Topic 5. Judaism

5.1. The origin and early history of Judaism. Rise of monotheism

The mythology of Judaism is based on the mythological systems that preceded it - the Sumerian-Babylonian and Egyptian, although many elements of the Jewish myths proper, found in biblical stories, can be reconstructed even now. The formation of Jewish myths in line with these two traditions is explained by the history of the emergence of the Jewish linguistic and national community, which was not originally such.

Researchers distinguish three waves of invasions of Semitic nomadic tribes on the territory of modern Israel, which resulted in the emergence of the Jewish state. The existence of these waves was also attested in biblical stories. The earliest invasion (referred to in the Bible as "the migration of Abraham") took place in the middle of the XNUMXth century. BC e., and the starting point of this migration was the territory of Mesopotamia, where, in fact, the Sumerian cities were located. The second wave of settlers dated back to the XNUMXth century. BC e. and included the Aramaic tribes, who were for a long time the southern neighbors of the Sumerians and Babylonians. Biblical mythology preserved the memory of this event under the guise of a story about Jacob (Israel). The third wave of nomadic tribes that rushed in the XIII century. BC e. from the southeast, came from Egypt or Egyptized tribes of nomadic Semites - it was they who brought with them echoes of a completely different cultural tradition, preserved in the Bible under the name of Moses and his laws. Such a variety of cultural and religious traditions makes any assumptions about the religious beliefs of the Semitic nomadic tribes, who were the founders of the Jewish state and Judaism, obviously hypothetical.

The famous British anthropologist and religious scholar J. Frazer, having studied the history of Abraham's children - Esau and Jacob, the latter of whom bought the birthright from his older brother for lentil stew, came to the conclusion that initially this mythological story reflected the minority system that existed in the ancient Hebrew tribes. [32] Minorate is a method of inheritance in which the eldest children are separated with their families from the main estate, transferred by the father to the younger son for management. This method of inheritance was practiced in those primitive societies where strict patriarchy was preserved and, in order to avoid competition between the father and his growing sons, the latter had to leave the family, starting an independent life, which resulted in the transfer of paternal property to the youngest son. A similar system that existed around the XNUMXnd millennium BC. e., was forgotten by the time of the final editing of the Bible texts, which led to the need to explain an incomprehensible fact through the prism of categories familiar to the editor.

Ancient sources testify to the existence of many tribal deities among the Jews, whom they worshiped back in the nomadic period and which were later replaced by the cult of a single god, whose name is Yahweh (an outdated pronunciation is Jehovah). Yahweh becomes the only god of the Jewish people only in the VIII-VII centuries. BC e., as evidenced by inconsistencies in the text of the Bible itself. So, in relation to God, the term "elohim" is used there - the gods, and then the name of the god Yahweh. With the destruction of the tribal organization - the twelve tribes of Israel - the tribal deities inevitably disappear, and the attributes of other tribal gods are transferred to Yahweh. From now on, he combines the functions of a harvester, a mentor in the craft, a protector and patron during battles. Other gods occupy a subordinate position, turn into his servants or separate incarnations (such as the "golden calf", which, according to biblical legends, the Jews for some time worshiped instead of the true god). The sacred text of Judaism at this time becomes the Torah ("Pentateuch"), the author of which was considered Moses.

An exceptional phenomenon of the religious life of Israel in the XNUMXth century. BC e., along with the final design of monotheism, is the emergence of religious prophets. The original function of the prophets, as far as can be judged from the surviving references, consisted in divination and predictions, but gradually they were transformed towards religious thinkers of the traditionalist direction. For example, the prophet Isaiah (VIII century BC) made the main refrain of his speeches the demand for observance of moral purity and a return to the worship of the god Yahweh instead of the cults of individual gods. In a later era of the existence of the Diaspora, when the ancestral land of Israel was conquered, and a significant part of the Jews were forced to exist surrounded by other peoples, the prophets demanded to preserve customs and not deviate from them even a step.

