers as not having passed the warranty period, is carried out at the request of trading organizations with the application of the buyer attached. In the act of examination reflect the nature of the defects, the cause of their occurrence and origin.

20. EXAMINATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS

Grounds for the examination of food products:

1. products do not meet the quality and safety requirements imposed by sanitary and veterinary and sanitary rules and regulations and regulatory and technical documentation;

2. the product has signs of poor quality, which is beyond doubt by a competent person who checks the quality and safety of products;

3. there are no documents of the manufacturer (supplier) of the product, certifying its origin, quality and safety;

4. the product has properties that do not correspond to the given type and name of the product;

5. marking does not meet the requirements of normative and technical documentation;

6. products have expired Examination of low-quality and dangerous food

products made in order to determine the possibility of its further use or destruction. Destruction or disposal process be carried out in the presence of a representative of the state supervision and control body in such a way as to exclude the possibility of using products for food. Examination process:

- sampling (sampling) for laboratory research is carried out by representatives of state control and supervision bodies in the presence of the owner of the food product

- for the period of examination, adoption and execution of a decision on its further use or destruction, low-quality and dangerous food products shall be stored in a separate room that excludes access to it. The tasks of state control and supervision bodies during the examination:

- evaluate the compliance of the accompanying documentation for food products with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation

- conduct external inspection, research

- determine the state of packaging and labeling of products.

During the examination, it is necessary to find out conditions of production, purchase, delivery, transportation, storage and sale of products, and, if necessary, to test its quality and safety.

Based on the results of the examination, conclusion, a document that reflects the compliance (non-compliance) of products with the requirements of regulatory and technical documentation.

Destruction of products is carried out in the presence of a commission, which is created by the owner of the product together with representatives of the organization responsible for its destruction.

On the destruction of products is drawn up Act of the established form and one copy of such an act within three days is submitted to the state supervision and control body that made the decision to destroy it.

21. TYPES OF EXPERTISE

Environmental assessment carried out with environmental certification of products.

Labeled products should not cause damage to the environment during its use, its disposal should also not cause damage to the environment. The use of such products should contribute to the protection of the environment. The environmental friendliness of products is evaluated experts, ranging from raw materials, materials and components to recycling products.

Forensic legal expertise is carried out at the request of the arbitration court, judicial - investigative or control and audit bodies.

Basis for examination - a special decision of the person who conducts the inquiry, the investigator, the prosecutor, as well as the ruling of the court.

The procedure for conducting a forensic legal examination: the expert during the examination must conduct the necessary studies of consumer properties and in his opinion state information about the shortcomings of the goods and the reasons for their occurrence.

Expertise results are an independent type of evidence in court, since it reveals circumstances that, without a special study, would remain unknown to the court or would be presented to the court with deviations from the truth.

Customs expertise. The State Customs Committee of the Russian Federation established that when organizing expert support for customs clearance and control of goods, operational search activities, investigations into cases of violation of customs rules and inquiries in criminal cases, identification, chemical, classification, technological, certification, materials science, merchandise cost, assessment, environmental, mineralogical, forensic and art history expertise. Such examinations are carried out by customs laboratories State Customs Committee of the Russian Federation with the involvement, if necessary, of specialists from other organizations.

Basis for examinations is the decision of the customs authorities. Expertise Conclusions should not go beyond the special knowledge of the expert and contain explanations arising from the research part of the examination report

Technological expertise is carried out at certification of quality systems and productions.

The procedure for conducting technological expertise

1.) an expert analyzes the influence of individual factors on the formation of consumer properties of products;

2.) in the course of the examination, the compliance by the enterprise with the technological regime of production (technological regulations) is examined.

Economic expertise.

The purpose of economic expertise - evaluation of the results of economic activity of the enterprise Prerequisites for holding: when investigating cases of product and type falsification of goods, concealment of income due to an increase in cost, and overpricing of products.

22. FALSIFICATION AND GOODS IDENTIFICATION

Falsification - counterfeit products, with the aim of passing it off as real, genuine.

Assortment falsification - a fake carried out by replacing one product with another (substitute) while maintaining a certain similarity.

Quality falsification - counterfeiting of goods with the help of various additives that improve the appearance of the product, but reduce quality indicators. For high-quality falsification, coloring and flavoring substances, sweeteners are used, which are not provided for by the production technology and recipe.

Information falsification - Deception of the consumer with the help of unreliable or deliberately false information about the product. To prevent falsification, identification goods.

Identification - establishing the conformity of the name of the product indicated on the label or in the accompanying documents with the requirements for it.

Purpose of product identification - identification and confirmation of the authenticity of a specific type and name of the product; compliance with its specific requirements or information about it contained on the label and / or in the shipping documents.

Identification task - identify the conformity or non-compliance of the goods with the established requirements.

Classification of types of identification depending on the purpose:

1.) Assortment identification - Establishing the conformity of the name of the product according to the assortment accessory, which determines the requirements for it. Used to determine whether a product matches its name

2.) Qualitative identification - establishment of conformity of the goods intended for certification to the quality requirements provided by the normative documentation.

Application of qualitative identification: determines quality gradations - standard or non-standard products, compliance of the commercial variety with the variety indicated on the label and in accompanying documents, etc.

3.) Commodity - batch identification - establishing the belonging of the presented sample of goods to a specific product lot

Means of identification of goods:

- marking of goods;

- regulatory documents (GOSTs, technical conditions) regulating quality indicators;

- technical documents, including shipping documents (waybills, certificates),

- documented test results of samples of the certified goods.

Identification criteria - the results of organoleptic, chemical, physico-chemical indicators characterizing the composition and properties of goods.

23. TECHNICAL REGULATION, TECHNICAL REGULATIONS

Technical regulation - legal regulation of relations in the field of establishing, applying and fulfilling mandatory requirements for products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal and legal regulation of relations in the field of conformity assessment.

Technical regulation - a document adopted by an international treaty of the Russian Federation, ratified in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation, or a federal law, or a decree of the President of the Russian Federation, or a decree of the Government of the Russian Federation and establishes mandatory requirements for application and implementation of requirements for objects of technical regulation.

Purposes of adopting technical regulations

1. protection of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property;

2. protection of the environment, life or health of animals and plants.

Technical regulations establish the minimum necessary requirements to ensure: mechanical safety; fire safety; industrial safety; chemical safety; electrical safety.

The technical regulation must contain an exhaustive list of products, processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, in respect of which its requirements are established, and the rules for identifying the object of technical regulation for the purposes of applying the technical regulation.

Conformity assessment is carried out in the forms of state control, accreditation, registration testing, conformity assessment, acceptance and commissioning of the facility, the construction of which is completed.

Application of technical regulations: apply regardless of the country and place of origin of products, the implementation of production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, types or features of transactions and (or) individuals and (or) legal entities that are manufacturers, sellers, purchasers

A technical regulation cannot contain requirements for products that cause harm to the life or health of citizens, accumulated during prolonged use of these products and depending on other factors that do not allow determining the degree of acceptable risk.

The technical regulation may contain special requirements for products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, terminology, packaging, marking or labels and the rules for their application applied in the places of origin of products.

Technical regulations establish the minimum necessary veterinary, sanitary and phytosanitary measures for products originating from certain countries, including restrictions on import, use, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, ensuring biological safety.

24. GOALS OF STANDARDIZATION. BODIES IMPLEMENTING STANDARDIZATION

Standardization - activities to establish rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary multiple use, aimed at achieving orderliness in the areas of production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services.

The main goals of standardization:

1. increasing the level of safety of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environmental safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants and facilitating compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;

2. increasing the level of safety of facilities, taking into account the risk of natural and man-made emergencies;

3. ensuring scientific and technological progress;

4. growth of competitiveness of products, works, services;

5. rational use of resources;

6. technical and information compatibility;

7. comparability of the results of research (tests) and measurements, technical and economic - statistical data;

8. product interchangeability Key principles of standardization

- voluntary use of standards;

- maximum consideration in the development of standards of the legitimate interests of stakeholders;

- the inadmissibility of establishing such standards that are contrary to technical regulations List of documents in the field of standardization

used on the territory of the Russian Federation: national standards; standardization rules, norms and recommendations in the field of standardization; all-Russian classifiers of technology - economic and social information; organization standards.

Standard - a document in which, for the purpose of voluntary multiple use, product characteristics, implementation rules and characteristics of production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work or provision of services are established.

Standardization bodies - National body of the Russian Federation for standardization and technical committees for standardization.

Activities of the National body of the Russian Federation for standardization:

1. approves national standards

2. Adopt a national standards development program;

3. takes into account national standards, standardization rules, norms and recommendations and ensures their availability to interested parties;

4. creates technical committees for standardization and coordinates their activities;

5. participates in accordance with the charters of international organizations in the development of international standards and ensures that the interests of the Russian Federation are taken into account when they are adopted.

25. NATIONAL STANDARDS

National standardization system - national standards and all-Russian classifiers for technology - economic and social information, including the rules for their development and application. National standard - a standard approved by the national body of the Russian Federation for standardization, in accordance with the rules of standardization and recommendations in this area.

All-Russian classifiers of technical, economic and social information - regulatory documents that distribute technical, economic and social information in accordance with its classification and are mandatory for use in the creation of state information systems and information resources and interdepartmental information exchange.

Responsibilities of the National Standards Body:

- develops and approves a program for the development of national standards;

- should ensure that the national standards development program is accessible to interested parties for familiarization.

The procedure for developing national standards: 1.) Notification of the development of a national standard is sent to the national standardization body and published in the public information system in electronic digital form.

2.) The developer of the national standard must ensure that the draft national standard is available to interested parties for familiarization. 3.) The developer is obliged, at the request of the interested person, to provide him with a copy of the draft national standard.

4.) If the developer of the national standard is a federal executive body, the fee for providing a copy of the draft national standard is paid to the federal budget.

5.) The developer finalizes the draft national standard taking into account the comments received in writing from interested parties, conducts a public discussion of the draft national standard and compiles a list of comments received in writing from interested parties with a summary of the content of these comments and the results of their discussion.

6.) Public Comment Completion Notice the draft national standard must be published in the printed edition of the federal executive body for technical regulation and in the public information system in electronic digital form.

7.) The draft national standard, along with the list of comments received in writing from interested parties, is submitted by the developer to the technical committee for standardization, which organizes the examination of this project.

National standardization body on the basis of documents, submitted by the technical committee for standardization, makes a decision to approve or reject the national standard.

26. CONFORMITY CONFIRMATION

Goals of conformity assessment

- certification of compliance of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, works, services or other objects with technical regulations, standards, terms of contracts;

- assistance to purchasers in the competent choice of products, works, services;

- increasing the competitiveness of products, works, services in the Russian and international markets;

- creation of conditions for ensuring the movement of goods across the territory of the Russian Federation, for the implementation of international economic, scientific and technical cooperation.

Conformity assessment principles

- availability of information on the procedure for the implementation of conformity assessment to interested parties;

- the inadmissibility of applying mandatory confirmation of conformity to objects in respect of which the requirements of technical regulations are not established;

- establishment of a list of forms and schemes of mandatory conformity assessment for certain types of products in the relevant technical regulation;

- inadmissibility of coercion to carry out voluntary confirmation of conformity, including in a certain system of voluntary certification;

- protection of the property interests of applicants for the observance of trade secrets in relation to information obtained during the confirmation of compliance;

- the inadmissibility of replacing the mandatory confirmation of compliance with voluntary certification.

Compliance Form - a certain procedure for documentary certification of the conformity of products or other objects, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work or provision of services to the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of contracts

Types of compliance confirmation forms:

1.) voluntary confirmation of conformity is carried out in the form of voluntary certification;

2.) mandatory confirmation of compliance is carried out in the forms:

- adoption of a declaration of conformity (declaration of conformity);

- mandatory certification

Voluntary confirmation of compliance carried out at the initiative of the applicant on the terms of the contract between the applicant and the certification body.

Actions of the certification body

- carries out confirmation of conformity of objects of voluntary confirmation of conformity;

- issues certificates of conformity for objects that have passed voluntary certification;

- suspends or completely terminates the certificates of conformity issued by him.

27. DECLARATION OF CONFORMITY

Declaration of Conformity - a form of confirmation of product compliance with the requirements of technical regulations.

Schemes for the implementation of the declaration of conformity:

1.) acceptance of a declaration of conformity based on own evidence;

2.) acceptance of a declaration of conformity based on own evidence, evidence obtained with the participation of the certification body and (or) an accredited testing laboratory (center). The circle of applicants is established by the relevant technical regulations

Declaration of Conformity Scheme with the participation of a third party is established in the technical regulation in the event that the absence of a third party leads to failure to achieve the goals of conformity assessment.

When declaring conformity based on own evidence the applicant independently generates evidentiary materials in order to confirm the conformity of products with the requirements of technical regulations.

Evidence materials - technical documentation, results of own research and measurements and (or) other documents that served as a motivated basis for confirming product compliance with the requirements of technical regulations. The composition of evidentiary materials is determined by the relevant technical regulations.

Declaration of Conformity - a document certifying the compliance of products put into circulation with the requirements of technical regulations.

Information contained in the declaration

1. name and location of the applicant

2. name and location of the manufacturer

3. information about the object of confirmation of conformity, allowing to identify this object;

4. the name of the technical regulation, for compliance with the requirements of which the products are confirmed;

5. indication of the conformity declaration scheme

6. statement of the applicant on the safety of products when they are used in accordance with the intended purpose and when the applicant takes measures to ensure that the products meet the requirements of technical regulations;

7. information about the studies (tests) and measurements carried out, the quality system certificate, as well as the documents that served as the basis for confirming the compliance of products with the requirements of technical regulations;

8. Validity of the declaration of conformity Declaration form compliance is approved

federal executive body for technical regulation

Declaration registration: a declaration of conformity drawn up in accordance with the established rules is subject to registration by the federal executive body for technical regulation within three days.

28. CERTIFICATION

Certification - the form of confirmation of compliance of objects with the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of contracts, carried out by the certification body. Certificate of conformity - a document certifying the object's compliance with the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of contracts. Certification system - a set of rules for performing work on certification, its participants and the rules for the functioning of the certification system as a whole.

Mandatory certification is carried out certification body on the basis of an agreement with the applicant.

certification schemes, used for certification of certain types of products are established by the relevant technical regulations

Compliance of products with the requirements of technical regulations is confirmed certificate of conformity, issued to the applicant by the certification body.

Information contained in the certificate of conformity:

1. name and location of the applicant

2. name and location of the manufacturer of the certified product;

3. name and location of the certification body that issued the certificate of conformity;

4. the name of the technical regulation for compliance with the requirements of which certification was carried out;

5. information about the documents submitted by the applicant to the certification body as evidence of product compliance with the requirements of technical regulations; 6. validity period of the certificate of conformity Certificate form compliance is approved by the federal executive body for technical regulation Activities of the certification body:

- maintains a register of certificates of conformity issued by him;

- informs the relevant bodies of state control over compliance with the requirements of technical regulations on products submitted for certification, but not passed it;

- suspends or terminates the certificate of conformity issued by him

The federal executive body for technical regulation conducts unified register of issued certificates of conformity.

The procedure for maintaining a unified register issued certificates of conformity, the procedure for providing information contained in the unified register and the procedure for payment for the provision of information contained in the specified register are established by the Government of the Russian Federation. The procedure for transferring information about issued certificates compliance with the unified register of issued certificates is established by the federal executive body for technical regulation. Research and measurement of products in the implementation of mandatory certification are carried out accredited testing laboratories.

29. SIGN OF CONFORMITY AND SIGN OF APPEAL

Mark of conformity - a designation used to inform purchasers about the compliance of the certification object with the requirements of the voluntary certification system or the national standard.

Application the sign of conformity to the national standard is carried out by the applicant on a voluntary basis in any way convenient for the applicant in the manner established by the national standardization body.

The object of mandatory confirmation of compliance only products put into circulation on the territory of the Russian Federation.

