Topic 6. Early Christianity

6.1. Origin of Christianity. The historical background of the image of Christ

Christianity is one of the three world religions with the largest number of adherents and is widespread in Europe, North and South America, as well as in Asia and Africa. This religion originates in the variety of sects and directions of Judaism that developed at the beginning of the XNUMXst century BC. both in Palestine itself and in the cities of the Middle East and Greece, where there were large Jewish communities. Apart from the religious sect of the Essenes, which was discussed in the previous topic, it should be mentioned that it was at this time that crowds of wandering preachers roamed Palestine, proclaiming the imminent end of the world and calling their listeners to gain salvation (the existence of such prophets remained vague hints in the Epistles of the Apostle Paul). However, many of these prophets, who proclaimed themselves messiahs, came up with a more active program of action, which included an attack on Jerusalem and the cleansing of the holy city from filth.

Another source of Christianity is the Qumran community, the sacred texts of which were found in the caves of the Dead Sea only after the Second World War, but made it possible to radically revise the picture of the emergence of the Christian faith that had developed up to that moment. As far as can be judged from the surviving texts, the members of this religious community formed an extremely closed organization, not subordinate to the temple priesthood, but professing Judaism, albeit in a very unconventional form. Considering that it was the priests who brought filth into the official religion, the Qumranites refused to visit and venerate the Jerusalem temple, which resulted in a revision of the foundations of Judaism, which was based precisely on the veneration of this place as sacred and immaculate. It is interesting that, accusing the priests of violating the covenant (union) once concluded by the Jewish people with the gods, the representatives of the sect called their teaching and the texts reflecting it the New Testament, ahead of Christianity in this respect.

Refusal to visit the temple and sacrifices allowed members of the community to reformulate their attitude to faith, focusing not on the external (ritual) side of religion, but on its internal (spiritual) side. The life of the community members was strictly regulated. Each Qumranite had to work all day, providing the community with food, but not to forget about faith: "a third of the night" was allotted for the repetition of prayers and the study of sacred texts. Personal property in the community was forbidden, each new parishioner, joining its ranks, had to sacrifice his entire fortune, exchanging material wealth for the promised spiritual salvation. As for the doctrine of the Qumranites, it was full of eschatological expectations: the world is approaching the struggle of the "sons of light" with the "sons of darkness", the winners of which will come out precisely the "sons of light", after which all those who believe will find eternal bliss, and the rest - torment. A special place in the Qumranite texts is occupied by a certain "teacher of righteousness", whom the members of the sect placed much higher than the Old Testament prophets they also revered. If we assume that the person called the "teacher of righteousness" is a real historical person, then the approximate time of his life can be determined as the XNUMXnd century. BC e., although many Christian theologians shortly after the discovery of the Qumran texts suggested that the "teacher of righteousness" and Jesus are one and the same person.

From the point of view of the orthodox Christian tradition, the founder of Christianity is considered to be Jesus Christ (1-3 3 AD), regarding the historical authenticity of which there is still ongoing debate. The fact is that, despite the careful development of the image of Christ in the Gospels and later Christian literature, there are no written sources dating back to the time of his life and allowing him to impartially record his existence. Some of the most radically thinking critics, the first of whom back in the 33th century. German philologist and religious scholar Bruno Bauer appeared, on this basis they concluded that Jesus is a mythical character, whose image was collected from various religious and mythological traditions. [XNUMX]

Ancient historians, who tried to record all the more or less significant events that took place on the territory of the Roman Empire, mention the existence of Jesus only "in hindsight". At the end of the XNUMXst century Tacitus and in the II century. Tacitus Suetonius mentions Christ, under which any Jewish preacher can hide, since the Greek word "hristos" means literally "anointed one", so it was quite often applied to self-proclaimed messiahs in Palestine. Another historian, Josephus Flavius, in his book "Antiquities of the Jews" mentions Jesus, emphasizing his divine origin, but this very mention has the features of a later insertion made by one of the Christian scribes. In the original of his work, as far as one can judge, we are talking about "a wise man named Jesus", according to his disciples, who resurrected after death, but Flavius ​​himself is very skeptical about this news, which corresponds to his Jewish faith. On the basis of these testimonies, it can only be asserted that among the Palestinian prophets of that time there was also Jesus, nicknamed Christ, but the reliability of the information reported about him in the Gospels and the true content of his teachings remain the fruit of speculation and conjecture.