The beginning of the diaspora period can be dated to the 70th century BC. BC e., when a significant part of the Jews, as a result of the Assyrian and then Persian conquests, was resettled far beyond the borders of their homeland. The mass emigration of the Jews began after the final loss of state independence and the destruction by the Roman emperor Titus in XNUMX AD of the Jerusalem temple, which was a symbol of the entire Jewish religion. Jewish communities at the end of the XNUMXst - beginning of the XNUMXnd centuries. appear in almost all major cities of the Mediterranean, and some of these cities become real centers of Jewish communities. Such changes in political life could not but entail changes in religion, which manifested themselves both at the level of dogma and at the level of the administrative organization of the Jewish Church.

With regard to dogma, it should be noted that the idea of ​​God's chosen people, the first sprouts of which were observed as early as the XNUMXth century, has significantly increased. BC e. The essence of this idea was that the Jewish people persistently asserted their dissimilarity to any of the neighboring peoples, and saw the cause of the disasters that fell on them in their own insufficient diligence in observing the sacred laws given by God. The guarantee that God would take care of his people and lead them to the true path was the expected appearance of the messiah, who would have to come in order to save the Jewish people. Initially, the function of the messiah was seen as restoring an independent Jewish state, but later this idea was replaced by another, more abstract one: the messiah marks his appearance as the beginning of a "golden age" for his people, an era of happiness and bliss, not overshadowed by any disasters and troubles.

The cult organization of the Jewish religion also underwent significant changes. In the absence of a centralized organization of Jewish communities, the function of a religious institution begins to be performed by a synagogue (from the Greek synagoge - assembly), which was a separate house that served as a meeting place for members of one or more Jewish communities living in one city and its environs. The synagogue had its own treasury, where each parishioner made donations and from where money was taken to help the poor members of the community. The most significant difference of the synagogue was the ban on the implementation of sacrifices, since the sacrifice of sacred animals could be carried out strictly within the Jerusalem temple.

5.2. Gnosticism

Gnosticism is an original teaching that arose at the junction of Judaism entering the phase of formalization and emerging Christianity. The main sources of its formation were:

1) the Greek idea of ​​true knowledge (gnosis), obtained through mystical means;

2) the eastern (Mazdaist) concept of dualism, which explains the existence of opposites in the world, the main of which are “good” and “evil.”

The term "gnosis" is of Greek origin and means "knowledge" in translation, but since the time of Plato, this concept began to take on the character not so much of rational procedures for understanding the world, but of a mystical path of knowledge that is inaccessible to the uninitiated. The mystical nature of Gnosticism turned out to be in demand by the Jewish tradition, and already in the works of the famous thinker and scientist Philo of Alexandria (XNUMXst century), knowledge of the world around us is carried out in the process of revelation: it is not a person who learns some facts, but the world enables a person to learn something about himself . At the center of Philo's religious views is the Logos (from the Greek logos, that is, a word expressing direct action). God has no attributes other than extension in time and space, so the only way for him to influence the created world is the Logos - the divine Word. The Logos serves as an intermediary bringing the divine truth to human ears, therefore the ascent of the believer to the deity is possible only through the comprehension of the Logos, through the mystical way of obtaining true knowledge. But far from everyone can comprehend the truth, which is explained by the long and difficult path that the divine Word has to overcome on the way to a specific person. Getting into the created world, the Logos undergoes deformations, the main of which is materialization - the clothing of the spirit in the flesh.

The reason for the distortion of the divine Logos is world dualism: in addition to the light (divine) beginning, there is also a dark (devilish) beginning in the Universe. These beginnings do not depend on each other, so their irreconcilable struggle continues throughout the history of the world. In this position, Gnosticism turned out to be a follower of Iranian Mazdaism, the echoes of which were reflected in the existence of the Middle Eastern mystical cults of Ormuzd and Mithra, from which the ancient Jews could borrow them. Man, according to dualistic teaching, is a prisoner of the world, which is burdened by its materiality, which is the result of the influence of dark forces. It is precisely such a gloomy picture of reality that one of the oldest primary sources of Gnosticism, the Odes of Solomon, dating back to the XNUMXnd century BC, paints. and originally written in Greek, apparently by one of the representatives of the Greek-speaking Jewish diaspora.