Market circulation sign - a designation that serves to inform purchasers about the compliance of products put into circulation with the requirements of technical regulations.

Application purpose: applied for informational purposes.

The rights and obligations of the applicant in the field of mandatory confirmation of conformity. The applicant is obliged

1. ensure that products comply with the requirements of technical regulations;

2. release into circulation products subject to mandatory confirmation of conformity only after such confirmation of conformity has been carried out;

3. indicate in the accompanying technical documentation and when labeling products information about the certificate of conformity or declaration of conformity;

4. submit to the bodies of state control (supervision) over compliance with the requirements of technical regulations, as well as to interested parties documents confirming the conformity of products with the requirements of technical regulations (declaration of conformity, certificate of conformity);

5. notify the certification body of changes made to the technical documentation or technological processes for the production of certified products;

6. suspend the production of products that have passed the confirmation of conformity and do not meet the requirements of technical regulations

Information about standardization documents:

1. National standards and all-Russian classifiers, as well as information about their development, should be available to interested parties.

2. Official publication in accordance with the established procedure of national standards and all-Russian classifiers is carried out by the national standardization body.

Federal Information Fund of Technical Regulations and Standards - technical regulations, documents of the national standardization system, international standards, standardization rules, standardization norms and recommendations for standardization, national standards of other states and information on international treaties in the field of standardization and conformity assessment and on the rules for their application. It is a state information resource.

30. THE ROLE OF STORAGE IN THE SUPPLY CHAIN

Storage - the stage of circulation of goods, under conditions that ensure a minimum change in its quantity and quality. The creation of stocks of goods is due the need to ensure the continuity of the production process, the constant provision of people with all the commodities required for life and the formation of reserves.

Size and structure of inventory determined by the volume and structure of production.

The volume of commodity stocks and its assortment structure should be in accordance with the volume and structure of consumer demand.

Right planning and rationing of commodity stocks provides: uninterrupted supply of consumers; prevents the formation of excess reserves; contributes to the acceleration of their turnover.

Inventory Locations: near-factory warehouses of industrial enterprises or in areas of procurement of agricultural products; at the bases and warehouses of wholesale trade; in retail trade organizations and enterprises; on my way.

Classification of food products depending on the shelf life:

1.) Perishable Goods - Products with a high water content.

2.) Particularly perishable goods - products that are not subject to storage without cold.

Perishable goods: meat, fish, milk, egg products, fruits and vegetables.

3.) Goods suitable for long-term storage - with a low water content or subjected to canning - flour, cereals, pasta, sugar, dried vegetables and fruits, wines and alcoholic beverages, canned food, etc.

Classification of products according to the most characteristic features for storage. First group - fresh food products of animal and vegetable origin in which biochemical, physical and chemical processes are carried out (for example, meat, fish, grains, vegetables, fruits, etc.). The second group - products derived from animal or vegetable raw materials. In them, chemical and physical processes take place most actively, and weakly biochemical ones. These are dried fruits and vegetables, bakery products, sugar and confectionery. The third group - canned products, in which, after the use of special processing and sealed packaging, biochemical processes are practically suspended, and physical and chemical processes are absent.

Differences between the three groups

1. The products of the first group are well preserved with continuous interaction with the external environment, and the products of the third group - with complete isolation from the external environment.

2. The shelf life of products of the first group depends on their physical and chemical characteristics and environmental conditions, and the third group - on the method of processing and the degree of sealing.

3. The processes occurring in food products of the second group during storage are determined by their physical structure and chemical composition.

31. PROCESSES OCCURING DURING STORAGE

Depending on the nature of the changes storage processes are divided into on

physical, chemical, biochemical, biological and mixed or combined.

physical processes - cause changes in the physical properties of the product: temperature, density, color, shape, consistency, thermal conductivity, radioactivity, etc.

chemical - cause various transformations of individual chemicals that make up food products (caramelization of sugars, acid hydrolysis of substances), or these are processes that take place between individual chemically active substances that are in the product or in its surrounding atmosphere.

Biochemical - cause the transformation of the chemical constituents of products under the influence of the biological catalysts contained in them - enzymes or enzyme preparations introduced from the outside.

Varieties of biochemical processes: respiration, glycolysis, autolysis, etc.

The process of breathing accompanied by a loss of mass of the product, the release of moisture and heat, a change in the composition of the surrounding atmosphere. Respiration occurs in fruits, vegetables, grains, cereals, flour.

Autolysis - an enzymatic process of self-dissolution occurring in the tissues of meat and fish. The result is a complex conversion of glycogen to lactic acid. Under the action of autolysis, the taste, smell, tenderness and juiciness of meat improves.

glycolysis - a process under the action of hydrolase enzymes in food products. It leads to a deterioration in the taste and smell of products and is the cause of their significant losses. Microbiological processes - a kind of biochemical processes in food products, in which a change in the quality of the product occurs due to the activity of enzymes found in microorganisms that enter the product accidentally (rotting, fermentation, molding) or are introduced artificially (the use of microorganisms in the manufacture of lactic acid products, wines, etc.) .

Varieties of microbiological processes:

Fermentation - splitting of nitrogen-free organic substances under the action of enzymes secreted by microorganisms. During the storage of food products, alcohol, lactic acid, acetic acid, butyric fermentation, etc., can occur.

Putrefaction - a deep process of protein breakdown under the influence of proteolytic enzymes secreted by putrefactive microorganisms.

Mold growth cause mold fungi that secrete various enzymes that break down carbohydrates, proteins and fats. When moldy, products become covered with raids of various colors, acquire an unpleasant taste and smell.

Biological processes - processes caused by biological objects - rodents and food pests.

32. PHYSICAL AND PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES

Physical and physico-chemical processes -

occur in products under the influence of temperature, humidity, gas composition, light, mechanical influences.

Varieties of physical and physico-chemical processes: processes of sorption and desorption of water and gas vapors, crystallization of sugars and salts, aging of proteins and colloids, compaction of bulk substances, deformation and violation of the integrity of products.

Sorption process - the process of moisture absorption can occur during the storage of salt, granulated sugar, flour, cookies, crackers, waffles, etc. Products soften or lose their flowability and cake

Desorption - this is the process of drying out the product, reducing its mass and deteriorating quality. This process is characteristic of fruits and vegetables, bread.

In a number of products (jam, honey, ice cream), during storage, sugar crystallization, which leads to a deterioration in appearance, texture and taste.

Aging of proteins and colloids during storage of products, the worst swelling of flour, legumes, and an increase in the duration of their preparation are explained.

Mechanical damage causes deformation bread, confectionery, fruits and vegetables, this leads to a decrease in the quality or unsuitability of products for consumption.

The main task in the storage of goods: prevent or suspend unwanted processes that lead to a decrease in their quality.

Factors affecting goods in storage

temperature, humidity and composition of the air, ventilation and illumination of the premises, product proximity, packaging and stacking of goods.

Temperature air has a great influence on the development of microorganisms and pests, the activity of enzymes and the rate of chemical reactions. An increase in temperature by 10'C accelerates enzymatic reactions by 1,3-5 times, and chemical reactions even more. Most food products are stored at low temperatures, which have a detrimental effect on many microorganisms, pests and minimize enzymatic and chemical processes.

Temperature regime for products: for long-term storage products the temperature in the storage should not exceed 10'C, for perishable - no more than O'C or less; for especially perishable products, the maximum shelf life at a temperature not exceeding 6'C is from 6 to 72 hours.

Relative humidity - the percentage of the actual amount of water vapor in the air to the amount required for its complete saturation at a given temperature and pressure. Features of goods storage:

- for the storage of goods with a high moisture content, the relative humidity of the air should be 80-95%.

- goods with low humidity, as well as those capable of being oxidized (fats) must be stored at a relative humidity of 65-75%.

33. EFFECT OF LIGHT, COOLING AND FREEZING ON PRODUCTS

Temperature, humidity and gas composition in storages are regulated by ventilation.

Types of ventilation: natural, forced and active.

The role of ventilation

1. has a positive effect on the safety of goods;

2. helps to lower the temperature in the storage, remove excess moisture vapor from it, reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide,

3. activates the protective functions of goods - grains, fresh fruits, vegetables, etc.

World when storing most products, it plays a negative role: it accelerates the processes of respiration, oxidation and destruction of many vitamins.

The role of containers and packaging materials: packaging protects the goods from external influences, high or low temperatures, air humidity, light, foreign odors, microorganisms, etc.

The storage of many food products fresh (meat, fruits, vegetables, etc.) or frozen (meat, fish, etc.) is based on the use cold.

Chilled Food Storage: from 10-30 days (meat, fish) to several months (fruits, vegetables, eggs), frozen - up to a year or more.

Refrigeration - a universal and effective way to preserve the quality of food products and a necessary condition for obtaining high quality products with various canning methods (production of ham, sour-milk products, low-salted fish, etc.) Охлаждение - this is a process in which the temperature of the product is reduced to cryoscopic or 1-2' below it. The cooling method is chosen depending on the type and condition of the product, the required speed of the process, and further processing technology.

Cooling options:

1. air cooling (cool fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products, poultry, eggs, butter, dairy and other products);

2. in liquids (cold water, brine) cool fish, poultry, vegetables, bottled drinks.

3. melting ice or under vacuum used for fruits and vegetables.

Freezing - the process of partial or complete transformation into ice of the water contained in the product.

Freezing purpose: freezing is used to ensure the stability of the product during long-term storage (meat, fish, etc.) or to give products special taste properties (ice cream, etc.).

Freeze feature: damage to the tissue structure during freezing is the less, the lower the temperature and the more intense the process. When storing frozen products, temperature fluctuations above V are undesirable. They enhance the process of moisture recrystallization, worsen the structure of the fabric and increase the shrinkage of the product.

34. FOOD PRESERVATION CHEMICALS

Currently, more than 1000 different substances are known that protect food products from microbiological spoilage.

Side effect: may adversely affect human health or impair the natural properties of the product. In Russia most often used sulfur dioxide and sodium benzoate. Sulfur dioxide are used mainly for harvesting fruit and berry raw materials, in order to lengthen the season for its processing (sulfitation), as well as to keep the grapes fresh.

Sulfur dioxide can be used by packing grapes (or other berries) with sodium bisulfite. Sodium benzoate used in food preservation. sorbic acid - a preparation for the preservation and conservation of products. Application: to prevent spoilage of condensed milk, cheese, sausages, fish, dry and semi-dry wines, soft drinks and other products.

Biomycin (chlortetracycline) - an antibiotic used in the preservation of products. The use of ice, to which biomycin is added (5 g per 1 ton of ice), lengthens the shelf life of fresh fish by almost 2 times. The content of biomycin should not exceed 0,25 mg/kg.

Various types of ionizing radiation are used to preserve foodstuffs, primarily g-rays, x-rays, b-rays, and accelerated electrons.

Radurization (radiare - radiate, durare - prolong) - radiation treatment of food products at doses that suppress the vital activity of microorganisms without deteriorating the appearance, taste, smell, nutritional properties of products, as a result of which their shelf life increases.

Threshold doses above which the color and taste of the product changes:

1. for fresh fruits and vegetables from 40 (leaf lettuce) to 900 Krad (cherries);

2. for fruit and vegetable products from 70 (lemon juice) to 2500 Krad (dried prunes);

3. fresh fish from 500 (carp) to 1800 Krad (perch);

4. for meat from 300 (mutton) to 2100 Krad (bacon);

5. for dairy products about 70 Krad. Radiation options: allows you to extend

shelf life of many foods and in some cases replace refrigeration storage.

For long-term and high-quality storage of fresh fruits and vegetables and other products, more and more widespread use is a method of storing products in a controlled atmosphere. This method is based on maintaining a certain gas composition of the air, depending on the characteristics of the product.

Storage of fruits and vegetables in a controlled environment is based on maintaining the metabolism of substances in the tissues of fruits and vegetables. at a level that ensures slow maturation and better retention of resistance properties to functional and infectious diseases.

35. PRESERVATION METHODS

Canning options: allows you to protect products from spoilage, expand their range, improves taste, aroma, nutritional value, increases the degree of readiness for consumption.

Preservation Methods: physical, physico-chemical, combined, biochemical and chemical methods of conservation

conservation methods.

Physical Methods - conservation at high and low temperatures, the use of decomposing filters, ultrasound, etc.

Varieties of physical methods:

1. pasteurization (heating the product to a temperature of 65-9CGS),

2.sterilization (heating the product to a temperature above 100'C),

3. drying (artificial - convective, vacuum, sublimation and natural),

4. canning with sugar and salt and more

Biochemical methods - Preservation of food products with lactic acid (fermentation, salting, urinating) and ethyl alcohol. These substances, formed in products as a result of biochemical processes, inhibit the activity of putrefactive microorganisms that cause spoilage.

Chemical preservation methods - based on the addition of a small amount of chemicals to food - preservatives that have a bactericidal or antiseptic effect and must be harmless, not change the taste, color and smell.

Substances used in the chemical preservation method: acetic, benzoic, sorbic, boric, propionic acids, urotropin, antibiotics (biomycin, nystatin, nisin).

The essence of the smoking method - the product after salting is treated with smoke or smoke liquid containing antiseptic substances (phenol, furfural, aldehydes, resins, etc.), which protect products from the development of microorganisms in them. When smoked, the products acquire a special taste and aroma, the surface is painted in brown-golden tones.

В gaseous environment mainly keep fruits. The combination of low temperature with a certain gas composition eliminates the disadvantages inherent in storing fruits in conventional refrigerators. Depending on the type and variety of fruits, a different gas composition is used: nitrogen 79-97%, oxygen 2-16, carbon dioxide 0-10%. The gaseous medium for storing fruits is of two types. The first type is normal gas mixtures, in which the total content of oxygen and carbon dioxide is equal to their content in the air, i.e. 21%. The second type is subnormal gas mixtures, in which the total concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide is below 21% (C0₂; 0₂; No₂ - 5; 2; 93 or 0; 3; 97 are subnormal mixtures; 10; 10; 80 or 5-10; 11-16; 74-79 - normal mixtures).

Application controlled atmosphere allows you to increase the storage temperature many varieties by 1-2' and extend the shelf life by 1-3 and even 4 months.

36. BAKERY, LAUGHTER AND RUSKET PRODUCTS

Group of grain flour products: grain, flour, cereals, bread and bakery products, crackers, lamb and pasta.

Chemical composition of bread: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts and vitamins.

Protein content: in rye bread is about 5,5%, in wheat - 7,6-8,4%.

The main component of bread - carbohydrates - polysaccharide starch (40-50%). Starch - the main energy source of bakery products. Bread minerals - K, P, Mn, Fe, Ca, а vitamins - In_р В₂ and PP.

The range of bakery products is more than 1000 items.

Bread classification:

1). depending on the type of flour: wheat rye and rye-wheat;

2). from the recipe - simple and improved

3). by way of baking - shaped and hearth

Varieties of wheat bread: white bread from wheat flour of the highest, first and second grades, Arnaut Kyiv, kalach Saratov.

Rye bread are made from wholemeal, peeled and artificial flour, simple and improved (custard; Moscow).

Rye-wheat bread baked from a mixture of different varieties of rye and wheat flour in various proportions.

Main assortment: rye-wheat bread. Ukrainian, Borodinsky, Amateur.

Assortment of bakery products: loaves bars, bakery products (buns of high calorie content, puff, small pieces, dietary, rich).

Varieties of rich bakery products Butter buns, Butter buns with fondant, Butter cheesecakes with cottage cheese, Vyborg muffins, Novomoskovsk buns, twisted muffins.

Criteria for assessing the quality of bread and bakery products: by shape, surface, color, baked ™, mix, porosity, taste, smell, humidity, acidity, mass fraction of sugar, fat, stuffing, etc.

Storage conditions: at air temperature not lower than 6'C and relative air humidity not more than 75%.

Best before (h): rye - 36, wheat and rye-wheat - 24, bakery - 16.