6.2. History of the Gospels. Canon and Apocrypha

If we can judge the founder of Christianity only by the extremely meager reports of a few sources, then the next stage in the development of Christian doctrine, at which it turned from a small Judaic sect into a separate religion, is covered by sources more widely. After the death of Jesus, his disciples were forced to leave Jerusalem, fearing persecution by the Sanhedrin and the Roman authorities. Only James, the brother of Jesus, who became the founder of the local Christian community, remained in the Israeli capital. According to Josephus Flavius, Jacob was executed in 62, but the leadership of this community, unlike the main line of Christianity, which did not break with Judaism, but continued to consider itself its direction, remained in the hands of his descendants (many researchers call this community Judeo-Christianity ). Information about the followers of Jacob disappears only after 132, when members of the Jerusalem Christian community took part in the Bar Kochba uprising, which was defeated, and its participants were killed or forced to flee.

Most of the disciples of Jesus settled in Syria and Asia Minor, where they launched their active preaching, which was hindered by Orthodox Jews in Palestine. Indirect evidence of this period in the development of Christianity is the tradition preserved in later church texts, according to which the very nickname of Jesus - Christ - was invented in Syria. A few decades later, the followers of Jesus brought his teaching to Egypt, where there were large Jewish communities, in which at first it could spread, gradually recruiting adherents among the indigenous population of Egypt - the Copts. According to legend, another disciple of Jesus, the apostle Peter, preached on the territory of the Roman Empire itself and led the Christian community in Rome, where he was caught by Roman soldiers and torn to pieces in the arena of the Colosseum in 67 AD.

The relationship of Jesus' followers with Judaism during this period was ambiguous. On the one hand, the gap between them became more and more distinct, due to the recognition of Christ as the messiah, which the orthodox followers of the Jewish religion could not allow. On the other hand, Jesus himself never tried to go beyond Judaism, deliberately emphasizing, as the Gospel of Matthew says, that he was "sent to the lost sheep of the House of Israel." The break between Christianity and Jewish tradition was brought about by the efforts of the Apostle Paul, who was not formally a disciple of Christ. He did not belong to the number of the closest disciples who wandered with their teacher through the territory of Galilee, but was imbued with the teachings of Christ only after his death, taking the place in the circle of the apostles vacated after the betrayal of Judas. As a wealthy man who spent most of his life outside of Judea, Paul, as his epistles testify, from the very beginning of his sermons was focused on spreading Christianity not among Jews, but among representatives of other nationalities. To this end, he tried to cleanse Christianity as much as possible from the heritage of Judaism, without denying this religion belonging to the sacred truth, but arguing that it was necessary to follow the dogmas of the Jewish religion before the arrival of Jesus, who announced the emergence of a new faith based not on the words of ancient texts, anadelah. "So faith, if it does not have works, is dead in itself" (James 2:17). Adapting the Christian teaching to the requirements of representatives of other nationalities, especially the Greeks, Paul had to make some concessions and changes. Thus, the image of Jesus began to be described as the ideal of human beauty precisely as a concession to the inherent Greek sense of beauty, without manifestations of which they could not conceive of the Son of God. At the same time, separate fragments of the Gospels, which convey to us the Judeo-Christian story about Jesus, are not so categorical. They do not describe the appearance of the messiah at all, focusing all attention on his inner beauty.

The earliest written sources belonging to the Christian tradition are the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, the time of creation of which can be approximately dated to the 60s. XNUMXst century In Soviet historical science, following the categorical statement of F. Engels, the opinion prevailed that among the earliest Christian works was the Apocalypse of John, the subject of which was due to the emotional upheaval experienced by the inhabitants of Palestine at the time of the destruction of the Jerusalem temple. Modern historians consider this problem not so unambiguously. The specific language of the evangelical texts attributed to John is evidence of their origin in a different Christian tradition than that which turned out to be fixed in the other three gospels, collectively called synoptic.