The deity has an exclusively spiritual nature, not stained by touching material entities, therefore, in order to explain the mechanism of God's creation of the world, the representatives of the Gnostic teachings (Basilides Karpocrates Valentin) had to present the act of creation in the form of an endless chain of emanation (outflows). Just as sunlight is reflected on unsightly objects without losing its radiance and purity, so the god, by emanation, gradually descends from spirit to matter, without losing his divinity.

An endless series of divine creations, filling the abyss between light and darkness, good and evil, god and devil, the Gnostics called angels, or zones. The main of the angels is the demiurge, who initially has a divine nature, but is subject to numerous shortcomings, to which he is doomed by proximity to the material world. It is the demiurge who is responsible for the creation of man, and the act of creation of man serves as a pale copy (reflection) of the act of creation of the world, therefore man himself is not the Son of God. At the same time, that spark of the divine nature that is contained in him gives him the opportunity to hope for the rejection of the matter that burdens the spirit and elevation to the divine state. The remnant of the divine energy that is preserved in every person, regardless of how moral or immoral the way of life he leads, was called pneuma by the followers of Gnosticism. Hence the name of people who can overcome the limitations of their nature for the sake of spiritual purification - pneumatics.

Gnosticism also finds a place in its views for Jesus, arguing that his existence on earth was only an illusion, since the divine nature would not tolerate incarnation in a mortal shell. Accordingly, the followers of this doctrine also denied the assertion, vehemently insisted on by the early Christians, that Jesus lived his earthly life and died on the cross to atone for human sins. Basilides believed that the bodily appearance of Jesus was apparent, which means that his death was the moment of the liberation of the divine spirit from the illusory shell, so it is impossible to talk about death as such. Later, this point of view was inherited by one of the Christian heresies, called docetism (from the Greek dokein - to seem to hide). Christ is also one of the aeons, the thirty-third in a row, therefore, he begins the chain of emanation and he is not its completion, therefore, according to the Gnostic Valentine, it is foolish to fear the second coming of Jesus and the Last Judgment following him. The worst thing that could happen to a person has already happened: his nature has been corrupted by the invasion of devilish forces, but it is in his power to change this situation and return to his creator.

Gnosticism as a religious trend reached its heyday in the II-III centuries. in Egypt, Middle Asia, Rome, being actively attacked by gradually growing Christianity, whose apologists (Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Epiphanius) included the Gnostics among the most notorious heretics, accusing them of belittling Jesus. Nevertheless, the number of followers of Gnosticism, not only among the classically educated intellectuals, but also among the illiterate Middle Eastern artisans and peasants, remained quite large. Commoners were attracted to this current by a simple ethical basis (a person must strive for moral perfection in order to rise above matter and return to his original divine state), as well as the widespread use of myths. Gnostics often resorted to mythological subjects in their treatises and religious writings, endowing them with allegorical content, which made it possible to convey the basics of their doctrine to people ignorant of speculative reasoning.

5.3. Talmudism

The changes that took place in the religious life of the Jews also affected the attitude of the representatives of this community to the place of religion in their lives. A characteristic feature of the critical period of the existence of religion is a sharp increase in the number of trends and sects offering their own ways of modernizing the doctrine. In the XNUMXst century The most influential movements in Judaism were the following:

1) the Sadducees, who came for the most part from the priestly rank and adhered to a sharply conservative orientation. Advocating strict adherence to the precepts of Moses and the observance of the ritual side of the Jewish religion, they denied the existence of the afterlife and any mystical elements that were introduced into Judaism through other Middle Eastern cults. After the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, around which the Sadducees were grouped, their influence abruptly disappeared;

2) the Pharisees, who hold relaxed views on the development of Judaism. They called for the rejection of the most obsolete and incomprehensible rituals, ritual simplification, but the preservation of the entire system of dogmas on which the Jewish religion was based;

3) the Essenes, who preached an ascetic life and called for the rejection of ritualism and a focus on the moral life. For refusing to keep the covenants prescribed by the Torah, the Essenes were persecuted by the official Jewish priests, so there is little evidence of the activities of their community. The manuscripts of the Essenes sect discovered at Qumran in 1947 contain provisions that are largely similar to the teachings of early Christianity, and the authorship of these provisions is attributed to a certain Teacher, in whom some researchers see Jesus or his predecessor.