Lamb products. Produce from steep dough, with the addition of sugar, fat, molasses, etc .; after forming the dough in the form of rings, the products are scalded in boiling water and baked.

Varieties of lamb products depending on the size: drying (d 4-6 cm); bagels (d 7-9 cm); bagels (d > 9 cm).

Varieties of crackers: by composition - wheat, rye and rye-wheat, prescription - simple and delicious. Simple crackers made from plain bread. Butter - with the addition of sugar, fat, eggs, milk, etc. Assortment of crackers: from wheat flour of the highest grade includes 16 items (Children's, Walnut); from flour of the first and second grade - 9 items (Tourist, City).

37. PASTA. KRUPA. FLOUR

Pasta - a valuable food product with a long shelf life. Composition: 72-75% starch; 10-11% proteins; 0,9-1,3% fat; 11-13% water.

Pasta classification: subdivided into groups A, B, C и classes 1 and 2 depending on the quality and grade of flour from which they are made. Group A products made from durum wheat (durum) and high-grade flour of increased dispersion from durum wheat Group B - from flour of soft vitreous wheat; Group B - from baking wheat flour, which, in terms of quality and quantity of gluten, is not lower than flour from soft vitreous wheat

1st class of products from flour of the highest grade; 2nd class - from flour of the first grade.

Types of pasta depending on the shape: tubular (pasta, horns, feathers), filiform (vermicelli), ribbon-like (noodles) curly (shells, stars, alphabet).

groats - whole or crushed grains, completely or partially freed from shells, aleurone layer and germ. Chemical composition: 7-13% proteins, 55-77% carbohydrates and 0,6-5,8% fats.

Low fiber cereals (semolina rice) are highly digestible and are recommended for dietary and baby food

Varieties of cereals

' depending on the grain used - wheat, buckwheat, corn, oat, barley;

- according to the method of grain processing - for whole, crushed polished, crushed unpolished, flattened;

• according to product characteristics - for varieties;

- by grain size - to the numbers.

Rice groats are divided polished rice (extra grades, highest, first, second and third) and crushed polished rice (not divided into grades).

Types of corn grits: polished corn, coarse corn, small corn.

Semolina brands depending on the type of wheat: M (from soft), T (from durum), MT (from a mixture of soft and durum wheat).

Wheat groats are divided into five numbers, numbers from 1 to 4 - Poltava, number 5 - Artek.

Flour - a powdery product obtained in the process of grinding grain. Varieties of flour: wheat, rye, corn, soy, pea, buckwheat, rice, oatmeal. Depending on the chemical composition, the degree of processing and cleaning of grain flour is divided for varieties а by way of application - on types

Two types of wheat flour: pasta; bakery. Grades: grain, higher, first, second wallpaper.

Rye flour only bakery is produced and is divided into three varieties - seeded, peeled and wallpaper. Chemical composition: in wheat and rye flour contains 6,9-12,9% proteins, 55,8-67,7% starch and 0,9-1,9% fat; in soy flour an increased amount of proteins (38,5-48,9%) and fats (up to 20,2%).

38. ONION VEGETABLES AND ROOTS

Fresh vegetables subdivided for vegetative and fruit. Vegetative - vegetables that are eaten by growth products - leaf, stem, root and their modifications. According to the part of the plant used vegetative vegetables are divided into subgroups

1. onion (bulb onion, leek, batun garlic, etc.);

2. root vegetables (carrots, beets, radishes, radishes, turnips, swedes, parsley, parsnips, celery);

3. tubers (potato, sweet potato, Jerusalem artichoke);

4. cabbage (white cabbage, red cabbage, cauliflower, savoy, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi)

5. lettuce-spinach (lettuce, spinach, sorrel); dessert asparagus, artichoke, rhubarb);

6. spicy (dill, savory, horseradish, etc.). fruit - vegetables in which fertilization products are used as food - fruits.

fruit vegetables include subgroups: pumpkin (cucumbers, zucchini, pumpkin, watermelons, melons, squash); tomato (tomatoes, eggplants, peppers); pulse (peas, beans, beans); crops (sweet corn)

onion vegetables contain a large amount of nutritional, flavoring and aromatic substances. Essential oil gives a sharp taste and a specific smell.

Onions - the most common among onion vegetables. Composition: Sugar - 2,5-14%; proteins 1,5-2,2%; essential oils - 25-100 mg%; vitamins C, B, PP.

Onion varieties by taste and smell

1.) Sharp onion varieties (Voronezh, Rostov) contain more dry substances and essential oils; they are well transported and stored.

2.) Peninsular varieties (Kaba, Red) contain less than spicy, sugars and essential oils

3.) Sweet varieties (Yalta, Spanish) are distinguished by a high moisture content, a low content of sugars (up to 7%) and essential oils; these varieties are poorly preserved.

Garlic contains the least amount of water - 64%; rich in carbohydrates (up to 16%) and nitrogenous substances (7%).

The most important roots: carrots, beets, radishes, radishes.

Carrot varieties: caroteli (3-6 cm) - Parisian cartel; semi-long (8-20 cm) - Shantenay; long (20-45 cm) - Valeria.

Beets are characterized high content of sugars (sucrose) and the presence of biologically active substances.

Sorts table beets are distinguished by shape, color of the skin and pulp, the severity of the rings, taste and smell. The most common varieties: Egyptian flat, Incomparable.

Radish - one of the earliest types of vegetables. According to the form radish is round, oval and long by color - white, pink and red. Common varieties: Ruby, the Red Giant.

Radish contains sugar, protein, vitamins, a large amount of bactericidal substances and essential oils. By ripening time distinguish radish summer и winter.

39. POTATOES AND CABBAGE VEGETABLES

In the subgroup of tubers, a special place belongs to potatoes. Chemical composition: contains (in%): water - 70-80; starch - 14-25; nitrogenous substances - 0,5-1,5; sugar - 1,5-2,0; fiber - 0,7-1,0; minerals - 0,7-0,9; vitamin C - 4-30 mg%.

Varieties of potatoes by purpose: table, eaten, technical - to obtain alcohol, starch, molasses and other products with a high starch content, fodder - for livestock feed universal - suitable both for food and for technical processing.

Potato depending from the timing of implementation subdivided into: early (potatoes of the current year harvest, sold before September 1); late (implemented from 1 September).

Varieties of early potatoes: selective and ordinary. Varieties of late potatoes: selected high-value varieties, selected and ordinary

Quality indicators: appearance; smell and taste; size of tubers according to the largest transverse diameter; the content of tubers with growths, growths, green, with mechanical damage, crushed, damaged by agricultural pests, diseases, frostbitten; the presence of earth, organic and mineral impurities.

Main view cabbage vegetables - white cabbage. It is characterized by high productivity, good transportability and storage.

Chemical composition: contains from 6,1 to 10,4% dry matter, including 2,6-5,3% sugars, 1,1-2,3% proteins, 15-70 mg% vitamin C.

A head of white cabbage can be round, flat, oval or conical. form; heads of cabbage are divided into small (0,7 kg), medium and large (4-8 kg).

According to the ripening time, cabbage is distinguished early-ripening, mid-ripening, medium-late and late-ripening.

Cabbage varieties: early - Dawn, Malachite, June, Cossack; later -Kharkov winter, Aros

Quality indicators: appearance, smell and taste, density and cleaning of the head, length of the stump, content of heads of cabbage with mechanical damage, dry contamination, the presence of germinated, rotten, etc.

red cabbage has increased frost resistance; suitable only for cooking and pickling.

Cauliflower (unblown inflorescences are used for food) - a valuable dietary product with high nutritional value and excellent taste. They are consumed boiled, canned, pickled.

Brussels sprouts (a long stem up to 1 m with 20-70 heads) differs from other species in a higher content of nitrogenous and mineral substances, vitamin C. They are consumed boiled, soups are prepared, pickled, canned. At savoy cabbage corrugated leaves; not suitable for pickling. kohlrabi - one of the most precocious types of cabbage. Used fresh, boiled and fried.

40. PUMPKIN, TOMATOES AND BEAN VEGETABLES

For pumpkin vegetables include cucumbers, zucchini, squash, watermelons, melons, pumpkins, etc.

cucumbers have a low nutritional value and calorie content, as they contain a lot of water (94-98%).

Classification of cucumbers depending on the purpose: cucumbers for fresh consumption; pickled cucumbers. For fresh consumption use short-fruited (5,5-11 cm), medium-fruited (up to 25 cm) and long-fruited cucumbers (more than 25 cm) grown in open or protected ground.

For salting - short-fruited, grown in the open field varieties of cucumbers zoned for this purpose. Cucumbers for canning according to size (cm) subdivide on: pickles (3,0-5,0); gherkins of group I (5,1-7,0); gherkins of group II (7,1-9,0); Zelentsy (no more than 11,0)

Zucchini and squash harvested immature, consumed boiled, fried, stuffed and pickled, for cooking vegetable caviar.

Watermelons due to the high sugar content, due to the accumulation of the sweetest sugar - fructose, and excellent taste, they are used fresh.

melons have a juicy, sweet pulp and a wonderful aroma, it is used fresh and dried.

Varieties of pumpkin: dining and fodder. Used in boiled, fried, baked and pickled forms.

Chemical composition of tomato vegetables: from 2,3 to 4,2% sugars and 0,6-1,7% nitrogenous substances; vitamin C is most in sweet pepper - 100-400 mg%, and in tomatoes - 20-40 mg%.

According to the form they are divided into round, flat and oval; by skin color - on red, yellow, pink-red; according to the nature of the surface - on smooth, slightly ribbed and strongly ribbed; to size - large, medium and small. Depending on the destination are divided into: tomatoes for fresh consumption, for whole-fruit canning and canned food for baby food and tomatoes for pickling.

By degree of maturity tomatoes are green, milky, brown, pink and red.

Fetus eggplant differs from tomatoes in poorly developed seed chambers and a denser consistency. Pepper According to the content of the bitter substance capsaicin glucoside, they are divided into bitter and sweet. In bitter pepper it accumulates up to 0,05%, and in sweet it is practically absent. Application: sweet pepper used in cooking, preparing canned food, and bitter - as seasoning.

К legume vegetables include peas, beans, beans

Types of peas: sugar; shelling. At sugar varieties the entire bean is used. Peeling grades suitable mainly for canning

vegetable beans divided into sugar and shelling; used for canning, cooking first courses, snacks.

beans have large (2-3 cm) seeds of various colors; they are harvested in an unripe state and used in cooking and for canning.

41. CHARACTERISTICS OF POME

Depending on the part of the flower (ovary or fruit bed) involved in the formation of the fetus, the following groups are divided: pome fruits, stone fruits, berries, nut fruits, subtropical and tropical.

In pome fruits fruits inside the fleshy fruit is a seed chamber with seeds - apples, pears, quince, mountain ash, medlar.

Stone fruits consist of skins, fruit pulp and pits - apricots, peaches, plums, cherries, cherries, dogwoods.

Berries, depending on their structure, they are divided into: the real - grapes, currants, gooseberries, cranberries, blueberries, blueberries, cranberries; false - strawberries and strawberries; complex - raspberries, blackberries, stone fruits, cloudberries.

Subtropical and tropical fruits - lemons, tangerines, oranges, pomegranates, persimmons, figs, bananas, pineapples, etc.

Nut fruits: walnut, hazelnut, hazelnut, almond, pistachio, peanut and wild species.

Chemical composition of apples: contain 7,5-14,0% sugars, 0,2-2% organic acids, 1-1,8% pectin, vitamins C, B₂, PP.

Usage: fresh and for making jam, marmalade, juices, compotes.

By maturity apples are divided into summer, autumn and winter. Summer varieties of apples (White filling, Moscow Grushovka) ripen in July-August; the keeping quality of these varieties is low - 10-30 days. Autumn varieties (Autumn striped, Antonovka common, Anise striped) ripen at the end of August, their keeping quality is 1,5-3 months. Winter varieties reach removable maturity in September-October, and their consumer maturity occurs only a few months after storage. Winter varieties include Jonathan, Renet Simirenko.

According to the standard, apples are divided for fresh early ripening, fresh late ripening, fresh for industrial processing. early apples depending on the quality, they are divided into two commercial grades - the first and second. late apples ripening is divided into four commercial grades - the highest, first, second and third. Moreover, only the fruits of strictly defined pomological varieties (Mekintosh, Kandil sinap, etc.) can be classified as premium apples.

Pear contains from 0,1 to 0,9% acids, and the amount of sugars ranges from 5 to 15%, also tannins, aromatic and pectin substances, vitamins A, C, group B.

Classification by maturity: summer autumn and winter varieties. Summer varieties ripen in July-August; autumn - in late August - early September. Winter pear varieties are harvested in the removable stage of maturity at the end of September - October, and their consumer maturity occurs only after 4-6 months. storage.

Early ripening pears by quality they are divided into two commercial grades - the first and second;

late ripening pears are divided into the highest, first, second and third grades.

the norm It has a very firm flesh with a strong aroma and astringent taste.

42. STONE FRUITS AND BERRIES

The stone fruits are plums, cherries, cherries and apricots.

Chemical composition: Sugars (from 8 to 23%); the amount of acids ranges from 0,2-0,5% to 0,9-2,3%, vitamin C - 10-20 mg%.

Sorts cherries depending on the color of the juice: moreli (dark red fruits with colored juice) -Amoreli (light-colored fruits with colorless juice). Sorts - Vladimirskaya, Lotovaya, Beauty of the North, etc.

Apricots are rounded and elongated, yellow-orange in color, the flesh is from dense to juicy, white or yellow. Classification by use: drying varieties; table and canning

Plum types: garden plum, blackthorn, cherry plum and blackthorn. Garden plums depending on the shape, color, consistency, are divided into: Hungarians (dark blue elongated), renklody (round in shape, color from green-yellow to red-violet); egg plums (large sizes, elongated oval shape, yellow or orange color). Plum varieties - Hungarian Italian, Sochi; Egg green and red.

Cherries. According to the density of the pulp, it is divided into two types: gini - fruits with tender pulp; bigarro- with dense cartilaginous pulp.

peaches - tender, juicy, large, very tasty and fragrant fruits. Peach Varieties: hairy and hairless. By separable bones subdivided into two classes - with good and bad separability.

The chemical composition of berry crops:

- the largest number Sakharov (from 14 to 30%) accumulates in grapes, and in other berry crops it contains from 5 to 11%;

- vitamin C most of all contained in blackcurrant (from 100 to 400 mg%);

- amount of acids in berries of different species ranges from 0,3 to 2,6%.

Berry crops include: grapes, currants, gooseberries, strawberries, raspberries.

Grapes - the most valuable berry crop. Its nutritional and dietary value is due to the high content of glucose, the presence of various (K, Ca, Mg, Fe, P) minerals, polyphenols with P-vitamin activity. Groups of varieties by economic use: canteens, wine and dryers.

Characteristics of table varieties: beautiful appearance, low acidity and good sugar content. Feature: wine varieties contain a lot of sugar and tannins, drying grades characterized by thin skin, the absence or small number of seeds and sufficient sugar content

strawberry - the most common berry crop. Characteristic: has a wonderful taste, delicate texture, pleasant appearance, easily and quickly absorbed by the body

Raspberries - juicy, tender, very fragrant and tasty berry; It has healing properties due to the content of salicylic acid in its composition.

43. TYPES OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES PROCESSING

Processing types: fermentation, salting, soaking, marinating, drying, freezing, canning at high temperatures in airtight containers,

Based on fermentation, salting and urinating lies lactic acid fermentation of sugars contained in fresh fruits, resulting in the formation of lactic acid. It prevents the vital activity of harmful microorganisms that can cause spoilage of products. For fermentation the most suitable white cabbage. For salting use cucumbers, tomatoes, watermelons; urinate - fruits and berries Soaked fruits and berries poured with an aqueous solution of sugar, salt and malt and subjected to lactic and alcoholic fermentation.