In the middle of the XX century. in Oxyrhynchus (Egypt) pieces of papyrus were found containing separate sayings of Jesus, including those unknown until that moment. Based on this material, historians have suggested that it was in the form of individual statements that the teachings of Jesus were first recorded in the second half of the XNUMXst century BC. At the beginning of the II century. from these statements a holistic story was built with the addition of biographical details and the beginnings of religious doctrine. The resulting works became known as the Synoptic Gospels. The gospels written on behalf of the apostles Mark, Matthew and Luke have similar features: certain moments of the life of Jesus are the same, but there are differences (for example, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus looks more like a man than the Son of God).

The process of creating the Gospels, as far as can be judged, went in parallel in all regions, where at the beginning of the 1875nd century. Christianity was spread, and each community preferred to use its own description of the life and teachings of Jesus, based on an internal tradition that could differ significantly from the traditions of other communities. The Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Philip were found at Nag Hammadi and were revered by Gnostic Christians. In the writings of Christian theologians, there are still references to some texts that were revered in the early Christian communities along with the Synoptic Gospels - the Gospel of childhood, the Protoevangelium of James, the Apocalypse of Peter, the Shepherd of Hermas, etc. Only in XNUMX was a work discovered that many times was mentioned by Christian authors of the II-III centuries, but was not included in the final version of the Christian canon. We are talking about the Didache (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), the creation of which also dates back to the turn of the XNUMXst-XNUMXnd centuries.

Most of the original Christian works have not survived, since at the end of the XNUMXnd century. the canon of Christianity was approved, which included four Gospels (from John, from Mark, from Luke, from Matthew), the Apocalypse of John and the epistles written by some of the apostles. The gospels and other works of the gospel cycle that do not belong to the officially approved canon are called apocrypha. All works not included in the final canon were banned from liturgical use, although some of them continued to be venerated in remote Christian communities for hundreds of years.

6.3. Making Christianity the official religion

By the middle of the II century. Significant changes are taking place in Christianity, which concern both the dogma (a list of canonical sacred texts is being drawn up) and the administrative structure. First of all, the well-being of Christian communities is increasing (at the end of the 1500nd century, the Roman Christian community had such significant funds that it could support XNUMX widows and orphans), which is explained by three reasons.

1. Christianity penetrates into the upper strata of the population. Even some of the senators and horsemen secretly professed this doctrine, which, in principle, reflected the religious situation prevailing at that time in the Roman Empire. Paganism has exhausted itself, and every educated person sought to find for himself that faith that would allow him to explain the meaning of life and give new incentives to spiritual development. Some of the representatives of the upper class turned to Eastern cults, syncretic (mixed) in origin (the cults of Mitra, Hermes Trismegistus), while others found solace in familiarizing themselves with the values ​​of Christianity.

2. Many Christians no longer take an openly anti-social position, which would have been understandable during the early Christian communities, but continue to engage in worldly activities, not forgetting to deduct part of their income in favor of the church.

3. Among the members of the Christian community, it is customary to bequeath all one's funds to the benefit of the community. In this case, the presbyter (high priest) of the community was proclaimed the official heir, who already transferred the bequeathed property to the general fund.

Gradually, the number of followers of the new faith also increased among government officials, which was considered unacceptable by the first Christians. The Council of Bishops, held in 305 in the city of Elvira, specifically focused on the fact that many pagan priests were considered Christians. The decision issued by the council deprived these people of the opportunity to be considered members of the Christian community, but left such an opportunity for those who did not directly participate in the sacrifices, but took part only in organizing festive games.

Another direction in the development of Christianity in the II-III centuries. becomes his penetration into the villages. If the first Christian communities that arose on the territory of the Roman Empire were concentrated in the largest trading centers, where Jewish communities already existed, on which they could rely, now Christianity is gradually replacing local cults, taking their place, and even merging with them. Christian burials of the XNUMXrd century, preserved in some areas of Asia Minor and North Africa, bear an ornament in which Christian symbols are intertwined with pagan signs, and written sources have preserved references to the presence of female priests in the villages. In Egypt, where the upper classes retained the pagan faith, such a phenomenon as "anachoresio" took place, that is, the departure of peasants and slaves from their masters with subsequent unification into communities located in hard-to-reach places. So in the II century. the first monasteries appeared. As a rule, the most oppressed segments of the population became their inhabitants, who tried to hide in the community from external problems and worries, concentrating their lives on serving God.

