Topic 8. Modern Western Christianity

8.1. Counter-reformation. The period of religious wars (XVII-XVIII centuries)

After the birth of the reform movement in Christianity, which resulted in the emergence of Protestantism, the Catholic Church entered the period of the Counter-Reformation. The struggle of the Pope and the church headed by him to maintain their positions required new methods and means of retaining power, which led to the flourishing of the Jesuit order. This monastic order was founded in 15 by the Spanish nobleman Ignatius Loyola with one goal - to counteract Protestantism and fight against heretics and apostates from the true faith, by which Loyola, of course, meant Catholicism. A feature of the charter of the Jesuit order is the presence in it of a special fourth vow (in addition to the three ordinary ones, which include celibacy, obedience and non-covetousness) - absolute obedience to the Pope. At the first stage of initiation, members of the order fulfilled only traditional vows, but when they were initiated into the highest stage, they took an oath of allegiance to the pope, after which they became full-fledged Jesuits. The slogan of this order - "The end justifies the means" - served for the Jesuits as an excuse for any unseemly acts that they had to commit in the process of protecting the Roman Catholic Church from possible encroachments by other faiths.

In December 1545, the Catholic Church convened the Ecumenical Council in Trident, the unspoken goal of which was to develop tactics for combating those states (England, Germany) in which Protestantism had established itself. To reduce criticism from the followers of the Reformation, it was necessary to more clearly formulate the dogmatic foundations of the Catholic Church, first of all, to justify the inviolability of the church hierarchy and the structure of the sacraments, to confirm the binding role of the Catholic Church in the process of man's ascent to God. At the Council of Trent, the main dogmatic provisions of the Roman Catholic Church were confirmed and the preservation of its administrative structure in exactly the form in which it had evolved over many centuries was supported: the supremacy of the pope was recognized as unshakable, the order of confession was established and the cult of worship of saints was supported. Roman theologians returned to the principle of Tertullian, according to which faith is only a prerequisite for achieving the Kingdom of God, while the church acts as a necessary mediator in this process.

Second half of the 1618th century became the time of the beginning of religious wars between Catholics and Protestants, which took place both between different countries adhering to one or another branch of Christianity, and within one country, an example of which was France. In 1648-1648. there was a Thirty Years' War, in which the opponents were, on the one hand, Catholic Austria and Spain, on the other, France, in which the majority of the population were Huguenots (Protestants). Numerous German principalities found themselves on both sides of the barricades, since some of them were ruled by Catholic rulers (southern Germany), while the other part was ruled by Protestant rulers (north and west of Germany). France became the winner in this war, which finally secured freedom of religion in Europe, the elimination of which the Roman Catholic Church, having lost its former influence, could no longer claim. The Peace of Westphalia in XNUMX, which marked the beginning of an era of religious tolerance, was also a milestone in the history of the papacy, separating the period when the Catholic Church could rightfully claim power over almost the entire Christian world, from the time when such claims could only be perceived like wild dreams.

A symptom of the decline of the Catholic Church was the emergence of the theory of the Swedish Bishop Cornelius Jansen, who argued that the very nature of the world created by God contains the possibility of salvation. For this reason alone, both the Pope and the Jesuit Order, which supports the claims of the Roman Church to the sole representation of the Divine will on earth, are unnecessary. This view was condemned by Pope Urban VIII in 1642, after which its representatives began to be persecuted by the Jesuits, which did not prevent many prominent cardinals and members of the papal court from secretly holding such views.

Secular rulers exercised pressure on the power of the church from two opposite positions at once - absolutism and Enlightenment. Absolutism in the person of the French King Louis XIV (1643-1715) significantly limited the already infringed power of the Pope in France, introducing in 1682 the Synod, which was in charge of church affairs on behalf of the monarch. As a result of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700-1714), the papacy also lost power over Spain, which from time immemorial was considered the personification of the Catholic spirit. The Spanish government, offended by the pope's support for the French pretender to the Spanish throne, halved the annual payment sent by Spain to Rome.