Drying - this is the removal of moisture from fresh fruits and vegetables under the influence of high temperatures. During drying, significant changes in the composition of fruits and vegetables can occur (destruction of vitamins, deterioration of organoleptic indicators), which negatively affects their nutritional qualities. Drying types: natural drying (solar) and artificial sublimation.

canning in hermetic containers - a process in which fruit and vegetable raw materials isolated from the surrounding air are subjected to heating, as a result of which microorganisms are destroyed and enzymes are destroyed. Vegetables are considered canned if the moisture content in them is brought to 12-14%, in fruits - up to 15-20%.

Canned food types: vegetable, fruit and mixed. Separately, there is a group of canned food for children and diet food.

Canned vegetables depending on the method of production, they are divided into natural, snack, lunch, concentrated tomato products, vegetable juices, drinks, and marinades.

К fruit preserves include compotes, fruit and berry purees, pastes, sauces, juices, fruit and berry marinades.

Diet canned food used for therapeutic nutrition of patients. Assortment of canned food for baby food: vegetable, fruit, fruit and vegetable and meat and vegetable.

Packaging: canned fruits and vegetables are packed in glass jars, bottles and metal cans of various capacities; for packing some types of canned fruits and vegetables, aluminum tubes (up to 0,2 l) and polymer containers are used.

On the lid of metal cans put marking by stamping in a row three to six characters - first, an index indicating the ownership of the enterprise is put, then the manufacturer's number, the year of manufacture, indicated by the last digit of the current year. Cans are stamped on the bottom five to seven characters: first - shift number two second - date of manufacture (before the ninth day put zero in front), fourth (letter) - month of manufacture (A - January, B - February, etc.; letter 3 is excluded), next three digits sign - assortment number of canned food.

44. TASTE PRODUCTS. SOFT DRINKS

Taste products - a variety of food products that cause a taste sensation in a person and contribute to the absorption of food - soft drinks, low alcohol and alcoholic drinks tea, coffee, spices, seasonings, tobacco and tobacco products.

Composition: contain organic acids, glucosides, alcohols, tannins and dyes, aromatic and other compounds.

Impact: affect the human nervous system, increase the secretion of digestive juices and improve digestion.

Classification according to the nature of the impact on the human body: general and local action. General flavor products have an exciting effect on the central nervous system and cause both positive and negative effects on the human body. They are divided into products containing ethyl alcohol (alcoholic drinks) and products containing alkaloids (tea, coffee, tobacco). Local Goods affect the organs of taste and smell, and some - on the mucous membrane of the digestive tract, contributing to the secretion of juice (spices, aromatic substances, food acids, salt).

Soft drinks - diverse in nature, taste, composition and methods of obtaining the product. Composition: sugar, extractives, carbonic acid, food acids, mineral, coloring and aromatic substances.

Assortment of soft drinks: juices, syrups, fruit drinks, extracts, carbonated drinks.

Beverage classification:

1.) In appearance soft drinks are divided into liquid drinks (clear and cloudy) and beverage concentrates in consumer packaging.

2.) Depending on the raw materials used, production technology and destination drinks are divided into groups: juice drinks; drinks on grain raw materials; drinks on spicy-aromatic vegetable raw materials; flavored drinks (essences and aromatic spirits); fermented drinks; specialty drinks.

3.) Liquid drinks according to the degree of saturation with carbon dioxide subdivided into highly carbonated, medium carbonated, slightly carbonated and non-carbonated.

4.) According to the processing method: unpasteurized and pasteurized drinks, with and without preservatives, cold and hot poured drinks.

Types of juices: clarified (apple, apple-grape, grape, cherry, etc.); unclarified (apple, apple-sea buckthorn, cranberry); with pulp (plum-blackcurrant-apple, plum puree, apple-apricot, etc.) Drink durability (per day): unpasteurized and without preservatives - 10; pasteurized - 30; bottled fermentation drinks - 5; beverage concentrates - 1 year.

45. MINERAL WATERS AND LOW ALCOHOLIC DRINKS

Natural mineral waters - groundwater, with a high content of physiologically active chemicals and gases. Types: medical table (2-8 g/l minerals) and therapeutic (8-12 g/l and more). Assortment of natural mineral waters - Narzan, Essentuki, Slavic, Borjomi, etc.

Artificial mineral waters are made by adding some salts (sodium, magnesium, calcium) to drinking water and saturating the solution with carbon dioxide. Assortment of artificial mineral water: Soda, Canteen.

Varieties of low-alcohol drinks: kvass beer, honey drinks, etc. Kvass - a refreshing low-alcohol drink containing no more than 1,2% alcohol. AT depending on the feedstock and production technologies distinguish kvass bread и fruit and berry. Bread kvass - has a pleasant refreshing sweet and sour taste with a pronounced aroma of freshly baked rye bread and malt. Depending on the recipe they produce kvass for grain and for okroshka, drinks from grain raw materials - Fragrant, Honey, Health, etc. Unlike kvass, drinks from grain raw materials do not contain alcohol.

Fruit and berry kvass is obtained by fermentation of the must obtained from fruit and berry juices diluted with water, fruit drinks and sugar.

Honey drink - a product of yeast fermentation of wort from a mixture of water, honey and sugar; hops are also used. Range: Honey, Medoc, etc.

Beer - low-alcohol, frothy, barley-malt drink, with a pleasant bitterness and aroma of hops. Raw materials for making beer - barley, hops, water, yeast. Beer is produced depending on the type included in the recipe malt (light, dark, burnt) of two types: light and dark.

В depending on the mass fraction of dry substances in the initial wort, beer is divided into two groups: bright (%); dark (%).

By processing method beer is divided into pasteurized and unpasteurized.

Characteristics of light beer: color from yellow to light brown; distinctly pronounced hop flavor, with an almost imperceptible malt aroma. Range of light beers: Zhigulevskoe, Moscow, Riga, Baltic, etc.

Characteristics of dark beer: brown color, against the background of hop aroma and taste, it has a pronounced malt taste. Range: Porter, Velvet, Ukrainian.

Mass fraction of alcohol (%): in light varieties beer ranges from 3,0 (Zhigulevskoye) to 6,0 (Leningradskoye); at dark varieties - from 2,5 (Velvet) to 5,0 (Porter); some new types of beer (Baltika) alcohol content reaches 7,0% vol. and more. Food and energy value (kcal/100 d) from 37 to 64.

Guaranteed shelf life: unpasteurized beer 3-17 days; pasteurized beer - 3 months; without the use of stabilizers - 1 months

46. ALCOHOLIC DRINKS

Alcoholic drinks - drinks containing alcohol (alcohol). Depending on the content

ethyl alcohol alcoholic beverages are divided into: high alcohol (up to 96% vol.) - ethyl alcohol; strong (31-65% vol.) - vodka, rum, whiskey, brandy; medium alcohol (9-30% vol.) - alcoholic beverages, wines; low alcohol (1,5-8% vol.) - beer.

Three stages of production of food ethyl alcohol: preparatory - purification of raw materials from impurities, preparation of malt or mold cultures; basic - digestion and saccharification of starch, fermentation, distillation and production of crude alcohol; final - rectification (purification) of alcohol.

Drinking alcohol is produced dilution of rectified alcohol of the highest purity with softened water to a strength of 96%.

Vodka - a strong alcoholic drink, which is a mixture of rectified ethyl alcohol with softened water, brought to a strength of at least 40%, treated with activated carbon and filtered.

Two groups of vodkas - ordinary and special Ordinary - vodkas, which are water-alcohol mixtures - Wheat, Extra.

Special - in the production of which various flavoring and aromatic additives are used. AT as additives in special vodkas include: in Ukrainian vodka - honey and pepper; in the Embassy - skim milk or skimmed milk; in Citric - citric acid and aromatic alcohols of lemon; in Russian - cinnamon; in Stolichnaya - sugar, soda and vinegar; in Russian - sugar, honey, vanillin and sodium bicarbonate, etc.

Factors that shape the quality of vodka - raw materials and the degree of purification of the water-alcohol mixture. For production, luxury, extra and highest purification alcohol is used. For Kremlin vodka, triple distillation of alcohol is used.

Liquor products - alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content of 12 to 4,5% by volume, prepared by blending (mixing) alcohol, water, sugar syrup, fruit, berry, essential oil or non-aromatic plant materials.

Classification of alcoholic beverages:

1.) By type of raw material are divided into: fruit and berry (liqueurs, dessert liqueurs, creams, sweet and semi-sweet tinctures, dessert drinks); multicomponent (balms, punches, cocktails); drinks with herbs (bitter tinctures, strong liquors, aperitifs).

2.) Alcohol content subdivided into: strong (strong liquors, tinctures, balms, strong cocktails); moderate (liqueurs, creams, dessert liqueurs, aperitifs, cocktails); weak (dessert drinks).

3.) By sugar content: high sugar (liqueurs, creams, liqueurs, punches); medium sugar (sweet tinctures, emulsion liqueurs, cocktails, dessert drinks); low-sugar (semi-sweet tinctures, aperitifs, strong cocktails); sugarless (balms, bitter tinctures, strong cocktails).

47. VARIETY OF ALCOHOLIC DRINKS

Liqueurs - alcoholic beverages obtained by blending alcoholized infusions on various aromatic herbs, seeds, roots, flowers, fruits, alcoholized juices, sugar syrup and other flavor components.

Alcohol content ranges from 20-23% (creams) to 30-45% (strong liquors); Sugars - ranging from 32-50 g / dm³ (strong and dessert liqueurs) up to 50-60 g/dm³ (creams). Range: Cherry Coffee, Amaretto.

Creams - a subgroup of liqueurs with low strength, high sugar content and viscous consistency.

liqueurs - blending products of various fruit and berry fruit drinks with sugar syrup, alcohol and water. In some cases, coloring is used, the addition of citric acid, vanillin, etc. Fortress - not less than 18-20%.

bitter tinctures produced from alcoholized infusions on herbs, roots, rhizomes, bark, fruits, etc.; sometimes various essential oils are added to them, and to soften the taste - up to 1% sugar. Tinctures contain 30 to 45% alcohol.

Sweet and semi-sweet tinctures produced by blending alcoholized infusions of spicy raw materials or aromatic spirits with fruit and berry fruit drinks, sugar syrup, alcohol and water. Fortress: 18 to 24% alcohol and 1 to 25% sugar (g/dm³). Range: Rowan on cognac, Cherry Pepper.

Jeans - made from barley alcohol with the addition of juniper berries. Fortress up to 45%;

sugar is not added. Range: Beefater, Gulamore. Balms - strong alcoholic drinks (45-50% vol.) with high extractivity due to the use of essential oils, spice raw materials. Range: Riga Black Balsam, Siberian Moscow, Old Russian, etc.; imported - Bitner's balm and Swedish bitterness.

Punches - tonic alcoholic drinks that include five components - water, sugar, rum tea and lemon juice. Fortress they are not higher than 20%.

Aperitifs have a more or less pronounced taste of bitterness, since spicy-flavoring herbs, fruits and berries are used in their production. Fortress drinks from 15 to 45%.

Whiskey - an alcoholic drink with a strength of 45% vol. and higher, obtained by distillation of fermented wort from grain raw materials, followed by aging of alcohol in oak barrels with a charred inner surface. rum - a strong alcoholic drink (50-55% by volume), made from rum alcohol obtained from sugar cane molasses or cane molasses, and aged in oak barrels for four years.

By production technology cognacs are divided into ordinary, vintage и collectible. Ordinary cognac- 3-, 4-, 5-star (exposure of alcohol from three to five years). Vintage cognacs withstand from 6 to 50 years: KB (6-7 years), KVVK (8-10 years) and KS (10 years or more). Vintage cognacs aged for at least three years in oak barrels are considered collectible. Fortress from 40 to 57% vol

48. GRAPE WINES

grape wines - alcoholic beverages obtained by alcoholic fermentation of the juice of fresh or withered grapes and containing from 8 to 20% alcohol.

On the content of alcohol and sugar grape wines are divided into:

1.) natural - dry, dry special, semi-dry and semi-sweet;

2.) special - dry, strong, semi-desserny, dessert and liquor.

In natural wines, the alcohol content is from 9 to 16%; sugar content in dry no more than 3 g/dm³. semi-dry - 5-25 and semi-sweet - 30-80 g / dm³. In special wines, the alcohol content is 12-20%; Sugars - 15-30%.

Depending on quality and maturity wines are divided into young, unaged, aged, vintage and collection.

By Color All wines are divided into: white, pink, red.

Wine assortment

1.) natural wines; Riesling Abrau, Aligote, Rkatsiteli, Kuban semi-sweet, Khvanchkara, etc.

2.) special wines: ports - Tavrida Kizlyar, Massandra, Derbent; madera - Crimean Kuban; heresy - strong Crimean, dry strong, Moldova, Amber; muscats - Muscat white Livadia, Muscat black Massandra, Muscat pink dessert, Muscat amber, Muscat Bouquet of Dagestan; tokay wines - South Coast Tokay, Kara Chanakh, Gratieshty; kagor - South Coast, Shemakha, Chumay, Church, Easter; flavored wines (vermouth) - Extra, Mountain flower, Bouquet of Moldova, Morning dew; sparkling wine - Soviet champagne, Tsimlyanskoe sparkling wine, Donskoe sparkling wine, Muscat sparkling wine, Krasnodar sparkling wine, etc.

Quality strong alcoholic beverages and alcoholic beverages are evaluated in terms of consumer properties. From organoleptic indicators evaluate color, taste, aroma (or bouquet), transparency, absence of turbidity and sediment; from physico-chemical indicators determine the completeness of filling, the mass fraction of alcohol (fortress), sugar, harmful impurities, etc.

Vodka and liquor products are evaluated on a ten-point system (color and transparency; aroma, taste, overall score).

When establishing the quality of grape wines and cognacs, it is of particular importance organoleptic evaluation: transparency, color, taste, bouquet and typicality, mousse (sparkling wines). The assessment is carried out according to a ten-point system: taste - 5,0; aroma, bouquet - 3,0 transparency - 0,5; color - 0,5; typicality - 1,0: mousse - 1,0. Wine scoring: 10,0 - exceptionally high quality wine; 9,0 - almost perfect; 8 - excellent; 7 - good; 6 - average; 5 - defective.

49. CHARACTERISTICS OF TEA AND COFFEE

Tea composition: various organic and inorganic substances: tannins, nitrogenous and mineral substances, caffeine, essential oils, carbohydrates, vitamins, enzymes, organic acids, etc. Classification of tea according to the technology of preparation: long leaf tea (loose), pressed and extracted. Baihov tea the color is black, green, yellow and red (oolong). Black and green tea depending on the type of tea leaves subdivide into large, small and granular.

Green tea production technology raw materials are neither withered nor fermented, but are fixed with hot steam (to destroy enzymes). Yellow tea combines the best properties of black and green long leaf tea. To obtain yellow tea, the highest quality raw materials are used - young shoots, mainly tea leaf buds. Red tea (oolong) are made only in China. A distinctive feature is the color of the steamed sheet - red at the edges and greenish in the center.

Pressed tea divided into brick (green), tile (black and green) and tablet (black and green). Tea bags (single use) is made from black long leaf tea, packing it in 3 g bags of special non-soakable paper.

extracted tea - concentrated liquid or dry extracts of black or green tea. Extracted tea is made in the form of natural black tea concentrate and instant. Tea concentrate - syrupy liquid from tea extract, granulated sugar and lemon extract, containing at least 66% solids. including at least 60% sugar. instant tea obtained from black and green long leaf tea by extracting soluble substances with hot water, followed by drying. Released in powder form.

Tea substitutes are tea drinks. Obtained by blending crushed medicinal raw materials and wild fruits and berries.