The process of transforming Christianity from a Jewish sect into a world religion was accompanied by important changes in the cult sphere. Another prominent Christian theologian Tertullian (XNUMXnd century AD) proclaimed the thesis that any Christian can make mistakes, but the opinion of the church is infallible. This is how the understanding of the church arises not just as a collection of people that make it up, but as something more - a mediator in communication with God and a custodian of Divine revelation. While the Gnostics insisted on an individual path of knowledge of God, arguing that the success of this process depended on a reduction in the number of intermediate links, representatives of orthodox Christian thought postulated the importance and indispensability of the church in this process. Within the framework of the church, the role of the clergy, the leaders of individual communities and monasteries, which included bishops, presbyters and deacons, is being strengthened. Initially, the rank of bishop was equivalent to the rank of presbyter (leader of an ordinary community), but gradually the role of bishops is growing. They become at the head of several communities at once in one locality (the earliest the formation of the episcopate takes place in Asia Minor), being the spiritual head of the Christians living in this territory. The change in status also affects the rite of elevation to the dignity. If in the early Christian communities the bishop was elected at a general meeting, now the rite of ordination, which is performed by another bishop, is becoming generally accepted, demonstrating the continuity and succession of spiritual authority, originating from the apostles.

The end of the period of the formation of the Christian Church should be dated to 313, in which the famous Milan Edict of Emperor Constantine (306-337) was issued, which abolished the persecution of Christians and proclaimed Christianity the state religion. Christianity, which penetrated all the pores of Roman society, became a new foundation on which, according to Constantine, the glory of the Roman state was to be revived, therefore the goal to which the emperor devoted all his further efforts was to ensure the unity of the ruling church.

6.4. Christian apologists. Church Fathers

Already in the second half of the II century. the process of not only administrative, but also theoretical formalization of the new religion began: theologians appear who sharply speak out against Judaism and paganism, defending and substantiating the claims of the Christian religion to world domination. This period (II-III centuries) was called apologetic, and the most prominent Christian thinkers of this time began to be called apologists.

The Greek school of apologists (Justin, Tatian, Aristides) placed emphasis in their works on the synthesis of the provisions of Christian doctrine with ancient wisdom - Plato and Aristotle. Justin (d. 165) argued that all previous philosophical systems claimed only a partial discovery of the truth, while Christianity allows the discovery of the whole truth due to the fact that it involves not only rational methods, but also religious faith. Representatives of the Greek apologists identify Christ with the Logos - the word of God addressed to the world and serving as a guarantee that this world, immersed in vices, still has a chance for salvation. Another idea of ​​Justin is that the human soul, contrary to what ancient thinkers argued, is not eternal and unchangeable, since it belongs to a created being. Only God is eternal and unchangeable: “The soul lives, but it is not life itself, it participates in life. Thus, what participates is different from the one in whom and in what it participates. The soul participates in life, for God desires it.” [34] The temporary combination of soul and body, which is called life, can be interrupted if it is not filled with divine content.

Despite the fact that the Christian faith had already become quite widespread by this time, the cult of pagan gods was still considered the official religion of the Roman Empire, so Justin had to pay for his bold statements - he was executed. Justin's successor was his student Tatian, who added to the main categories of his teacher - soul and body - a new concept of Spirit. It is the Spirit that is the offspring of God, and its presence ensures the existence of man and is the guarantee of his immortality.

Another option for the development of Christian doctrine was proposed by the Alexandrian school of apologists represented by its main representatives - Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Clement of Alexandria addressed the problem of the relationship between faith (pistis) and knowledge (gnosis), which was solved by representatives of the Gnostic heresy clearly in favor of separating these concepts and concentrating efforts on achieving true knowledge. Clement holds a different point of view: faith and knowledge are inseparable from each other, but it is faith that dominates in their connection, and reason plays a supporting role, supporting with rational arguments the truth that faith allows one to comprehend on an intuitive level. The Alexandrian thinker also refers in his reasoning to the concept of Logos, but for him Logos is an ambiguous concept, since it is present in the world in the form of three main manifestations:

1) the creative beginning of the world;

2) the divine impulse, which serves as the basis for the truth proclaimed by thinkers and theologians;

3) the source of salvation, manifested in the birth of Jesus.