The ideal of an enlightened monarch, formed in the first half of the 1699th century. French scientists and philosophers (Voltaire, Diderot, d'Alembert), became popular in many European countries (the Russian Empress Catherine II included herself among the enlightened rulers), which immediately affected the relations of these countries with the Roman Catholic Church. Even Portugal - another eternal ally of the papal throne in the fight against Protestants and heretics - was influenced by this ideal, which was embodied in his activities by Prime Minister Sebastian Lombal (1782-1706), who had a significant influence on the weak Portuguese monarch Juan V (1750- 1773). Lombal directed all his influence to eradicate the power of the Jesuit order in Portugal, the head of which surpassed even the Portuguese primate (high priest) in his power. Despite the active opposition of the members of the order, Pope Benedict XIV decided to find out whether the true state of affairs in Portugal corresponded to the description provided by Lombal, and therefore sent his commission, which confirmed all Lombal's accusations against the Jesuits. The result of this was the prohibition of the activities of the Jesuit order in Portugal, and in 1814 it was also banned in Rome (although in XNUMX it was restored, but already as a monastic, and not a supervising body).

8.2. Crisis of Catholicism in the XNUMXth century

The next blow to the Roman Catholic Church was dealt by the French Revolution, which overthrew and executed King Louis XVI (1774-1789), and Pope Pius VI celebrated a prayer service for him. In 1790, the new revolutionary government adopted a decree on the nationalization of the church and the appointment of bishops by secular authorities, which undermined both the spiritual authority of the papacy and its economic power (the Catholic Church owned 10% of the land in France). But this was not the end of the humiliation of the papal throne: in 1799, the French general Berthier captured Pope Pius VI, which the aged high priest could no longer endure and died shortly after his release. The next pontiff, Pius VII, turned out to be more loyal to the French emperor, therefore, the so-called French Concordat, signed by him and Napoleon in 1801, made it possible to preserve the independence of the Catholic Church and defend its position in France. In exchange for this, Pius VII was forced to agree to the anointing of Napoleon Bonaparte as emperor, which was officially formalized in 1804, and the first part of the coronation (the anointing itself) was carried out by the pope, and the second part (the solemn dressing of the crown) Napoleon himself performed, demonstrating once again the weakness and dependence of papal power. Unfortunately, the compromise turned out to be temporary: the unwillingness of the spiritual ruler of the Catholic world to indulge the conquest plans of the French emperor (Pius refused to divorce Napoleon from his first wife Josephine, because of which he could not marry the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Marie-Louise, which would greatly strengthen his political influence in Europe) led to sad results for Rome. The Papal States, which included the central part of Italy, was annexed in 1809 to the French Empire, headed by Napoleon Bonaparte.

A turning point in the relationship between secular and spiritual authorities occurred in 1814, when the emperor, weakened by failures in military operations, was forced to make concessions to the Pope - to restore the independence of the Papal States, which resulted in the resumption of the activities of the Jesuit order and the appearance of a ban on Catholics joining the Masonic lodge. The papacy managed to recover after a period of difficult trials, although it lost part of its territory, which went to Austria as a result of the Peace of Vienna in 1815, but it launched active missionary activity, especially in South America and North Africa.

A particularly stormy surge in the reform of the Roman Catholic Church was associated with the pontificate of Pius VIII (1846-1878), who energetically set about changing and bringing into proper order, in his opinion, the dogmatic and administrative foundations of the church. The administrative side of the reforms he carried out consisted in a tax amnesty and a simplification of the church hierarchy. The missionary activity of the Roman Catholic Church also gradually began to give its results, both in the New and in the Old World. After years of rejection, the Pope managed to restore the Catholic diocese in Great Britain, where in 1850 the Archbishop of Westminster was proclaimed the local head of the Catholic Church. In 1848, a bill was passed in Holland allowing the activities of Catholic priests in this country, and the Archbishop of Utrecht was proclaimed Primate of Holland. In 1875, for the first time, a cardinal was appointed to the papal curia to represent the interests of Catholics living in the United States of America, which was a significant progress, since the Protestant religion traditionally dominated in this country.