After the defeat of the II Jewish uprising in 13, the Jews were finally forced to move out of the territory of Judea, which led to another change in religion. A conservative revolution took place, and henceforth all the thoughts of the exiles were focused on not losing anything from the spiritual heritage of their ancestors. That is why the 5nd century It is considered the time of the final formation of the Jewish religion, which was fixed by the appearance of the canon of sacred texts, called the Talmud. Along with another sacred book, the Tanakh (better known in the Christian world as the Old Testament), the Talmud constitutes a set of sacred texts in Judaism called the Torah.

The Talmud was a collection of religious, legal and philosophical rules and norms, divided into two main parts: the Mishnah and the Gemara, of which the first was an interpretation of the texts of the Torah, and the second acted as a commentary on this interpretation. The peculiarity of this situation lay in the fact that, fearing to make the truth expounded by the Jewish religion the property of not only God's chosen people, but also strangers, Jewish theologians presented their comments in a deliberately confusing form. The multi-stage system of comments and explanations served not only to clarify the sacred rules and norms for the true adherents of Judaism, but also to confuse and mislead the uninitiated, who dared to turn to these texts.

The Jewish thinker and theologian Yehuda Anasi is considered the author of the Mishnah, and the date of compilation of this work in the Jewish tradition is determined approximately 210 BC. e. The Mishnah is divided into 63 treatises, grouped into six major books:

I book - Zeraim ("Crops") includes 11 treatises, considering resolutions, prayers and laws, related mainly to agriculture;

II book - Moed ("Holidays") contains 12 treatises and regulates the behavior of the Jews on the days of religious holidays;

Book III - Ours ("Wives") contains 7 treatises outlining the laws on marriage and family;

Book IV - Nezikin ("Injuries") contains 10 treatises on civil and criminal law;

V book - Kodashim ("Holy things") is devoted to the issue of sacrifices and contains 11 treatises;

VI book - Togorot ("Cleansings") in 12 treatises contains instructions on ritual impurity and rules of purification.

The Gemara combines the comments that were made by the most learned representatives of the Jewish community in Palestine and Babylon on the Mishnah. Taking into account some disagreements between representatives of these communities regarding discrepancies in the understanding of the basic sacred texts, two Talmuds are usually distinguished - the Talmud Bavli (Babylonian) and the Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem).

The Talmud has become the main document regulating not only the religious but also the secular life of all Jewish communities, no matter how far they are from their former homeland. Quite soon, a special estate of theologians and thinkers emerged who had the exclusive right to interpret Holy Scripture and express their opinions in rare situations not provided for by the Talmud. Initially, these theologians were called talmid-chahams, but their other name, rabbis, became more common.

From a dogmatic point of view, the same religious ideas that developed in the previous era of the existence of the Jewish religion were embodied in Talmudism, but it was in this form that they received their final consolidation. Especially widespread are eschatological ideas (eschatology - the doctrine of the direction towards the end of human or world existence), in which special attention is paid to the coming of the future messiah. Talmudism denies Jesus the status of a messiah, considering him only one of the prophets, whose appearance foreshadows the appearance of the messiah himself in the future, but he is not.

5.4. Judaism in the Middle Ages and Modern Times. Kabbalah

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, representatives of the Jewish people settled throughout almost all of its former territory, forming large communities in the lands of Germany and Spain, and also spreading their influence into the territories occupied by the Arabs. Through trade and moneylending, the Jews quickly gained economic power, allowing them to survive and maintain the integrity of their community even during periods of social upheaval. In the VIII-IX centuries. Judaism was the state religion in the Khazar Kaganate: although the population of this state were not ethnic Jews, the strength and power of the Jewish stratum was such that it was their faith that was recognized as the most state one. After 967, when the Russian prince Svyatoslav destroyed the capital of the Khazar Khaganate, this tribal entity was dealt a mortal blow, ending its existence. The period of existence of Judaism as an official religion also ended.