The views of Origen (185-253), who embodied in his works ("Beginnings", "Against Celsus") the beginnings of the formation of the Triune dogma, became the pinnacle of the development of early apologetics. It was he who formulated the difference between cataphatic (cognition of God by listing his main qualities) and apophatic (recognition of the limitations of the human mind and focus on the intuitive path of knowledge of God) ways of cognition, choosing in favor of the latter. God cannot be expressed through material categories, since his essence is thought, but thought is not human, imperfect and contradictory, but divine thought, which has creative power. God the Son is equivalent to God the Father because his origin also has not a physical nature, but a spiritual nature - Christ is an emanation of the mental activity of God. The difference between God and Christ lies in the fact that the former embodies absolute unity, while the latter combines two different natures - divine and human, which are merged into one, but nevertheless serve as a guarantee of Jesus' intermediate position between the world of creation and the world of creation.

Theology of the 335th century developed under completely different conditions. Christianity by that time had already been recognized as the state religion, so representatives of Christian wisdom could not be afraid of persecution and the threat of physical violence. This period in the development of Christian doctrine was called patristics, since its main representatives bore the title of fathers (patris) of the church. The most significant among the theological trends of that time was the Cappadocian school, in particular, in the person of Gregory of Nyssa (394-331), Basil the Great (379-330) and Gregory of Nazianzus (390-XNUMX). Its representatives believed that the mind always tends to split up the surrounding world, but only faith is able to communicate integrity to both the world and the person himself. Any position of the mind must be confirmed in the Holy Scriptures - this is the main conclusion of the Cappadocians. Man has a unique ability to know not because he is a microcosm (a reduced likeness of the outside world), as the representatives of ancient philosophical thought taught, but because he was created by God in his own image and likeness.

The most outstanding representative of Latin patristics, which, unlike the Cappadocians, developed in the western part of the former Roman Empire, was Aurelius Augustine (354-430), famous for his works “On the Trinity”, “On the City of God”, etc., more famous under his honorary nickname "Blessed". The Trinity, according to Augustine, is not a speculative concept, since it reflects the internal structure of the human soul. To turn to God, you do not need to know the world around you; to do this, you just need to turn to your own soul to find answers to all questions in it. Man is capable of comprehending truth, which is not contained either in specific material things or in human nature itself. Truth is a product of the Divine will, but not every person is simply able to separate the absolute Divine truth from human opinions, which may be erroneous. Augustine confirms the existence of God using three main arguments:

1) the world needs a creator, who could not be anyone other than God;

2) the presence of the idea of ​​God in the souls of all people testifies to his existence;

3) the presence of individual goods in the earthly world forces one to assume the presence of an absolute good, which is God. For an ordinary person, goodness lies in boundless love for God, who responds to him with his love and grace.

6.5. Formation of a system of dogmas (Ecumenical Councils)

The name Ecumenical was given to councils that are convened on behalf of the entire Christian church to resolve questions about the truths of the dogma and are recognized by the whole church as indisputable sources of canon law. There are only seven ecumenical councils that would be accepted by both Western and Eastern Christian churches, although Catholics continue to collect their councils, calling them Ecumenical, until now (there are already 21 of them). The need to convene councils was due to the accumulation of contradictions that require resolution at the level of introducing additional dogmas and condemning unlawful points of view that distort Christian doctrine.

The First Ecumenical Council, held in Nicaea (and therefore sometimes referred to as Nicaea), was convened by Emperor Constantine I (306-337) in 325 in order to condemn the point of view of the Bishop of Alexandria, Arius. The fact is that the position of orthodox Christianity at that moment was to recognize the equality of God and his son Jesus. Arius rejected such equality, appealing to simple common sense, which states that the son is never equal to the father. The Son of God is not a son in the essential sense of the word, but is a spiritual offspring of God. The relationship of blood ties between them was introduced precisely in order to emphasize the subordinate attitude of Jesus in relation to God the Father. consubstantial of the Son with the Father. In addition, the Council of Nicaea formulated the first seven provisions of the Creed (a set of dogmatic rules that set out the essence of Christian doctrine) and formed the hierarchy of the main dioceses. The Roman, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem churches were recognized as the most revered and respected due to the prescription of origin and unshakable spiritual authority.