With the dogmatic side of Catholic worship, the situation was much more complicated. At the very beginning of his pontificate, Pius VIII turned to Catholic theologians with a question regarding the virginity of the Virgin Mary. Having received a favorable response, he managed to organize a meeting of bishops in 1854, at which this provision acquired the status of a dogma. Another statement, which the Pope also sought to elevate to the status of a dogma, was the provision on the infallibility of the Pope personally (the dogma on the infallibility of the Christian Church as a whole was developed back in the 1869nd century). Despite the sharp objections from many theologians and church historians (for example, the German historian Dellenger), who pointed out that this dogma has neither historical nor theological justification, Pius VIII collected in 1870-XNUMX. I Vatican Council, designed to resolve the issue of recognizing the dogma of infallibility at the official level. The Catholic bishops who gathered at the Vatican Council from all parts of the Christian world did not come to an unambiguous opinion regarding the proposed dogma. The dogma of the infallibility of the pope, put forward for a vote, nevertheless gained a majority of votes, although a number of bishops left the council before its official completion, because they did not agree with the proposed decisions.

The schism of the council also marked a split within the Catholic Church itself: opponents of the dogma of infallibility joined the Jansenists, not recognized by the official papal authority, and formed the Old Catholic Church in 1879. The completion of the work of the Vatican Council was overshadowed by another trouble: after the defeat of the French Emperor Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, the Italians, who were allies of Prussia, captured the Papal States, after which the bishops were forced to leave the site of the council as soon as possible. By decision of the Italian parliament, only the Vatican and the Lateran Palace, as well as the summer papal residence of Castel Gandolfo, were left to the Pope. Disagreeing with such a limitation of papal power, Pius VIII locked himself in his residence and did not leave there until the end of his pontificate.

8.3. Modern Catholicism: Traditions and Innovations

At the beginning of the XX century. The Catholic Church has taken several important steps to break the isolation impasse in which it has found itself because of its previous policies. Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) proclaimed the relevance of Christianity in its Catholic interpretation and, accordingly, turned his efforts to reinforcing the dogmatic statements of the Catholic dogma with the help of scientific data and demonstrating the significance of faith in the modern world. Neo-Thomism (the teaching of the followers of the medieval scholastic Thomas Aquinas) was proclaimed the new official theology of the Catholic Church in 1879, and a few years later the study of the principles of neo-Thomism became a mandatory subject in all Catholic schools. It was the neo-Thomists, among whom there were many prominent scientists, who made attempts to synthesize the Catholic religion with the latest achievements of science, for example, they tried to justify the place of God in the evolutionary version of the origin of the Universe and man. Also, Pope Leo XIII announced a course towards establishing contacts between Catholics and representatives of the Eastern (Orthodox) churches, while his main goal, proclaimed in the encyclical "Satis cognitum" (1896), remained the possible unification of the entire Christian religion under the auspices of papal authority.

Subsequent Roman pontiffs continued the course of reorganization and renewal of the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church. In the first half of the XX century. the procedure for electing popes, which is still in force today, was approved, church law was canonized. Organizations also emerged (Academy for the Study of the Holy Scriptures) that sought to correct outright errors in sacred texts and to transmit eternal Christian truths in a modernized form to make them more accessible to the general population. For example, in 1936, a special papal encyclical recommended the use of cinema to broadcast Christian values, which is why bishops and parish priests were recommended to create their own film libraries with works of world cinema approved by the papal authorities.

Considerable changes took place in the political organization of papal power. By agreement with the Italian government in 1929, the independent state of the Vatican was proclaimed, which has its own government, currency and even an army (100 Swiss mercenaries). Already in the early 1930s. in this state, which was recognized almost all over the world (except the USSR), there were ambassadors from several dozen countries, including the ambassador from Shinto Japan.

Another side of papal policy in those years, which now prefers to remain silent, was the cooperation of the Roman Catholic Church with the fascist regimes in Italy and Germany. The desire to preserve the established infrastructure in these countries, as well as to save his followers from possible attacks and repressions, led to the fact that Pope Pius XI (1922-1939) was forced to agree to this agreement, although he soon realized that it was wrong. In his encyclical of 1937, he condemned both communism (which was anathema back in 1917) and fascism, but Pius XI did not have time to take more decisive steps, since he was poisoned on behalf of the Italian Duce Mussolini in 1939. Next the pope, Pius XII (1939-1958), turned out to be more cautious and did not openly oppose the fascist regime until 1944, when Italy was liberated by Allied troops. In fairness, it is worth noting that the official position of the Catholic Church, which in words supported the initiatives of Hitler and Mussolini, was compensated in practice by the considerable assistance provided by representatives of the Catholic clergy - from ordinary priests to cardinals - to the victims of the Nazi regime.