Coffee - seeds (grains) of the fruits of the evergreen coffee plant of the genus Coffe. Chemical composition: raw coffee beans contain (in%): caffeine - 0,7-3; protein substances - 9-18; sugar - 8-12; fiber - up to 25; lipids - 8-13. Types of coffee entering the sale: raw natural in grains; natural roasted beans; natural roasted ground without additions and with additions (20% roasted ground chicory or roasted wine berries); instant coffee. Instant coffee - dried to a powdered extract of natural roasted coffee. The powder should dissolve in hot water within 30 seconds, in cold (20'C) - within 3 minutes. Coffee drinks - roasted and ground vegetable products (rye, barley, oats, soybeans, chicory, acorns), which, when boiled with water, produce a drink that tastes like natural coffee.

50. SPICES AND SPICES

Spices - taste products of plant origin, differ in their peculiar taste and aromatic properties. Composition: sinigrin glucoside (mustard), anisaldehyde and anise ketone (anise), piperine alkaloid (black pepper), vanillin (vanilla), cinnamaldehyde (cinnamon), etc.

Spice classification:

- Semen - mustard, nutmeg;

- fruit - anise, cumin, coriander, cardamom, pepper, vanilla, star anise;

- flowers and their parts - clove, saffron

- foliage - Bay leaf;

- kora - cinnamon;

- roots - ginger.

Storage conditions: spices must be stored in airtight packaging, as they are hygroscopic and may lose their taste and aroma.

Seasonings - flavoring products used to improve the palatability of prepared food - table salt and food acids.

Salt - almost pure (97-99,7%) crystalline sodium chloride, extracted from natural deposits and undergoing appropriate processing.

Salt application: a preservative for many food products - used for salting fish, meat, vegetables, in the production of cheeses, butter.

Effect of salt on the human body: sodium chloride is a part of many tissues and organs of the human body; normal metabolism in various tissues with the participation of blood is ensured. Salt maintains the osmotic pressure of the body fluid, affects the elasticity and irritability of the muscles. From the salt in the stomach, hydrochloric acid is produced, which is part of the gastric juice and is important for the digestive processes.

According to the way production and processing edible table salt is divided into rock, self-planting, garden and evaporation, with and without additives.

On - quality salt is divided into varieties: extra, superior, first and second.

Quality indicators: appearance, taste, color, smell, mass fraction of sodium chloride, content of calcium, magnesium, sulfate, iron oxide, moisture, pH of the solution. Storage: in dry warehouses with a relative humidity of no more than 75%.

food acids they are used as seasonings and as a preservative in the production of marinades, soft drinks, canned fish, confectionery, in cooking, etc. They use acetic, citric, malic, tartaric, and lactic acids. The most common is acetic acid. For retail trade, food vinegar and vinegar essence are produced.

51. CONFECTIONERY

confectionery - food products with a pleasant taste and aroma, beautiful appearance, high energy value and good digestibility.

Depending on the raw materials used and production technology confectionery products are divided into two groups: sugary and floury. sugary caramel, fruit and berry products, sweets, dragees, toffee, chocolate and chocolate products, halva, oriental sweets. Flour: cookies, gingerbread, crackers, waffles, cakes, pastries, rolls, muffins, etc.

Caramel - a type of confectionery, consisting of caramel mass with or without filling. AT depending on the recipe and method of preparation caramel is divided into candy, with fillings, milk (candy and with fillings), soft, semi-solid, fortified, medicinal.

Lollipop caramel produced in the form of bars or pads in a wrapper, tablets with a wrapper of several pieces in a tube, various figures, small products without wrappers.

Caramel with filling Available open and wrapped. Surface of open caramel depending on the method of protective treatment, they are divided into sprinkled, glossy, dragee-coated, glazed with chocolate or fat glaze. Varieties of caramel with fillings: fruit and berry; fondant; liqueur; dairy; honey; marzipan; walnut; cooling; crushed stuffing. AT depending on the number of toppings caramel is produced with one filling or two fillings and with a filling interlayered with caramel mass.

Fruit and berry confectionery products are made from sugar, fruit and berry puree, pectin, agar, molasses, egg whites, aromatic and coloring substances, food acids. This group of products includes jam, jam, jam, jelly, marmalade, marshmallow, candied fruit. Jam, jam and marmalade produced by boiling fruit and berry raw materials in sugar syrup to a certain consistency. Jam made sterilized and unsterilized. Povidlo - a product obtained by boiling fruit or fruit puree with sugar. The product is made from apple, plum, apricot, pear, cherry, quince puree, as well as from a mixture of fruit and berry puree; jam is not divided into commercial varieties. Jam - a product of whole or sliced \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbfruits and berries, boiled in sugar syrup until a jelly-like mass is obtained. Plums, apricots, peaches, apples, quince, strawberries, melons, etc. are used for production. Feature: the production of jam differs from jam by a single brew.

Confiture - a kind of jam-jelly in which whole and crushed unboiled fruits are evenly distributed

candied fruit - products from fruits, peels of watermelons and melons, boiled in sugar syrup, dried and sprinkled with fine sugar or glazed. Views: glazed fruits and fruits in sugar.

52. MARMELADE AND PASTILA

Marmalade - a product of a jelly-like consistency, made from fruit and berry puree or an aqueous solution of gelling agents (pectin, agar-agar, etc.), sugar and other components. Release two types of marmalade: fruit and berry and jelly.

fruit and berry marmalade is obtained by boiling puree, sugar, molasses with the addition of gelling agents.

Varieties depending on the raw materials used and the method of molding:

1. shaped (Apple, Berry)

2. carved (Apple carved),

3. reservoir (Plastovy apple and Plastovy fruit and berry)

4. stalemate (Apricot Pat, Almond Pat) Jelly marmalade is obtained by boiling sugar with an aqueous solution of pectin or agar, with the addition of organic acids, food colors and aromatics, but without the addition of puree from natural fruits and berries. Varieties:

1. shaped (Strawberries, Fruit set, Bananas).

2. carved (Orange and Lemon slices, three-layer);

3. curly (figures of animals, berries, fruits) Quality control: organoleptic (taste, smell.

color, texture, shape, surface) and physical and chemical parameters (humidity, total acidity, mass fraction of ash, sulfurous and benzoic acid). Best before from 15 days (by weight and packaged in boxes) up to 3 months. (marmalade fruit and berry layered).

lozenge - products prepared by churning a mixture of fruit and berry puree and sugar with egg white or other food foaming agent To fix the foamy consistency, the mass is mixed with hot gelling syrup (from sugar, molasses and agar), essence, acid are added and cast in the form of layers.

В dependence on the gelling base produce sticky and custard marshmallows. Used for glue paste pectin, agar and agaroid; for custard - marmalade mass.

Pasta assortment:

1. glue carved (White-pink, Plum)

2. custard carved (White-pink, Fruit and berry);

3. custard layer (Union);

4. marshmallow (White-pink, Apricot, Marshmallow in chocolate).

Quality indicators: taste, smell, color, texture, structure, shape, surface; the content of moisture, acidity, reducing substances, the mass fraction of ash, sulfurous and benzoic acid and the content of toxic elements (lead, mercury, arsenic) are normalized.

Shelf life: marshmallow and glue candy - 1 month; custard marshmallows in chocolate - 3 months.

53. CHOCOLATE AND COCOA POWDER

Chocolate and cocoa powder obtained from cocoa beans - the seeds of the fruit of a tropical cocoa tree. Cocoa beans contain (in%): proteins - 12-15, starch - 6-10, fat - 48-54, theobromine and caffeine alkaloids - 0,8-2,1 and 0,05-0,34, respectively.

Chocolate made from a mixture of grated cocoa, cocoa butter and powdered sugar without or with the addition of nuts, milk, coffee, vanillin, etc.

Feature: when consumed, chocolate, being a hard and brittle product, melts easily in the mouth, leaving no greasy taste characteristic of solid fats.

Impact on the human body: cocoa butter alkaloids excite the heart and nervous system of a person.

Types of chocolate depending on the recipe and technology:

1.) Plain chocolate without additives (Children's, Circus, Road, Vanilla) contains not less than 35% cocoa mass and not more than 63% sugar.

2.) Ordinary chocolate with additions (Alenka, Creamy, Nut, Theatrical) contains 20% cocoa mass, 55% sugar, nuts, milk, cocoa butter.

3.) Dessert chocolate without additives (Prima Golden Label, Lux, Sport) contains at least 45% cocoa mass and no more than 55% sugar. The increased content of cocoa mass gives a bitter aftertaste.

4.) Dessert chocolate с additions (Golden Anchor, Stolichny, Olympic, Mocha with milk) except for cocoa mass (30%) and sugar (55%) contains milk, nuts, roasted coffee powder, waffle crumbs, nuts.

5.) Aerated chocolate (Humpbacked Horse, Rocket, Slava) is obtained on the basis of dessert with aging of chocolate mass after molding in a vacuum chamber with simultaneous rapid cooling. Chocolate has a spongy structure, with a softer and more delicate taste.

6.) Chocolate с stuffing (Chocolate bars Shells, Bananas, Rachki) consists of a chocolate shell and filling, often nut, fruit-marmalade, chocolate-cream, etc.

Quality control: according to taste and smell, appearance, shape, consistency, structure, degree of grinding, filling mass fraction, ash content. Mass fractions of sugar, fat and moisture must be in accordance with the calculated content of the recipe. Terms of storage chocolate, depending on the type, range from 1 (white) to 6 months. (no additions).

Cocoa powder obtained from cocoa cake left after pressing cocoa butter. Used for making drinks, creams, lipsticks, pastry dough.

54. CANDIES

Candy - products made on a sugar basis with the addition of various types of raw materials, flavoring and flavoring substances are diverse in composition, shape, finish and taste. Basic operations in the production of sweets: preparation of candy masses, formation of cases, their finishing, wrapping and packaging.

Classification by manufacturing and finishing method: unglazed - without coating the case with glaze; glazed - completely or partially covered with glaze; chocolate with fillings of various shapes and relief patterns on the surface; in powdered sugar.

Candy surface can be sprinkled in whole or in part with sugar, cocoa powder, powdered sugar, nut or waffle crumbs, chocolate chips. By external design sweets are released wrapped; partially wrapped; not wrapped; in capsules or fillets, in cores made of polymeric and other materials; molded into foil or polymeric materials.

Unglazed sweets are made single-layer and puff. Single layer sweets by type of candy mass used divided into fondant, milk, marzipan, nutty. Puff sweets consist of several layers of candy mass with both chocolate layers and wafers.

Glazed sweets subdivided by types of glaze and candy masses into fondant; liqueur; fruit; whipped; praline - crushed mass of roasted nuts, seeds, fat, sugar, milk, honey, cocoa products; sweets with nut shells and wafers; marzipan grilled; cream.

Warranty periods of storage sweets depend on their composition and properties. Candies glazed with chocolate icing are stored for a long time - 4 months, fudge and toffee - 3-5 days.

Iris - a kind of milk candy. It is produced by boiling sugar and molasses on milk or dairy products, as well as on products containing proteins (nut kernels, peanuts, soybeans), with the addition of fats, with and without the introduction of a gelatinous mass. AT depending on way making iris paste iris is divided into cast and replicated; depending on the structure and consistency, poured semi-solid, replicated semi-solid, soft and viscous.

dragee - confectionery products of rounded shape, small sizes with a shiny surface. They are obtained by knurling the body with powdered sugar or cocoa powder, followed by glossing. Case options: from candy masses, nuts, raisins, fruits, berries, etc. Depending on this, dragees are divided into liquor, jelly, jelly-fruit, fondant, sugar, caramel, sound, marzipan, whipped, candied fruits.

Case cover options: powdered sugar; powdered sugar with various additives; icing sugar, followed by sprinkling with granulated sugar; chocolate icing; crispy crust, resulting from the crystallization of sucrose watering syrup.

55. FLOUR CONFECTIONERY

Flour confectionery - product group. in which one of the main components is flour. In addition to flour, the composition includes sugar, fats, egg products, milk, salt, a variety of flavors, baking powder, etc.

Biscuit made from wheat flour, sugar, fat, egg and dairy products, flavoring agents and baking powder. AT depending on the recipe and manufacturing methods cookies are divided into sugar, lingering, rich. butter cookies are divided into sand-removable, sand-jigged, whipped, croutons, nut. sugar cookies are made from crumbly, with mild gluten properties; it is brittle, swellable and porous. Protracted cookies are made from elastic-elastic dough. It has a layered structure, less brittleness and swelling than sugar. Biscuits - flat products of rectangular and square shape intended for consumption instead of bread. They have a peculiar appearance, specific taste and aroma, well-developed porosity. They are made using yeast from elastic plastic dough or yeast and chemical baking powder.

cracker (dry biscuits) differs from biscuits in high fat content, brittleness and layering. Depending on the method of preparation and prescription composition cracker is divided into two groups first - on yeast or on yeast and chemical leavening agents; second - on chemical baking powder without yeast. Gingerbread - flour confectionery products of spicy-sweet taste from wheat or rye-wheat flour with the addition of sugar, chemical baking powder and various spices. They are distinguished by a higher content of sugar and water by the presence of spices. Depending on the cooking method gingerbread products are divided into custard - with custard flour; raw - without custard flour. raw gingerbread (Mint, Vanilla, Tula, etc.) are made from flour, sugar, chemical baking powder and other components of the recipe, mixed with water or cold sugar solution. custard gingerbread is kneaded on hot sugar syrup. Raw white gingerbread; custard - dark in color, more fragrant, as they are prepared with the addition of honey. IN depending on the shape of the product and the availability in them, the fillings are divided into gingerbread cookies of various shapes without filling; gingerbreads of various shapes with filling; gingerbread - in the form of rectangular layers with or without filling or cut into pieces. By type of surface Gingerbreads are divided into glazed and unglazed. Wafers - light porous products with or without filling. Raw materials for waffle production - wheat flour, eggs, sugar, fat, baking powder, flavoring and aromatic additives, fillings. AT recipe dependent waffles are produced with and without filling; they are rectangular, round, figured. Filling types: fondant, fruity, nutty.

56. CAKES, CAKES, HALVA, ORIENTAL SWEETS

Cakes and pastries - high-calorie confectionery products, differing in variety in assortment and external finish. Composition: flour, sugar, fat, eggs, fruits, nuts, chocolate and other raw materials.

According to the method of preparation and the raw materials used, cakes and pastries are divided into groups: biscuit, shortbread, puff, almond-nut, waffle-praline, air, custard, baskets, sugar, crumb. The production of these products consists of the baking of semi-finished products, the preparation of individual materials and the finishing of semi-finished products.

Used for cakes and pastries biscuit sand, puff, almond-nut and wafer masses; just for cakes - crumbly, airy, custard (like eclair) and sugar masses, as well as baskets. Quality indicators - shape, surface, taste and smell, humidity, fat and sugar content. Warranty period of storage from 6 hours (products with custard) to 10-30 days. (waffle cakes).

Cupcakes - rich products, with the addition of raisins, nuts, almonds, candied fruits. Depending on the cooking method they are subdivided on: made with yeast; on chemical baking powder; without chemical leavening agents and yeast.

Rolls - folded layers of baked semi-finished product, layered with a variety of fillings.

Halva - a highly nutritious product containing a lot of sugar, fat and proteins.

Halva is made by kneading the caramel mass, whipped with a foaming agent, and crushed fried kernels of oil seeds or nuts.

В depending on the oil-containing cores used halva is divided into: sesame (tahini); peanut; walnut; sunflower; combined (a mixture of two or more seeds or nuts). For finishing: unglazed and glazed.

Eastern sweets made from flour, sugar and fat; use fruit preparations, starch, nuts, almonds, sesame, poppy, ginger, cardamom, vanillin, etc. Feature of oriental sweets caramel mass is covered with flour; some products contain a large amount of starch (Turkish Lakum).

В depending on the raw materials used and consistency Oriental sweets are divided into three groups:

1. Oriental sweets such as caramel (kozinaki roasted peanuts in sugar, grillage, poppy seeds with nuts);

2. Oriental sweets such as soft candies (milk sherbet, Turkish lakum, raisin nougat);

3. oriental flour products (baklava, Armenian homemade bread, etc.).