The II Ecumenical Council, which met in 381 in Constantinople, finally approved the Creed, introducing the five remaining provisions there. Representatives of the Christian clergy, gathered from all over the Roman Empire, had to make every effort to refute the claims of the followers of Arianism, who considered the Holy Spirit to be the product of Jesus alone. The Trinitarian dogma, formulated at the Second Ecumenical Council, included provisions on the equality of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, as well as on the procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son. Some changes have taken place in the administrative structure of the Christian church. The second most important church after the Roman one was proclaimed Constantinople, which was the result of the strengthening of the eastern part of the Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople and, accordingly, the increase in the importance of the Bishop of Constantinople.

The III Ecumenical Council was held in Ephesus in 431 under the sign of disputes about the nature of Jesus. The fact is that Bishop Nestorius of Constantinople defended the point of view according to which Jesus was originally born a man, and his communion with the divine essence took place only at the moment of baptism. As a result of long disputes between representatives of various Christian communities, the teachings of Nestorius and his followers (later known as Nestorianism) were condemned as heresy, and the assertion was put forward as a dogma that Christ was by nature a God-man, therefore, he could not have any separate human nature. . Both natures of Christ - divine and human - form a single Hypostasis (Christological dogma). Despite the official condemnation at the Council of Ephesus, Nestorianism continued to actively spread to the East, gaining a large number of followers among the Turks and Mongols. Supporters of Nestorianism made up a significant part of the Mongol tribes as early as the XNUMXth century, when Christianity began to be gradually forced out of Asia by Islam, which was gaining strength.

The IV Ecumenical Council, which received the name of Chalcedon, was assembled 20 years after Ephesus, in 451, to condemn the heresy opposite to Nestorianism. Trying to avoid singling out the human nature of Christ, the Constantinopolitan priest Eutyches leaned towards the point of view according to which Christ's human and divine natures were merged into one, and the dominant side was divine nature - the teaching of Eutychius is therefore called monophysitism (from the Greek mono - one and phusis - nature). Having anathematized the Monophysite concept, the bishops who gathered at the IV Ecumenical Council formulated the position that Jesus Christ had two natures with the help of the following wording: these natures are united "unmistakably and invariably" (against Monophysitism) and "inseparably and inseparably" (against Nestorianism).

The V Ecumenical Council was again convened in Constantinople, but already in 553. The main purpose of its convocation was the return of internal unity to the Christian doctrine, which was undermined by the emergence of the Nestorian and Monophysite heresies. After the previous council, at which the condemnation of Monophysitism was proclaimed, the supporters of this trend claimed that the opponents, trying to defame their teaching, fell into the Nestorian heresy. The followers of three Syrian bishops (Theodore of Mopsuet, Theodoret of Cyrus and Willow of Edessa), in whose texts Nestorian motives were really strong, were anathematized in order to facilitate the return of the Monophysites to the bosom of the Christian church, which was the main result of this council.

The VI Ecumenical Council was convened by the Patriarch of Constantinople in Constantinople in 680-681, and the main reason for its convocation was the emergence of a new trend in Christianity - Monothelitism, which questioned the Christological dogma. The Monothelites argued that although Jesus had two natures, he had only one will, and that will was divine in origin. This provision created a threat to the perception of Jesus as an integral entity, harmoniously combining various natures, since it focused attention on the role of the divine component of the nature of Christ. At the council, monothelitism was recognized as a heretical trend, and a decision was made that satisfies the entire Christian world, according to which Jesus had two natures and, accordingly, two wills - divine and human, but his human will was submissive to the divine will, which completely excluded possible contradictions. The confirmation of the Christological dogma thus formulated was finally carried out only eleven years later, in 692, at a meeting of the highest hierarchs of the Christian church in the Trulli chambers of the royal palace in Constantinople. Sometimes this meeting is singled out as a separate cathedral, giving it the name of Trullsky.

The VII Ecumenical Council, which became the last of the officially recognized Orthodox churches, was assembled in Nicaea in 787 by the Byzantine Empress Irina. Its convocation was preceded by many years of persecution directed by the Byzantine emperors to eradicate icons, as if they were the legacy of pagan idolatry. At the Council of Nicaea, such views were rejected as heretical, the dogmatic essence of the icon depicting the divine face of Jesus or the saints was proclaimed, and permission was officially proclaimed to use icons in the process of worship, to keep them in churches, etc.

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Author: Anikin D.A.

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