The post-war policy of the Roman Catholic Church was aimed at restoring its shattered reputation and at an uncompromising struggle against communism, in which the papal curia saw its main opponent. The most significant event of this time was the holding of the II Vatican Council (1961-1965). The official task of the opening Council, Pope John XXIII proclaimed the renewal of the Church and its reasonable reorganization in the spirit of modernity, the way out of isolation and openness to the world. The cathedral itself has become a place of confrontation between two parties - conservatives, who demand to keep the structure of the Catholic Church and its dogmatic provisions unchanged, and modernists, who seek to simplify the structure of the church and bring its theoretical provisions closer to the needs of modern society, which would attract a significant number of believers. The official result of the council was the adoption of a whole range of important decisions: on the holy liturgy ("Sacrosanctum concilium"); about the media ("Inter mirifica"); about the Church ("Lumen Gentium"); on the pastoral office of bishops in the church ("Christus Dominus"); about the renewal of monastic life with its application to modern conditions ("Perfectae caritate"); about Divine revelation ("Dei Verbum"); on the apostolate of the laity ("Apostolicam actuositatem").

In 1964, in parallel with the work of the Council, the visit of the Pope to Constantinople took place, where Pope Paul VI and the Patriarch of Constantinople Athenagoras lifted mutual anathemas proclaimed as early as 1054, which was an important step towards rapprochement between the two branches of Christianity. However, the significance of this step should not be exaggerated, since by that time only 1% of all Orthodox Christians were in the Church of Constantinople, while all other Orthodox churches, most of whose parishioners lived on the territory of the socialist camp, refused to make contact with the papal authorities .

Undoubtedly, the most significant transformations in the modern Catholic Church were associated with the figure of Pontiff John Paul II (1978-2005), in the world of Pole Karol Wojtyla. Actively advocating the renewal of the Catholic Church, he nevertheless never crossed the line beyond which the renewal could turn into a distortion of the teachings of Christ. For example, in 1979, several American bishops were expelled from the fold of the Catholic Church for misinterpreting issues of sexual ethics. As a result of numerous trips and meetings with spiritual and secular leaders of states and confessions, John Paul II managed to establish a dialogue between representatives of various religions, for which he enjoyed well-deserved respect both among Catholics and among representatives of other confessions. Another step that brought him universal respect was the public repentance of the Pope for the mistakes that were committed by the Catholic Church throughout its existence - the punitive activities of the Inquisition, cooperation with the fascist regime, etc.

8.4. Directions of Protestantism, their emergence and development

Protestantism, unlike Catholicism, could not maintain internal unity, dividing into many branches and directions, among which there is no single true one, and all are recognized as equal versions of Christian teaching: the choice between them is dictated by the personal preferences of the believer. That is why, in relation to Protestantism, it would be a big stretch to talk about sects, since in the conditions of freedom of worship, any direction has the full right to exist if it remains committed to the text of Holy Scripture and the spirit of Christian teaching. In addition to Lutheranism, which became the first, but not the main of the Protestant movements, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Baptism, Adventism and Pentecostalism are among the most significant. Mormons occupy a special place among Protestants.

Lutheranism. Following the founder of their teaching, Lutherans clearly distinguish between the spiritual and worldly spheres of human life. The spiritual side of a person’s life is devoted to serving God, but the worldly side is built according to its own laws, the main ones of which are work ethics, civic morality, etc. In terms of its cult component, Lutheranism adheres to an intermediate position between Catholicism and the extreme directions of Protestantism, since it preserves the external paraphernalia (organ, chants) and recognizes two sacred sacraments (baptism and communion), unlike other Protestant movements that recognize only baptism. The followers of Martin Luther, for the most part, focus their attention on solving current moral and social issues in the spirit of Christian teaching, but pay virtually no attention to the development of dogmas and theoretical positions, which largely contributes to their popularity in the countries of Western and Central Europe. There are currently approximately 75 million Lutherans in the world, most of whom live in Germany, the Scandinavian and Baltic countries.