57. CLASSIFICATION OF MEAT. MEAT BRANDING

Meat - all parts of the carcass of an animal after removal of the skin, separation of the head, limbs and internal organs. The meat tissue complex consists of muscle, connective, adipose, bone, as well as nervous, cartilaginous and lymphatic tissues.

Meat subdivide by type, sex, age, fatness and quality, thermal state.

By type of slaughtered animals: meat of cattle, sheep, pigs and minor animal species (goats, horses, deer, rabbits). By thermal state: fresh, cooled, chilled, frozen, frostbitten meat. beef meat enters the sale in the form of longitudinal half-carcasses or quarters. By fatness - beef of the first category and beef of the second category.

pork meat happens in carcasses and half carcasses.

Features:

- pork carcasses and half carcasses of the first, second, third and fourth categories are released without the head of the legs, internal organs;

- pork of the fifth category - whole carcasses, with head and legs, without internal organs.

Lamb and goat meat enters the sale of whole carcasses, with tails (with the exception of fat-tailed sheep), separated legs, with the presence of kidneys and perirenal fat inside the carcasses.

By fatness lamb and goat subdivide for the first and second categories.

Stamp - a sign confirming that the veterinary sanitary examination of meat has been completed in full and the product is produced for food purposes without restriction.

Meat sent for processing or for sale in markets under the control of the State Veterinary Service is stigmatized rectangular stamp "preliminary inspection". Trade and public catering enterprises are allowed to accept, process and sell meat only from oval-shaped veterinary stamp and accompanied by a veterinary certificate (certificate).

Oval veterinary stamp - a sign with three pairs of numbers in the center: first - serial number of the area; second - number of the district (city); third - serial number of the organization.

Place of branding and stamping: meat carcasses and half carcasses branded in the area of the shoulder blade and thigh; poultry meat - on the neck or outer side of the thigh; offal - arbitrarily.

Forms and sizes of stamps: round (d 40 mm) square (side 40 mm), oval (d, 50 mm d, 40 mm), triangular (sides 45, 50, 50 mm), rhombus (sides 40 mm, height 70 mm).

Cattle marking: B - the highest fatness; C - average; N - below average. Pork marking: bacon - I category (circle); meat - young animals, gilts, trimmed - II category (square); fatty - III category (oval); for industrial processing - IV category (triangle); milk piglets - V category (M in a circle); non-compliant by indicators of quality categories (rhombus).

58. PACKAGED MEAT AND OFFAL. MEAT EXPORT

packaged meat they are produced in portions with a net weight of 500 and 1000 g with the presence of no more than two weights in a portion (20% of the total mass).

Depending on the type and category, packaged meat is divided into commercial grades:

- beef of I and II categories - 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade;

- veal I and II categories - 1st, 2nd and 3rd;

- lamb and goat meat of I and II categories - 1st and 2nd;

- Pork I and II categories - 1st and 2nd grade. Best before packaged meat at a temperature of 2 to 6'C - no more than 36 hours.

Offal - secondary products of livestock slaughter, subdivided according to the type of livestock, nutritional value and thermal state.

By nutritional value two categories

I - tongue, liver, kidneys, brains, heart, udder, beef and mutton tails;

II - head without tongue, lung, legs, lips, spleen, throat, stomach and pig ears.

Offal yield:

- in cattle - 24%.

- sheep - 20,

- in pigs - 17%.

Thermal classification

1.) cooled - after slaughter at least 6 hours

2.) chilled;

3.) ice cream.

Quality control: determined by the degree of freshness, thoroughness of processing, organoleptic indicators. Frozen offal should retain its natural shape without freezing - the tongues are elongated, the liver is in the form of a block.

Shelf life in the trading network

- chilled offal should be stored up to 1,5 days,

- frozen - no more than 3 days.

Export of meat - the process of preparing and supplying meat and meat products to foreign countries. Russia exports beef and pork meat. Before shipping, the meat must go through a series of mandatory procedures.

Export of beef

1. Meat according to fatness is divided into grade A and grade B.

2. The number of forequarters and hindquarters during loading must be equal, and the weight of the quarter must be at least 40 kg.

3. Each quarter must have a stamp with the name of the country, the number of the enterprise, the mark "veterinary inspection" and the grade: A - "EA" and B - "EB".

Pork export

1. Pork in half carcasses is produced from raw materials of the following fatness: bacon pork, meat pork, fatty pork.

2. Pork is released in the skin, without a head, legs. tail, internal organs and internal fat.

3. Half carcass weight - not less than 28 kg.

Each half carcass must have a stamp with the designation of fatness: bacon - "E-1", meat - "E-2", fatty - "E-3".

59. POULTRY AND GAME MEAT

Classification: by type, age and fatness, method and quality of technological processing of carcasses and their thermal state.

By type of bird distinguish the meat of chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, guinea fowl.

On age - young meat (carcasses of chickens, ducklings, goslings, turkey poults and caesarlings) and adult poultry. The mass of a half-gutted carcass should be (in g, not less than): chickens - 480, broilers - 640, ducklings - 1040, goslings - 1580, turkey poults - 1620, cesareans - 480.

On processing method birds distinguish between carcasses

1.) half gutted - with removed intestines and non-separated head and limbs;

2.) gutted - Carcasses with internal organs, head, legs and wings removed up to the elbow joint.

By thermal state: chilled, chilled and frozen.

According to fatness and quality of processing divided into two categories: I and II.

Muscular tissue of carcasses I category well developed and II category - satisfactory.

Packaging and labeling: carcasses of all birds are sold either packed in paper or plastic bags, or without packaging

Marking carcasses commit electrostamp on the lower leg (with category designation) or use sticking on one leg paper label: pink - for category I, green - for category II.

Designations on the container: C - chickens, K - CB chickens - broiler chickens, U - ducks, G - geese, I - turkeys, C - guinea fowls, UM - ducklings, GM - goslings, IM - turkey poults, CM - caesarings. According to the processing method: E - semi gutted, EE - gutted, R - gutted with giblets and neck, F - packaged. Bird giblets include the heart, stomach, liver, neck, wings, and legs.

Terms of storage chilled and frozen poultry: at a temperature of 0-2 "C - no more than 5 days, at O-6" C - no more than 3; at 6-8 "C - no more than 1-2 days.

Varieties of feathered game:

1.) upland (forest) - capercaillie, black grouse, hazel grouse, white partridges, pheasants, etc.;

2.) mountain - mountain partridges, mountain turkeys;

3.) steppe - gray partridges, quail;

4.) waterfowl - geese, ducks;

5.) marsh - sandpipers, snipes.

Forest game, as well as mountain and steppe partridges are of commercial importance.

Meat of feathered game differs from homemade in a darker color and dense texture, contains more proteins (23-25%) and less fat (1-2%), has a peculiar pleasant taste and aroma, is mainly used for frying.

Two commercial varieties of game 1 and 2

The game goes on sale unplucked with the intestines removed. Symbols on the container: G - capercaillie, P - hazel grouse, T - black grouse, F - pheasants, etc. Storage conditions in the trading network: at a temperature below O'C - no more than 5 days, at 0-6'C - no more than 3, at a temperature above 8'C - no more than 2 days.

60. SAUSAGE PRODUCTS

Sausages - products made from minced meat with or without a casing and heat treated until ready for consumption. Classification of sausages:

• by type of meat: beef, pork, sheep, horse, camel and other animals; from poultry meat; beef, lamb, horse mixed with pork and bacon.

' depending on heat treatment: boiled, semi-smoked, smoked.

' according to the composition of raw materials:

1.) meat - boiled, stuffed sausages sausages and sausages, meat loaves, half-smoked and smoked (raw-smoked and boiled-smoked) sausages; 2.) offal - liver sausages, pates, brawns and jelly;

3.) blood sausages

' according to the view (drawing) on the section:

1.) structureless - with homogeneous minced meat;

2.) structural - with a characteristic pattern formed by pieces of bacon, tongue, coarsely chopped muscle and adipose tissue.

Raw materials for sausages

1. basic - beef, pork, bacon;

2. optional - milk, eggs, butter, cream, onion, garlic, wine, smoking liquids, starch, phosphates, ascorbic acid, protein supplements.

Varieties of sausage casings: natural - intestines, blisters, esophagus; artificial - protein, polymer, cellophane, viscose, parchment, etc.

Application of additives: sodium nitrite - for color, phenols (E230-E232) - preservatives to suppress mold microflora.

Boiled sausages made from a mixture of beef and pork meat of young animals. Roasting is performed at 60-120'C for 1-3 hours, cooking - at 75-87'C for 0,5-3 hours.

Stuffed sausages have a pattern on the cut - layers of bacon, boiled blood, tongues and other products laid in a certain order. meat loaves - minced sausage baked in molds, wrapped in paper or cellophane, weighing from 0,5 to 3 kg. Sausages and sausages - products made from finely ground minced meat. Dimensions: loaves sausages have diameter 14-32 mm and long 12-13 cm, sausage - diameter 32-44 mm and length 7-9 see Semi-smoked sausages - sausages roasted at 60-90'C for 20-60 minutes, boiled at 70-80'C for 25-60 minutes, smoked at 35-50'C for 12-24 hours, cooled and dried . Raw smoked sausages - sausages subjected to long-term ripening (8-10 days), cold smoking at 18-22'C for 2-5 days. and drying at 12-15'C up to 1,5 months. Cooked smoked sausages subjected to smoking (roasting), boiling, secondary smoking and drying. Liver sausages and pâtés - products made from cooked offal, turned into finely ground minced meat, which creates a paste-like consistency. Zeltsy and jellies - products containing a large amount of gelling agents, which give the product a dense texture.

61. SMOKED MEAT PRODUCTS

Salted and smoked meat products - parts of animal carcasses that have been salted and smoked, boiled, smoked and boiled, baked or smoked.

Varieties:

1.) by type of meat: meat smoked pork, beef, lamb.

2.) according to the method of technological processing: boiled, smoked-boiled, raw-smoked, smoked-baked, baked, salted.

3.) depending on the part of the carcass used and the method of processing: hams, rolls, various smoked meats.

Manufacturing process

ham prepared from the hip and humeroscapular parts of half carcasses. They are produced by all types of heat treatment, with or without skin; the bones are partially left.

Rolls made from salted hams with the bones removed. The meat is rolled up, tied with twine and subjected to heat treatment. Loin made from the dorsal part of pork half carcasses. Brisket - from the abdominal part of half carcasses with ribs Boiled ham in the shell is made from pieces of pork pulp weighing up to 400 g, with a fat content of up to 35%. Bouzhenin prepared from unsalted hindquarters with the skin and bones removed. Carbonate they are produced in the same way, but from the dorsal or lumbar muscle.

Boiled pork products produce the following varieties and names: first class - roll Leningrad and Rostov; ham Tambov, Voronezh and fat-free; pressed pork; ham in the shell, for breakfast, in the form; 1st sort - pressed bacon, 2nd - pressed pork head meat. Smoked-boiled pork products: the highest grade - Rostov roll; ham Tambov, Voronezh and fat-free loin; brisket; pork balyk in a casing; 2nd sort - cheek (tanks). Raw smoked pork products: the highest grade - loin, Tambov ham, brisket, bacon, ham neck, sirloin in a casing; 2nd sort - pork ribs; 3rd - shank (forearm) and shank (thigh).

Manufacturing features:

1.) Smoked-baked pork products are made only of the highest grade: ham ham, roll, loin, brisket, metropolitan and amateur bacon, pastrami.

2.) Baked and fried pork products are also produced only in the highest grade: boiled ham baked, fried; carbonate baked, fried; neck baked.

Smoked meats and large-sized beef products: back ham roll, brisket roll, smoked beef, smoked tongue, bacon tongue. Lamb products: ham, roll, brisket, shish kebab in a shell, kaurma.

Storage conditions and terms: boiled products at a temperature from 0 to 8' C - no more than 4 days; ham in the shell - no more than 72 hours; vacuum-packed cooked foods store no more than 6 days., smoked-boiled - no more than 5 days; raw smoked at a temperature of 0 to 4 "C for no more than 30 days.

62. CANNED AND SEMI-FINISHED MEAT

Canned meat - products from meat and meat products or in combination with other food products, hermetically sealed and sterilized. They have a high nutritional value and can be stored for a long time without loss of quality. Classification of canned meat:

- by type of raw material - for meat (from meat of animals and poultry), from offal, from meat products, meat and vegetable, lard and legumes;

- by type of container - in metal containers and glass jars;

- according to the mode of heat treatment - sterilized and pasteurized;

- by appointment - snack bars, lunch, for children's and diet food.

Canned meat and vegetable produced from all types of meat and minced meat with the addition of vegetable raw materials in the amount of 80% by weight of canned food. Varieties: meat and legumes, meat and cereals, meat and pasta, meat and vegetables. Salo-bean canned food made from peas or beans with the addition of lard, broth.

Canned food for baby food prepared from high quality raw materials only in crushed form. Varieties: homogenized, puree-like, meat and vegetable puree soups; meat and vegetable meals.

Meat labeling.

Consumer packaging (cans) must be artistically designed by lithography or gluing paper labels indicating the following data:

1. name and location of the manufacturer; its subordination and trademark;

2. name of canned food;

3. variety (if there are varieties)

4. net weight;

5. designation of regulatory and technical documentation (NTD) for products;

6. the main composition of canned food (for example, beef, fat, onions, spices);

7. informational information about the nutritional and energy value of canned food;

8. shelf life from the date of production; storage conditions; production date (for glass jars).

9. On the labels of children's and dietary canned food must be the inscription "Approved by the Ministry of Health of Russia." On the lids of the cans are applied by the method of relief marking or indelible paint: the date (day, month, year) of the production of canned food, the shift number, the manufacturer's number.

Meat semi-finished products - products from natural and minced meat and offal without heat treatment.

Classification of semi-finished meat products: by type of raw material: beef, pork, lamb, poultry meat; from offal; processing method: natural, breaded, chopped, minced meat, dumplings; thermal state: chilled; frozen. Assortment of semi-finished products: portioned - beef steak, rump steak, langet, chop cutlet, barbecue, chop schnitzel; meat and lumpy - goulash, azu, stew, beef stroganoff, frying, soup set.

63. QUALITY OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS

Quality meat and meat products limitation

standards: state standards of the Russian Federation and interstate standards

Quality control: depending on the species, it is evaluated only according to special organoleptic or organoleptic and physico-chemical indicators.

Pork meat quality in carcasses and half carcasses rate according to GOST 7724-77, which provides for a detailed description of five categories of meat; carcass weight in paired state (kg); the thickness of the fat above the spinous processes between the 6th and 7th dorsal vertebrae, not counting the thickness of the hide. Evaluated the quality of carcass processing, the presence of ice and snow on them; the residual amount of pesticides is normalized, antibiotics and hormonal preparations are not allowed.

Evaluation of the quality of canned meat "Pork stew" carried out according to GOST 697-84. Quality these canned food define on organoleptic and physico-chemical indicators: smell and taste; appearance of meat juice; appearance and texture of meat; mass fraction of meat and fat (%, not less); mass fraction of fat (%, no more); mass fraction of table salt (%); mass fraction of tin salts (%, not more); mass fraction of lead salts (%, not more); foreign impurities.

According to bacteriological indicators canned food must comply with the requirements of sanitary and technical control. The jar label should indicate: "Warm up before use", composition, information about the nutritional and energy value of 100 g of the product (fat, protein, calories).

Evaluation of the quality of cooked pork products (ham, roll, ham, bacon, etc.). Must meet the requirements for organoleptic and physico-chemical indicators (GOST 18236-85): appearance; the form; consistency; sectional view; smell and taste; thickness of the subcutaneous layer of bacon with a straight cut (cm, no more); mass of a unit of the finished product (kg, no more); mass fraction of table salt (%, no more); mass fraction of nitrite (%, no more); residual activity of acid phosphatase (%, not more).