The fundamental trend in the development of Judaism in the Middle Ages was an appeal to mysticism, perceived through the prism of the Muslim tradition, which preserved the spiritual heritage of the ancient Neoplatonists and mystics. The essence of this doctrine was reflected in Kabbalah (translated as "tradition", "perception"), the main work of which was the Zohar (Radiance), created among Spanish Jews in the XNUMXth century. God was perceived in cabalistics as a being, whose very nature is so much superior to the ordinary human mind that a person is unable to give him any definition, to describe through a set of defining properties and characteristics. God is an absolute power, but only traces of this power are directly given to man, by which one can judge the cause that gave rise to them no more than one can judge rain by the dewdrops left on the grass. According to Kabbalistics, there are three main conditions due to which any information related to the religious sphere requires careful concealment:

1) "No need". Truth cannot be spread in the form of rumors and random phrases that are not needed by either the speaker or the listener, since in this case it ceases to be truth. The secret can be revealed only if its disclosure is necessary for the spiritual good of all people. For a long time there were practically no comments on sacred Jewish texts, and those that did appear consisted only of allusions and allegories, which was seen as the dignity of their authors, expressing their thoughts in such a way that only a select few were able to understand them;

2) "Impossible". Language is a product of human nature, and not a product of divine creation, therefore it is unable to convey the full power of the Divine Word. Initially, in the Aramaic language, which gradually transformed into Hebrew, there were no vowels, and all words were combinations of consonant groups, which was explained very simply - God does not need vowels, which only facilitate pronunciation, but add confusion and distort divine truth;

3) "Personal secret of the Creator". The main reason why disclosure of the truth is considered the most serious religious crime is that the hidden truth does not belong to a person, but is the personal affair of God, who is free to announce it through his messengers, and is free to keep it in deep secret. Most people seek the truth not disinterestedly, but for the sake of being able to use it in the future for their own benefit. Those few who were admitted to the sacred Jewish books (Kabbalah) went through a series of trials designed to identify among them those who are able to succumb to worldly temptation and subject the Jewish faith to a severe test by divulging its sacred secrets.

It was in Kabbalistics that the picture of the appearance of a person passing through a series of stages in his spiritual development turned out to be unfolded. The first stage is the stage of development in which desire, strength, will are born, but this desire remains undifferentiated. The inanimate nature that dominates this stage is content with the little desire that fills it, but does not prompt any actions aimed at satisfying its needs and achieving greater pleasure. The next stage, corresponding to the development of vegetable nature, shows the gradual spread of desire and its embracing of each particular organism. The plant is no longer as inert and motionless as a stone, it strives to satisfy its needs, limiting itself so far to minimal efforts to achieve this: it turns after the Sun, absorbs water, etc. The animal stage, which is the third in a row, gives rise to an individual feeling of pleasure , because every animal is able to realize (even if instinctively) its own good and strive for its satisfaction in all available ways. The fourth stage is the last and highest, but its achievement is impossible without going through all the previous stages. What distinguishes a person from an animal is not the ability to satisfy individual desires (in this they are just similar), but the realization that another person can have his own desires, so the satisfaction of the needs of one should not lead to the detriment of the other.

The only means available to man to comprehend God is the interpretation of his manifestations, the main of which are the texts of sacred books. That is why the Kabbalists concentrated their efforts on combining the numbers of letters, believing that the magical formula obtained as a result of unthinkable efforts would be able to express the essence of God and give man the only way to comprehend him.