Calvinism. The founder of this trend was an active follower of Luther's reforms, the French monk John Calvin (1509-1564). Another name for Calvinists, characterizing their orderly and measured lifestyle, is Puritans (from the Latin puras - pure). The essence of Calvinism was the complete elimination of church hierarchy and the concentration of man on such values ​​as moderation and frugality. A person’s fate is predetermined, but the meaning of predestination can only be revealed in the process of performing everyday duties. If a person is lucky in business, then this is evidence that God cares about him and shows his mercy towards him, but if a person is constantly haunted by failures, then this is a symptom of a negative attitude towards him on the part of God. People get rich not because of their own talents, but precisely because of the special mercy shown to them by God, therefore it makes no sense to rebel against the rich, since this automatically means resistance to the order that is established by the divine will. In terms of its numbers, modern Calvinism is the second Protestant movement after Lutheranism, numbering 50 million people belonging to three different branches of Calvinism: Reformation, Congregationalism and Presbyterianism.

Anglicanism. The emergence of Anglicanism as one of the main directions of Protestantism can be dated to 1532, when the Council of English Bishops proclaimed the independence of the English Church from papal authority. The official establishment of Anglicanism had its own tragic history: with the accession to the throne of Mary Tudor (1553-1558), who was a staunch Catholic, a renaissance of Catholicism began, and several English bishops who took part in the historic cathedral were executed for firmness in their convictions. Fortunately, the period of repression turned out to be short, and all subsequent English monarchs (with the exception of James II, who was expelled from the country in 1688) were staunch Protestants who were "part-time" and the spiritual pastors of their country.

The worship of the representatives of Anglicanism goes back to the Catholic model. Also borrowed are the Nicene Creed and the filioque, the statement that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. From Protestantism, Anglicanism took the reduction of the number of sacraments to two (baptism and communion), as well as the simplification of church rites and the denial of the obligatory mediation of the church on the path of knowledge of God. At present, the official head of the Church of England is the English Parliament, so no change in the dogmatic or liturgical part can be introduced without the sanction of Parliament. One of the most scandalous decisions taken within the Anglican Church was to allow women to occupy the episcopal throne (1988), which has already been carried out several times in the Anglican Communities of North America, although in Britain this decision remains only on paper.

Baptistism has an important place in the history of Protestant doctrine, since it dates back to the 40th century. Many features make Baptistism similar to other Protestant churches (simplified rituals of worship, priority of faith over cult). But there are also some differences: the replacement of solemn services with prayer meetings of community members, where the collective reading of the Holy Scriptures takes place, by which only the New Testament is meant. In Baptistism there is no veneration of saints, crosses and icons, as well as church organization and monastic orders, since Jesus Christ, who is the main object of worship within this movement, carried out his activities in the world, but was guided by spiritual principles. Following the example of Jesus, Baptists steadily carry out missionary activities, recruiting into their ranks representatives of other branches of Christianity, due to which their number is steadily increasing. Currently, representatives of Baptists, most of whom live in the USA and South Africa, number more than XNUMX million people.

Adventism. Representatives of one of the relatively new trends in Protestantism are the Seventh-day Adventists, whose doctrine dates back to the 1830s, when a certain W. Miller outlined his views on the future of mankind, predicting the imminent coming of the Day of Judgment. According to the beliefs of the Adventists, who practically negate the traditional Christian doctrine, accepting only two rites of the sacred sacraments, there is no immortal soul. After the death of a person, the soul plunges into a state of stupor, which continues until the Day of Judgment, when the souls awakened by the risen Christ will be divided into those that deserve heavenly bliss and those that are condemned to eternal hellish torment. Unconditional salvation awaits the souls of those who are followers of the Adventist doctrine, observing all its rules and ethical standards. The only sacred text for Adventists is the Bible. Most of the adherents of this movement live in the United States, although active missionary activity leads to the emergence of Adventist communities in many countries, including Russia.

Pentecostalism became one of the latest, but nonetheless influential offshoots of Protestantism that developed in the United States at the turn of the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. The basis of the doctrine of this Protestant movement is the belief that on the fiftieth day after the resurrection of Christ, the Holy Spirit descended on the apostles, revealing their prophetic abilities. The strong mystical orientation of Pentecostalism is manifested in the presence in the rite of baptism, which is recognized by the representatives of this doctrine, elements of great emotional excitement and ecstasy, which, in their opinion, is a guarantee of the descent of the Holy Spirit into the soul of a new adherent of the faith. The mystical experience of the presence of divine grace, which can descend into the soul of a sincere believer, underlies the Pentecostal doctrine of the intuitive way of knowing the deity. From an administrative point of view, there is a strict hierarchy in numerous Pentecostal communities - starting from the presbyter, who is the unconditional spiritual authority within a separate community, and ending with ordinary parishioners.