The content of toxic elements, aflatoxin B_v nitrosamines, hormonal drugs and pesticides should not exceed the permissible levels, established by biomedical requirements and sanitary standards.

64. CLASSIFICATION OF COMMERCIAL FISH

Commercial fish are classified by species and families.

View - a set of individuals occupying a certain geographical area and possessing some specific traits that are inherited. AT family fish that have common features are combined: body shape, type of scales, skeleton.

Sturgeon family: sturgeon, stellate sturgeon, sterlet, beluga. Common features: the fusiform body of the scales is absent. The color of caviar is from light gray to black. The meat is fatty, has high nutritional and taste properties.

Salmon family: salmon - salmon; Far Eastern salmon - pink salmon, chum salmon, red salmon, nelma; whitefish - different whitefish, trout; lenok. General features - elongated body, dense scales. The color of the meat is from pink to red.

Herring family: herring proper - Atlantic, Azov-Black Sea, White Sea Caspian and Pacific; sardines - actually sardines; small herring - herring, Baltic sprat and kilka. General features - elongated body, silvery scales.

Anchovy family: anchovy from the Azov-Black Sea and anchovy from the Far East. Common features: cigar-shaped body, very large mouth. The meat is fatty, ripens with salting.

Smelt family: capelin, smelt, smelt General features - according to the structure of the body and adipose fin, they are similar to salmon; scales thin Carp family: vobla, carp, bream, tench, carp, silver carp. General features - the body is high, the back is thickened, the scales are smooth. The meat is bony, tender, medium fat.

Cod family: actually cod - Atlantic cod with subspecies, navaga, pollock, blue whiting; hake hake subfamily - silver hake, hake; subfamily of burbots - freshwater and marine burbots.

The scad family: horse mackerel oceanic Azov-Black Sea, vomer - moonfish, etc. General features - body flattened laterally, with two dorsal fins. Meat of medium fat content, ripens when salted.

Mackerel family: Atlantic, Pacific. General features - the body is spindle-shaped, covered with small scales. Meat of medium fat content ripens when salted.

flounder family: flounder Far East, North Sea, halibut and sea tongue. General features - the body is flat, wide, both eyes are on the same side of the body. Meat of good taste, fatty.

Tuna family: bluefin, bigeye, striped and mackerel tuna. General features - large fish with a strong flattened spindle-shaped body. The meat is tender, fatty and tasty.

perch family: perch, pike perch, ruff, etc. General features - the body is normal, covered with small densely set scales. The meat is lean, bony.

65. TECHNOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF FISH PRODUCTS

Technological classification fish and fish products: live fish, chilled, frozen salted, marinated, dried, dried, smoked canned and preserved fish, fish semi-finished products and culinary products, caviar; non-fish food products of the sea.

Live fish are subdivided on the pond and lake-river. pond fish bred and grown in fish farms. Main types: cyprinids (carp of various breeds), silver carp, bester, trout, oster, catfish, buffalo. lake and river fish (carp, catfish, crucian carp, pike, sturgeon, etc.) hunt in natural reservoirs and reservoirs.

Live fish quality indicators: fish condition; appearance and condition of the outer cover; gill color; eye condition; smell.

Quality fish should show signs of life: normal movement of the operculum, swim upside down.

fish surface should be clean, natural coloring, inherent in this type of fish, with a thin layer of mucus. In scaly fish, the scales are shiny, tightly fitting to the body.

gill color - red, eyes bright, bulging, without damage; smell - characteristic of live fish.

Farmed fish must correspond to a certain length and weight. In a batch, no more than 5% of fish that do not correspond in weight and length are allowed.

Transportation: by special road transport should not exceed 8-12 hours (depending on the type); live sea fish in live fish wagons - no more than 2 days.

Storage: live fish in the trading network should be stored in tanks with aeration and running water.

Cooling process: cooling of the fish is carried out with ice or snow to a temperature in the thickness of the muscles from -1 to 5'C. Feature: to lengthen the shelf life, antibiotics or antiseptics (biomycin, benzoic acid, etc.) are added to the ice.

By type of cut chilled fish subdivide to:

1.) undivided - whole fish;

2.) gutted with head;

3.) gutted decapitated.

Chilled fish quality indicators: appearance and cutting (interrelated with the type of fish); consistency (should be dense, slightly weakened, but not flabby in the places of sale); smell (typical for fresh fish of this species).

packaging Features

- chilled fish is packed in containers (boxes, barrels) with ice;

- the mass fraction of ice must be at least 50% in relation to the mass of fish

- each packaging unit must contain fish of the same name, type of cutting, one size group.

Storage: at temperatures from 0 to -2'C. Shelf life: large fish - 10-12 days, small fish - 7-9 days.

66. FROZEN FISH

Ways to freeze fish: dry; by artificial and natural methods individually, in bulk or in blocks (no more than 12 kg). maybe ice-salt non-contact и contact freezing fish in the absence of freezing capacities at the enterprises, as well as during the period of mass receipt of fish.

Temperature conditions

- the temperature in the body of the fish or the thickness of the block should be no higher than -18'C with dry artificial freezing;

- not higher than -10'C at natural

- not higher than -6'C at ice-salt freezing. Types of frozen fish: glazed or unglazed

zirovanny.

Glaze - a layer of ice crust, evenly covering the surface of frozen fish. Feature: salmon, sturgeon, whitefish, salmon, nelma, mackerel are made only in glazed form.

For industrial processing processing of frozen fish with an aqueous solution of polyvinyl alcohol is possible (PVS). The PVA protective coating should be in the form of an elastic film that evenly and tightly fits the surface of the frozen fish.

Frozen fish is distinguished length or weight in accordance with the requirements of GOST 1368-91

Frozen fish by type of cutting: undivided headless; gutted with head; gutted decapitated; piece - gutted decapitated fish with a removed tail fin, cut into pieces weighing at least 0,5 kg; back - fish, in which the abdominal part with the head removed.

By quality frozen fish is divided into two grades - the first and second.

Quality indicators of frozen fish: appearance (after defrosting); cutting; consistency (after defrosting); smell (after defrosting or cooking).

Types of packaging frozen fish: plank boxes (40 kg); corrugated cardboard boxes (40 kg); packaging fabrics, flax-jute-kenaf bags, baskets, boxes, etc.

Transportation: in refrigerated wagons (from -9 to -12'C); in cars (not higher than -9'C).

Shelf life of frozen fish:

1. fish of dry artificial and natural freezing stored at a temperature not higher than -18'C: glazed: sturgeon, pink salmon, char - no more than 7 months; salmon Baltic undivided - no more than 4; codfish, flounders, halibuts, cut and undivided sea perches - no more than 6 months_:

2. fish treated with an aqueous solution of PVA sturgeon - no more than 12 months; cut pink salmon - no more than 10 months. etc.

3. in the trading network frozen fish is stored without cooling for no more than one day, at a temperature of about 3'C - 5, and at -14'C - XNUMX days.

67. SALTING FISH

Salting fish - a complex of biochemical processes, in which the product gradually loses the signs of raw fish and acquires new properties - a pleasant taste and aroma, juicy and tender texture, the meat is easily separated from the bones, the fat is evenly distributed in the tissues.

Types of fish used in salting: herring, salmon, whitefish, mackerel, etc.

Classification by types of cutting: undivided; chilly (part of the viscera and pectoral fins with the adjoining part of the abdomen are removed); gilled (gills or gills and part of the entrails removed); gutted with head; gutted headless; headless; gutted salmon cut (cut along the abdomen with two longitudinal incisions); half-layer (cut along the back along the spine from the right eye to the caudal fin); layer with a head (cut along the back along the spine from the head to the caudal fin); decapitated layer; back; a piece (headless fish, cut into pieces at least 10 cm long); slices (cut into slices with a thickness of 0,5 to 1,5 cm); tesha (belly of fish).

Ambassador types:

1.) Dry salting - the fish is rolled in salt, put in a container and sprinkled with salt; used for small lean and low-fat large fish.

2.) Wet Ambassador - the fish is placed in a container and poured with a salt solution; used to obtain lightly salted fish and salted semi-finished products

3.) Mixed Ambassador - the fish is sprinkled with salt and poured with brine; get fish of moderate salinity, good quality.

By mass fraction of table salt fish in meat

subdivided into group: slightly salted - 6-10% salt; medium salted - from 10 to fourteen%; strongly salted - over 14% salt.

Types of salting, depending on temperature conditions: warm (10-15'C), chilled (0-7'C); cold (-2 ... -4'C).

Types of salting according to the composition of the curing mixture: simple - only salt is used; sweet - in addition to salt, sugar is introduced to improve the taste and consistency; spicy - use salt, sugar and a mixture of spices; marinated - the fish is processed in a vinegar-salt solution with the addition of sugar and spices.

Salted fish quality indicators: appearance; damage; cutting; consistency; taste and smell; mass fraction (%) of table salt.

Types of packaging:

1. wooden jellied and dry barrels with a capacity of not more than 150 dm³, and for fish with a length of more than 50 cm - with a capacity of not more than 250 dm³;

2. wooden boxes maximum product weight of 30 kg, and for fish over 50 cm long - maximum product weight of 70 kg;

3. film bags product weight up to 1 kg;

4. by the piece weighing one specimen of fish no more than 2 kg with their packing in corrugated cardboard boxes with a product weight of up to 20 kg.

68. SMOKED, DRIED, DRIED FISH

Smoking - a canning method that allows you to get completely new, ready-to-eat products with high taste properties Three smoking methods:

1. smoke - with the help of smoke of special types of wood;

2. wet (smokeless) - using liquid smoke;

3. combined - using both smoke and wet smoking methods.

Types of smoking: natural, artificial (electrosmoking, using high-frequency currents and infrared rays), combined.

Depending on the temperature regime: cold (not higher than 40'С); hotter (80-180'C)

Cold smoked fish is subdivided by length or weight for each specific type of fish and the method of cutting them.

By cutting method cold-smoked fish can be uncut, gutted with a head, decapitated, gutted decapitated, back, tesha, side piece - a piece, back fillet, etc.

Depending on the quality indicators cold smoked fish is divided into two varieties - the first and second.

Packaging: plank boxes (25 kg), corrugated cardboard boxes or woven veneer boxes (25 kg), cardboard packs (1 kg), film pickets (1 kg), metal pickets (353 cm³) or glass jars (350 cm³) and etc. Shelf life: at a temperature from 0 to -5'С no more than 2 months.

Hot smoked fish formed by length or weight, depending on the type of fish and the method of cutting.

On cutting method subdivided into undivided, gutted with head, headless, gutted headless, gilled, piece, fillet and fillet-piece, roll, back, layer.

Terms of storage and implementation: at a temperature of 2 to -2 C for 72 hours; at a temperature of 2 to 6'C for 48 hours.

Drying - slow dehydration of salted fish in the open air or in special chambers, as a result, the gradual salting and maturation of the fish takes place and it acquires a specific taste, color, aroma and texture.

Natural curing perform in the open air at a temperature of 10-20'C in dry weather; drying time depends on the size of the fish and ranges from 2 to 3 days.

Artificial drying first, they are carried out with heated air for 5 days, after which they are dried in natural conditions for 7-10 days.

Drying - deep dehydration of fish without maturation process. Varieties of drying: natural way (at a temperature not higher than 40'C), in special dryers (at a temperature of 80'C and above); freeze drying method.

69. CANNED FISH, PRESERVES, SEMI-FINISHED FOOD

Canned fish and preserves - ready-to-eat and shelf-stable fish products in sealed containers.

В depending on the raw materials used and production technology canned fish are classified into groups:

- natural canned fish

- canned fish in tomato sauce;

- canned fish in oil;

- canned fish - vegetable;

- canned fish in marinade;

- fish pastes and pastes.

Preserves - are not subjected to sterilization and are produced from fish that ripens during salting.

Types of preserves:

1.) from uncut fish spicy salting or special jar salting;

2.) from cut fish.

The quality of canned fish determined by the external and internal condition of the jars and the quality of the contents.

Marking: metal cans label stamping method symbols in three rows:

- first - day month Year;

- second - assortment sign (up to three digits or letters, plant number);

- third - shift number and industry index (P).

Terms and conditions of storage: at a temperature of -5'C and a relative humidity of 75%.

Fish semi-finished products - chilled or frozen products fully prepared for heat treatment.

Assortment of fish semi-finished products: frozen fish fillet; frozen fish mince; fish of special cutting; soup sets; fish dumplings; fish cakes, etc.

Caviar - a product of reproduction, formed in the organ of female fish - the yastik. It has a high biological, energy and taste value

Caviar color: у sturgeons fish color from light gray to black, salmon - orange-red other - mostly greyish-yellow.

Caviar sizes: most a large - salmon caviar (4-7 mm), smaller sturgeon caviar (2-5 mm), smallest - in partial fish (1-1,5 mm).

Classification by processing method: granular, pressed, oval, punched, etc.

Granular caviar - the most valuable and widespread. Pressed caviar - made from fresh caviar with a weak shell; it is salted, pressed and tightly packed. Yastik caviar - from fresh or frozen yastiks; it is salted, dried, dried, smoked. Breakthrough caviar - obtained from other fish (cod, herring, partial fish).

Grades: sturgeon caviar is produced in the highest first and second grade; salmon caviar - first and second grade. Storage conditions: at a temperature of +2 ... -8'C from 2 to 12 months.

70. NON-FISH SEA FOOD

Non-fish food products of the sea are divided into:

- crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, lobsters, shrimps, crayfish),

- bivalve molluscs (oysters, mussels, scallop)

- cephalopods (squid, octopus).

- echinoderms (trepangs, sea urchins, cucumaria);

- gastropods (trumpeter, rapana, abalone).

Nutritional value: meat contains all the essential amino acids, a variety of trace elements, vitamins.

Sea cucumber meat (sea cucumber) contains valuable minerals (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, etc.) thousands of times more than in ordinary meat.

Squids - length of the animal (without tentacles) from 14 to cm (weight from 40 to 600 g).

nutritional value the squid have a mantle and tentacles. Proteins of squid meat contain a full range of essential amino acids.

Octopus consists of a head, eight long tentacles and a large oval body. The length of industrial octopuses is up to 1,4 m, weight is from 30 to 40 kg. Octopus meat resembles squid maso, but tastier.

The main commercial food commodity groups of marine bivalve mollusks - Oysters mussels and scallop.

The most famous is the Black Sea oyster; its live weight reaches 80 g, and the mass of meat - 8 g.

У mussels the whole body, enclosed between the shells, and the liquid are edible.

The nutritional value: the meat of live oysters contains very active enzymes, rich in valuable microelements. Mussel fat contains a lot of polyunsaturated fatty acids.

У scallop the total mass ranges from 250-670 g (including the shell - 53-65%, the body - 19-28 and the liquid - 9-25%). Scallop meat has a pleasant, slightly sweet taste, with a bright sea aroma reminiscent of crab meat. The scallop is rich in protein, glycogen, vitamins and a variety of trace elements.

Of crustaceans the most valuable in terms of nutrition are crabs, lobsters, spiny lobsters, shrimp and krill. In Russia, the Kamchatka crab is of industrial importance. Its live weight ranges from 0,8 to 4,2 kg. The yield of meat from the mass of live crab is 28-35%.

Of seaweed only brown algae are used in the diet - "seaweed". It contains many valuable trace elements (especially iodine), vitamins of group B, C, A, D, E.

Quality indicators: appearance, fillet color (after defrosting), texture (after defrosting and after cooking), smell (after defrosting), taste and smell after cooking, presence of foreign matter.

71. COMPOSITION OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS

cow milk contains most of the most important components (more than 100 in total) that are necessary for normal human development. The main substances of milk: proteins, milk fat, sugar, vitamins, mineral salts, enzymes, hormones, etc.