5.5. Modern Judaism

A new phenomenon in the development of the Jewish religion at the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. was the emergence of such a direction as Hasidism. The term "Hasid" itself, which means "pious" in translation, was used in the Jewish community until the New Age as an epithet characterizing an educated, wise person who is able to give advice in a difficult situation and quote from the Holy Scriptures. In Hasidism, the meaning of this term changes dramatically: the founder of the new movement, Besht, argued that there is no need for education and skillful knowledge of the Talmud, and ordinary experience serves as a source of divine wisdom. It is enough to be able to see the world around and comprehend what is happening in order to support your less believing and understanding brother. Thus, Hasidism opposed the rabbis and the focus they preached on fulfilling even the smallest prescriptions of the Talmud, opposing the rituals with a righteous way of life and not bookish, but life wisdom. Hasidism saw the purpose of man in serving God, in the knowledge of divine secrets, in the desire to merge with the deity through enthusiastic prayer.

The embodiment of the Hasidic ideals were the tzaddiks - the righteous and sages, who preached a simple way of life and the absence of petty rituals. Any communication with such a person was considered an act of purification and approach to moral purity, and receiving a blessing from a tzaddik was a synonym for the remission of sins in the Christian tradition. This teaching became widespread in Eastern Europe, however, encountering almost everywhere resistance from rabbis and adherents of a conservative understanding of the Jewish religion, who eventually managed to significantly soften the initial sharpness of Hasidism and give it the features of a teaching that does not deny traditional Judaism, but integrates into it. .

The Jewish religion received a new impetus in 1948, when the issue of establishing a Jewish state in the Middle East, called Israel, was finally resolved. The centuries-old dream of the eternal exiles came true - they received their "promised land", the place that from now on they could consider their homeland. Judaism was proclaimed the official religion of the new state, but the vision of state Judaism was not unified among representatives of various trends and trends. The results of dogmatic disputes between the reformers, who proposed to transform Judaism in the direction of simplifying its rituals and softening some religious provisions, and the conservatives, who proposed medieval Talmudism as a religious ideal, brought victory to the latter. It was the conservative version of Judaism that was recognized as the official religion, and the decision on this was made even before the official declaration of Israel's independence - in 1947 in Zelisberg (Switzerland). At the conference held there, which brought together the most prominent representatives of the Jewish nation from around the world, a document was adopted, called the Ten Points of Zelisberg. It made an attempt to reconcile Judaism with Christianity, which for a long time spoke extremely negatively towards the representatives of the Jewish nation, arguing its hatred for the unseemly role played by the Jews in the process of condemnation and execution of Jesus Christ. The Seelisberg conference participants advanced the claim that the Jews' guilt in the death of Jesus was greatly exaggerated. In addition, Christ by his mother was a descendant of King David, whose figure is sacred to every real representative of the Jewish tribe, and for this reason alone none of them would harm him. In response to the conciliatory desire of Judaism, Christianity, in the person of the Pope, took its step. At the Second Vatican Council (1965), representatives of Catholicism officially recognized the absence of the Jews' guilt in the death of Jesus and apologized for anti-Semitism and the execution of Jews during the work of the Inquisition.

In modern Israel, much attention is paid to religious holidays. As before, especially many religious prohibitions apply to the Sabbath. On this day, you can’t work, and the formal observance of this prohibition extends to any action, up to cooking and carrying even a light object for a short distance. Many religious prohibitions relate to eating habits. An Orthodox Jew is allowed to use only kosher meat (from animals killed in a special way) for cooking, other meat is not allowed for food. A pig is considered a dirty (in a religious sense) animal, therefore a particularly strict ban is imposed on eating pork. Some rules set out the specifics of wearing clothes. In particular, it is obligatory to cover the head even during sleep, to use clothes made only from homogeneous fabric, to grow a beard and sidelocks that go down to the temples.

<< Back: Buddhism (Buddha, the basic principles of his teachings. The “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism. The spread of Buddhism. Mahayana and Hinayana. Tibetan Buddhism. Modern Buddhism: main features)

>> Forward: Early christianity (The origin of Christianity. The historical background of the image of Christ. The history of the creation of the Gospels. The canon and apocrypha. The transformation of Christianity into the official religion. Apologists of Christianity. The Church Fathers. The formation of a system of dogmas (Ecumenical Councils))

Author: Anikin D.A.

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