8.5. Mormons

The spread of Mormon teachings in Russia in the early 1990s made the name of this Protestant movement, which is often characterized by domestic researchers as a sect, quite well-known, but, unfortunately, in a double sense. In the mouths of supporters of this movement, the Mormon teaching is the only true version of Christianity, which is undeservedly “overwritten” by other Christian movements and churches, but carries a deep truth behind the external simplicity of rituals and the complexity of dogma. Opponents of Mormons just as often use the name of this movement to characterize modern destructive sectarianism, although the activities of Mormons in Russia were officially permitted in accordance with Federal Law of September 26, 1997 No. 125-FZ “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations.”

The "Church of the Saints" (this is the official name of the Mormons) was founded in 1830 in the USA by Joseph Smith (1805-1844). He gained fame as a person endowed with strong psychic abilities, but at the same time as a cunning businessman who repeatedly turned intricate money frauds, one of which led him to prison, where in 1844 he was killed by opponents of the Mormon doctrine. From childhood, visited by various visions, Smith already in adulthood published the "Book of Mormon", containing vague divinations, which became for his followers the personification of the new Holy Scripture. The authorship of this book was attributed by Smith and his followers to the last Israeli prophet Mormon, who allegedly managed to embody in his sayings the most ancient wisdom that does not require any more additions, but allows for various interpretations.

Mormons accept most of the early Christian tenets, but lean in their type of church organization towards the early Christian church of the apostolic community period. The main daily requirement that Mormons make to adherents of their faith is to refrain from drinking alcohol and any tonic (up to tea and coffee). At the same time, representatives of the Mormon doctrine openly preach polygamy (some researchers believe that this point was borrowed by Smith from Islam), and also put forward demands for the creation of their own state with a theocratic structure, which Smith himself spoke about in his last sermons. The main value, the presence of which Mormons have in common with other currents of Protestantism, is diligence and the desire to increase prosperity (Smith himself devoted more than one page of his Book of Mormon to the development of this provision and specific advice on its implementation). Also, the Mormon doctrine is saturated with eschatological expectations, which are currently being interpreted in an unexpected way. Belief in the imminent onset of the Day of Judgment, followed by the onset of the Kingdom of God on earth, bringing bliss to all representatives of the true religion, echoes among Mormons with statements about the inevitability of a nuclear catastrophe. The desire to preserve their community, as well as the memory of the souls of those who passed away long before the Day of Judgment, prompted the Mormons to create a safe shelter in their general residence, carved into a granite rock, designed for a direct hit of an atomic bomb.

After Smith's death, his followers moved to the city of Salt Lake City (USA, Utah), which became the official center of the Mormon movement and remains so to this day, since it is there that the main governing bodies of the Mormon movement around the world are located, as well as institutions, having a cult character, despite their seemingly utilitarian significance. We are talking about the "Storage in Granite Mountain" and "Family History Library", the purpose of which is to store microfilms containing historical and genealogical information relating not only to the United States, but also to other countries of the world. Over the past 15 years, the Mormon repository has received many hundreds of microfilms containing information from Russia. We are talking about church books, population census data and other sources containing names, surnames and other data about people who once lived. The value of this information for Mormons comes from their conviction that each person is able to save, by converting to the true faith, not only himself, but also his loved ones, as well as ancestors, for which it is necessary to know at least their names. The Mormon religion allows baptism to be performed even in the absence of people participating in this ceremony.

<< Back: Christianity in the Middle Ages and Modern Times (The split of Christianity (Orthodoxy and Catholicism). Features of the development of Catholicism in the Middle Ages. Scholastic philosophy and mystical teachings. Sects and heresies. The period of the Reformation. The formation of Protestantism)

>> Forward: Russian Orthodoxy (Features of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. Development of the Russian Church in the XIII-XVII centuries. Church schism in Russia. Old Believers. Church under state control (1700-1917). Revolution and a new schism of Orthodoxy. Renaissance of Orthodoxy in modern Russia)

Author: Anikin D.A.

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