Milk and dairy products - the main suppliers of calcium; it contains a lot of phosphorus and magnesium Milk is also a valuable source of vitamins A. D. B_р В₂, AT₁₂, PP.

drinking milk - natural milk that has undergone heat treatment and normalization by the amount of fat. Heat treatment - pasteurization or sterilization of milk. Pasteurization carried out at a temperature of 74'C for 15-20 s. After processing by the pasteurization method, the milk is cooled to a temperature not higher than 20'C. Sterilization carried out at a temperature of 120'C for 20 minutes or at 140'C for 4 s. for the complete destruction of microorganisms., after processing by the method of sterilization, the milk is cooled to a temperature not exceeding 8'C.

According to the manufacturing technology, the type of additives introduced and the purpose, milk is divided into: pasteurized, pasteurized with fillers, sterilized; milk for young children. Types of pasteurized milk: fat content 1,5, 2,5, 3,2, 3,5 or 6%; milk with vitamin C (10 mg%); baked milk (long-term pasteurization at high temperature); protein milk; skimmed milk (separated). Milk with fillers produced with the addition of sugar, cocoa (2,5%) or coffee (2%); sugar content in milk with cocoa - 12%, with coffee - 7%. Fat content is 3,2% or non-fat. sterilized milk produce a fat content of 2,5 and 3,5%. Milk for young children - ionic, vitalact DM, fortified, sterilized mixtures Malyutka and Malyutka, sterilized milk and vegetable mixtures, etc. Reconstituted milk - made from whole or skimmed milk powder, often mixed with natural milk. Milk using aseptic (high temperature) Technology which consists in rapid, almost instantaneous (within 4-5 s) heating of milk to 140°C and then instantaneous cooling. As a result, milk is freed from unwanted bacteria, while its nutritional, taste and vitamins remain. Shelf life is 120 days. without cooling Marking: a product processed using aseptic technology is indicated by a special icon (cow's head) with the inscription "High temperature technology", placed on the package "Tetra Brik Aseptic". Packaging: milk is bottled in glass bottles, polymer-coated paper bags, polyethylene bags, as well as flasks and tanks. Cream - milk separation product. Types of cream: pasteurized with a fat content of 10, 20 and 35%; sterilized with a fat content of 10 and 25%. Composition: contain fat, proteins - 3%, sugar - 3,5, minerals - 0,8%.

72. COTTAGE COTTAGE COTTAGE AND CANNED DAIRY

Curd - a product of fermented pasteurized milk with subsequent removal of whey from it. The resulting clot, the cottage cheese itself, has a high nutritional value, since it contains easily digestible proteins, fats, mineral salts and other biologically valuable substances. Production features: fermentation of milk is performed with pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria with or without the use of calcium chloride, rennet or pepsin (to form a clot).

Types of cottage cheese: cottage cheese fat (18% fat), bold (9% fat); low-fat, diet soft, fruit and berry, peasant, table.

Curd quality indicators: color, taste, smell, consistency, fat content, acidity, moisture content of the product.

Types of curd products: cottage cheese masses, curds, cakes, creams, pastes; cottage cheese semi-finished products

canned milk made condensed and dry. Condensed canned food produced by evaporating water from milk in vacuum apparatus at a temperature of 50-60'C and a rarefaction of 0,85 MPa to a certain density of the product.

Assortment of condensed milk canned food low-fat condensed milk with sugar; whole milk condensed with sugar; sterilized condensed milk in jars; cocoa with condensed milk and sugar; natural coffee with condensed milk and sugar; condensed cream with sugar

Ingredients: content (at %) Sakharov from 10 to 57 proteins - from 6,3 to 11; fat - from 0,3 to 19,4.

Quality indicators: taste, smell, consistency color, mass fraction of moisture, sucrose, fat, fillers (%), acidity, viscosity, presence of salts of heavy metals, microbiological indicators Packing and storage: cans are packaged in metal cans, aluminum tubes, barrels, etc. They are stored at a temperature of 0 to 10'C for no more than 12 months.

Dry milk canned food - products in which the water content is 4-7%.

Drying methods: air and contact.

Air dried products have a higher nutritional value and good solubility.

Assortment of dried milk canned food: skimmed milk powder; skimmed dry cow's milk supplied for export; whole milk powder; dry cream; dry fermented milk products. Whole milk powder quality indicators: taste, smell, consistency, color, mass fraction (in%) of moisture, fat, protein, solubility index, acidity, purity, microbiological parameters

Varieties of whole milk powder: supreme and first

Packaging: prefabricated metal and combined cans with a removable stopper, packs for bulk products with an internal hermetically sealed bag made of Ceflen film material. Storage conditions: whole milk powder should be stored at a temperature of 1 to 10'C and a relative air humidity of not more than 85%; shelf life - up to 8 months.

73. DAIRY PRODUCTS

Dairy products - made on the basis of lactic acid fermentation, during fermentation lactic acid is formed, and in some cases alcohol. Dairy products have dietary and medicinal properties. properties.

Feature: milk fermentation products (lactic acid, antibiotics) delay the development of putrefactive microflora in the intestines and suppress many pathogens. These products are digested better than fresh milk, as their proteins are subject to partial hydrolysis.

Acidity products ranges from 55 to 270T.

Depending on the raw material used, type of starter cultures and technological regime dairy products are classified on: dietary; sour cream; cottage cheese; curd products.

Diet foods obtained by fermentation of milk with pure cultures of lactic acid bacteria. By type of starter used they subdivided on curdled milk, products of mixed fermentation, acidophilic.

Yogurt is produced in different types, differing in the bacterial cultures used and in the technological modes of production.

Types of curdled milk: ordinary (fat content 1: 2,5; 3,2%); Mechnikovskaya (fat content 4%); Varenets (fat content 2,5%); fermented baked milk (fat content 1; 2,5; 4%). national species include matsun, matsoni, etc.

В mixed fermentation products (kefir and koumiss), in addition to lactic acid fermentation, alcohol fermentation also takes place, and in kefir also acetic acid.

Types of kefir: one; 1; 2,5% fat; low-fat kefir; kefir Tallinn 3,2% fat and low fat; kefir with added vitamin C.

Kumiss - a product obtained from mare's or cow's milk with the addition of sugar (5%). The alcohol content in koumiss is from 1% (weak) to 2,5% (strong).

acidophilic foods produced by fermenting milk with an acidophilus bacillus, which gives the consistency ductility. Recommended for use in the treatment of tuberculosis and furunculosis. Types of acidophilic foods: acidophilus milk, acidophilus, acidophilus-yeast milk (with the addition of yeast).

Yogurt - a kind of dietary product in the production of which a mixture of fresh and skimmed milk powder is used up to a Somo content of 11%; as well as lactic thermophilic streptococcus and Bulgarian bacillus in a ratio of 1:1. Quality indicators of dietary fermented milk products: appearance, texture, taste, smell, color, mass fraction of fat, solids, vitamin C, acidity.

Cream - a product of cream fermentation with pure cultures of lactic acid and aroma-forming bacteria. A high-calorie product with a fat content of 10 to 40%. Sour cream range: Dietary (10% fat); Sour cream 15, 20, 30 and 36% fat; Amateur (40% fat); Sour cream with fillers. Sour cream quality indicators: color, taste, smell, texture, fat content, acidity.

74. OIL AND ITS VARIETIES

Cow butter - a food product obtained by the concentration of fat in cow's milk.

Key features include: has a high calorie content, good taste, easy digestibility and valuable fatty acid composition; contains vitamins A, D, E.

Production process: obtained from cream by churning or thermal (vacuum) transformation.

By production technology oil is divided into creamy and melted.

Melted butter produced by melting non-standard butter; it should contain no more than 0,7% moisture.

Butter types: Vologda, unsalted sweet cream; unsalted sour cream; salty sweet cream; salted sour cream; amateur sweet cream unsalted; amateur sour cream unsalted; amateur sweet cream salty; amateur sour cream salty; peasant sweet cream unsalted; unsalted peasant sour cream; peasant sweet cream salty.

Sweet butter produced from pasteurized cream without the use of pure cultures of lactic bacteria, and sour cream - with their use. The moisture content does not exceed 16%. AT amateur oil mass fraction of moisture - 20%. and in peasant - 25%.

Quality indicators: taste and smell, texture and appearance, color, mass fraction (in%) of fat, moisture and sodium chloride, titratable acidity and microbiological parameters.

Features of packaging and labeling: according to GOST 37-

91 organoleptic indicators of the quality of cow's milk, packaging and labeling are evaluated on a 20-point scale: taste and smell - 10; consistency and appearance - 5; color - 2; packaging and labeling - 3 points.

Oil grade: depending on the overall score and assessment of taste and smell, the oil is divided into first class (total score 13-20, including taste and smell of at least 6) and first grade (respectively 6-12 and 2).

Packing: briquettes, wrapped in parchment grade B; aluminium foil, weighing 100, 200, 250 g cups (boxes) and bars from polymeric materials weighing 100 x 200 g; metal cans weighing 350 and 2800 g.

Mandatory information on the package: business address; trademark or company number net weight; type and grade of oil; data on nutritional and energy value in 100 g of the product; packaging date; implementation period; standard number.

Shelf life: at a temperature not higher than -10'C for no more than 20 days. (in parchment), 15 days. (in aluminum foil), 90 days. (glasses and boxes made of polymeric metals), XNUMX days. (in metal cans).

75. COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF CHEESES

Cheese is a highly nutritious protein product obtained by coagulation of milk, processing of the clot, followed by maturation of the cheese mass.

According to the coagulation of milk, cheeses are divided into:

1. rennet (using rennet)

2. fermented milk (lactic acid).

3. Rennet cheeses are divided into natural (hard, soft and pickled) and processed (processed).

Types of hard rennet cheeses

' pressed with a high temperature of the second

heating (Swiss, Altai); ' pressed with a low temperature of the second heating (Dutch round, Dutch squared, Kostroma, Yaroslavl, Estonian, Stepnoy, Uglich); 'self-pressing with a low temperature of the second heating, ripening with the participation of the microflora of cheese slime (Latvian) Cheese shape: rectangular bar (Soviet), low cylinder (Swiss), ball (Dutch round), high cylinder (Yaroslavsky), etc.

The weight of a cheese head varies from 1,5-2,5 kg (Latvian) to 40-90 kg (Swiss).

Cheese aging periods (in days): Estonian - 30; Kostroma - 45; Dutch slab Yaroslavl, Uglich and Latvian - 60; Dutch round - 75; Altai - 120.

Mass fraction of fat: Soviet, Swiss, Altai and Dutch round cheeses are produced with a mass fraction of fat in dry matter of 50%; all others - 45%.

Mandatory information on cheese

1.) production date (day, month)

2.) cheese brewing number (numbers are located in the center of the upper web of the cheese head);

3.) production mark, consisting of: mass fraction of fat in dry matter (%); manufacturer's numbers; abbreviated name of the area in which the enterprise is located.

Pickled rennet cheeses produced in brine. Salt inhibits the development of microflora, lactic acid fermentation proceeds sluggishly, protein hydrolysis does not occur. Soft rennet cheeses occupy an insignificant place in the production of cheese (about 1%). Drawing absent, they have a delicate texture, sharp, slightly ammonia smack. Varieties of soft rennet cheeses: Roquefort, Smolensky, Russian Camembert.

Varieties of rennet cheeses: Georgian, Chanak, Ossetian and cheese. Processed (processed) cheeses produced by melting natural rennet cheeses. Cottage cheese, butter, milk powder, sour cream, as well as fillers - coffee, cocoa, sugar, spices, tomato, etc. are used as additives. Characteristics of processed cheeses: fat content - from 30 to 60%; consistency - from dense to pasty; taste - from spicy to sweet. Varieties of cheeses depending on the raw materials and properties of the finished product: sausage slices, pasty, sweet, for dinner, canned.

76. FOOD FATS

Fats - the most high-calorie foods; with an energy value of more than 2 times more than carbohydrates and proteins.

Fats - sources of physiologically active substances - fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, D) fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols, dyes, etc.

Fatty acid (linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic) in combination with proteins are permanent elements of a living cell; participate in metabolic processes, including the normalization of cholesterol metabolism.

Common the amount of fat in the daily diet - 80-100 g. Of this amount, 20-30 g should be for vegetable oils, 25-30 g for milk fat and the rest for any edible fats.

Properties characterizing the nutritional value of fat: taste and degree of freshness. An increased content of free fatty acids indicates spoilage of the product.Classification of fats by feedstock: animals, plants; combined. Animal fats subdivided according to the types of animals from which they are obtained - pork, beef, mutton, goose, chicken and duck. They produce local, prefabricated and oleo products.

Fat consistency: animal fats are hard consistency (beef, lamb), greasy (pork), and bone and prefabricated fats can have solid, ointment-like and liquid consistency.

Melting temperature animal fat ranges from 28 to 55'C. Fatty acid composition of beef and lamb fats has a high melting point (42-55'C); therefore, these fats have a reduced degree of assimilation and a lower biological activity compared to other dietary fats.

Methods for melting fat

1.) Dry way: fatty raw materials are subjected to heating, as a result, fat is released from the cells and rises to the surface; the rendered fat is separated and purified.

2.) Wet way: the melting of fat is carried out with water or steam.

Pig fat produce the highest and 1st grades. Premium fat color - white, pale blue is allowed; 1st grade - yellowish or grayish. Moisture content (in %) for the highest grade - 0,25, for the 1st grade - 0,30.

beef fat color from pale yellow to yellow, and lamb white to pale yellow amount of moisture - 0,2 и 0,3%.

Prefabricated lard obtained from fat collected from the surface of broths during cooking sausages, ham, jelly, etc. Color from white to dark yellow with various shades. bone fat It comes in different textures and has a specific taste and smell. Oleomargarine produced from beef fat of the highest grade by isolating a liquid fraction from it; The product has a greasy consistency and is well absorbed by the human body.

77. VEGETABLE OILS AND COMBINED FATS

Vegetable oils produced from the seeds of oil plants - sunflower, cotton, soybeans. corn, peanuts, mustard, sesame, etc.

Methods for extracting oils from raw materials

1.) Pressing - mechanical extraction of oil from raw materials under high pressure

2.) Extraction - based on the ability of certain liquid chemicals (gasoline, dichloroethane) to dissolve oils, extracting them from products.

3.) Application of the mixed method - pressing followed by extraction - Provides high quality oils.

Feature: vegetable oils are characterized by the presence of impurities of related substances, which are not always pleasant in taste and have a beneficial effect on the human body. To remove them, use refining.

Refining scheme: mechanical cleaning, hydration (removal of non-fat components), alkaline processing (removal of free fatty acids), bleaching (clarification) and deodorization (removal of aromas and flavors).

Classification depending on the cleaning method

1. unrefined oils after isolation from seeds, they are subjected only to mechanical cleaning.

2. Hydrated - mechanical cleaning and hydration.

3. Refined - mechanical cleaning, hydration, neutralization, and, if necessary, deodorization. Refined oils are transparent.

are colorless, impersonal in taste and smell and have a reduced biological value.

Types of sunflower oil: unrefined, hydrated and refined.

Unrefined and hydrated produce three varieties - the highest, 1st and 2nd; refined oil is not divided into varieties, but is produced deodorized and non-deodorized.

К combined fats include margarine culinary, confectionery and baking fats.

Margarine - a fatty product obtained by emulsifying a mixture of vegetable oils, melted animal fats and tallow with fermented milk or water.

Types of margarine depending on the destination

1. Sandwich margarines (Extra, Amateur, Slavic, etc.) contain 62-82% fat.

2. Table margarines (Milky, Creamy. New, Sunny, etc.) are 72, 75 and 82% fat.

3. Margarines for industrial processing (in bakery, confectionery) produce 82, 82,5 and 83% fat.

cooking fats - solid edible fats, consisting of a mixture of vegetable and animal fats, with the addition of certain animal fats and vegetable oils. Range: Belarusian fat. Cooking fat frying, Ukrainian fat, Prima, Novelty.

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