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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of religion. Religions of the Ancient East (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 3. Religions of the Ancient East 3.1. Religion of Ancient China (Taoism, Confucianism) The religious beliefs of the ancient Chinese differed markedly from those religious systems that were created by representatives of the Indo-European peoples in the Middle East and Europe. Different natural conditions, a different type of social structure and, accordingly, a completely different type of thinking gave rise to peculiar forms of religion in China, the most famous of which were Taoism and Confucianism. As far as can be judged from the surviving sources, the emergence of religious ideas in ancient China took place as early as the XNUMXrd millennium BC. e. and they manifested themselves in the form of various branches of mantika (fortune-telling) and the cult of ancestors. The most common type of divination was to write a question, which required a divine answer, on a tortoiseshell plate and throw this plate into the fire. After the fire burned out, a special priest interpreted the cracks formed on the plate, what answer the deity had given. Subsequently, this method formed the basis of the divination technique, which consisted of a combination of solid and broken lines and set forth in the book I-ching. The cult of ancestors, although it is present in almost all world religions, but it was in China that its significance turned out to be so high that the existence of this cult left its mark on the entire daily life and system of ethical norms of the ancient Chinese. The origins of this cult are closely connected with the worship of Heaven, which was considered the supreme and, perhaps, the only deity in the Chinese religion. Heaven was an absolute law, so detached and indifferent to a person observing or not observing it that it was simply pointless to show any respect towards him. The only way to prove one's obedience to this absolute law was to show unquestioning obedience and reverence towards the Chinese emperor, who was considered the Son of Heaven and his manifestation on earth. The cult of the emperor and his deified ancestors, an endless series of which ascended directly to Heaven itself, gradually transformed into the cult of ancestors, which was in use both among aristocrats and among ordinary inhabitants of the empire. Particular attention was paid to the closeness of these ancestors, and even better kinship with the imperial house, since any contact with the Heavenly dynasty made it possible to get closer to Heaven itself. According to the ideas of the Chinese, the human soul consists of two parts - material and spiritual. After the death of a person, the material part of the soul is buried along with his body, so the burial of his most devoted servants, the best horses and most of the wealth along with the deceased serves as a sign of caring for it. But the other part of the soul - the spiritual one - goes to heaven, where it occupies its proper place, determined by the status of its owner in the earthly hierarchy. The way to support this part of the soul was the construction of special ancestral temples, in which tablets with the names of all the ancestors of this or that aristocrat were kept. Preserving the memory of the deceased ancestors made it possible both to support their souls in the afterlife, and to substantiate the aristocrat's claims to a certain place in the social hierarchy in the earthly world, which makes it possible to lead less noble relatives and simple peasants. Taoism. The characteristic features of the Chinese religion of the early period - the focus on ethical norms and the place of a person within society - were also preserved in Taoism, although they acquired a metaphysical coloring. The founder of Taoism in the VI century. BC BC, according to legend, became Lao Tzu (his name literally means "Old Child" or "Old Philosopher"), whose existence, unlike his contemporary Confucius, remains unconfirmed by any documents. It is Lao Tzu who is credited with the authorship of the fundamental Taoist treatise - "Tao Te Ching", although modern researchers prefer to date the time of its occurrence to the XNUMXrd century BC. BC e., without denying, however, that the provisions expressed in it could exist in the form of an oral tradition or disparate sayings. The key category of Taoism is Tao - that natural path followed by all things in the world and to which the world itself obeys. Inaccessible to the senses, not grasped by human thinking, it underlies everything, shaping and giving meaning to each specific thing. The projection of Tao onto the world of people is de - a moral law that establishes the norms of relationships between people and the rules of people's attitude to the world around them. The third fundamental category of Taoism is qi - the universal vital energy that fills a person and gives him the will to comply with the universal law - following the great path of Tao. The goal of human life, from the point of view of Taoism, is the familiarization of an individual person with the Tao. This can be achieved not only through meditation and mental cutting off everything perishable, which only expresses the will of Tao, but is not Tao itself. Since Tao has no end and no beginning, a person can join it through the achievement of immortality. For this, there were special exercises: first, those who wanted to achieve immortality had to gradually refuse food intake and reduce the amount of food itself until they learned to feed on their own saliva. Then it was necessary to move on to a complex of physical exercises, which is very similar to yoga, designed not to strengthen the body, but to master breathing exercises to such an extent that the Taoist could stop breathing at will, and then resume it at the right moment. Of course, the condition under which a person who has learned to control his own body could achieve immortality is also spiritual purification: following the path of Tao, he had to perform 1200 good deeds, and the only unseemly deed reduced all accumulated merit to nothing. The Taoist doctrine of immortality and the achievement of bliss by following the universal law of nature had a place in the ranks of the Chinese aristocracy, retaining its influence throughout the Middle Ages. In the VI-VII centuries. Taoists extended their influence to almost all of China, building a network of monasteries and getting along well with Confucianism. The share of the latter accounted for the substantiation of the social doctrine by which every Chinese was to be guided. Paradoxical as it may seem, but Taoism, which appealed to the soul of every person and urged to take care of moral purity, was in demand whenever the Chinese state was subjected to sharp social upheavals. Several large-scale uprisings, starting from the rebellion of the "yellow bands" in the III century, were raised by adherents of Taoism under the slogans of cleansing the state from filth and returning to its roots. In the XX century. Taoism was tested: in 1927, its spiritual head (tien-shih) was forced to flee from his residence to Taiwan, but the religion managed to maintain a significant influence on ordinary Chinese even under the communist regime. Confucianism. Another religion that managed to prove its relevance under any ruler and political system was Confucianism, which so permeated Chinese society that even the leaders of communist China were forced to appeal to the moral and social norms that were developed by Confucius and his followers. Confucius (551-479 BC) is a real historical character who lived and acted in a difficult period for China, when the state was on the verge of collapse, and the ruling elite was unable to find the right way to save the country. Under these conditions, the religious and philosophical doctrine of Confucius, which combined ethical and social elements into an inseparable integrity, was picked up by a wide circle of the population, acquiring the status of a new state religion. The sacred texts of Confucianism are fixed within the framework of two canons, called the "Pentateuch" (Wu-jing) and "Tetrabook" (Su-shu). The composition of the "Pentateuch" includes the following works: "I-ching" - a book of divination by solid and broken lines, as well as magical conspiracies; "Shu-jing" - a mythologized history of ancient China; "Chun-qiu" is another brief historical excursus from the history of China in the period of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e.; "Shi-jing" - a collection of ancient hymns and chants, partly religious, partly purely poetic content; "Lu-ji" is a description of rituals and rituals, the exact execution of which is mandatory for an adherent of the Confucian teachings. "Tetrabook" includes "Da Xue" - a summary of the main provisions of the Confucian teachings; "Lun-Yu" - a collection of sayings, the authorship of which is attributed to Confucius himself; "Zhong-Yun" is a philosophical treatise that examines in detail the idea of Confucius about observing the principle of the "golden mean" in all undertakings; Mencius is a retelling of the teachings of one of the main disciples of the founder of Confucianism. Any person who wants to remain a worthy member of society and at the same time be a highly moral person must follow two basic Confucian principles: "ren" (humanity) and "yi" (duty). The understanding of humanity was spread by Confucius extremely widely and included a number of human qualities, such as justice, philanthropy, integrity, peacefulness, etc. Duty is a moral obligation that a person striving to be virtuous imposes on himself. The concept of duty includes a respectful attitude towards parents, and unconditional devotion to the ruler, and the preservation of marital fidelity. Unlike many religions that sought to break with the previous tradition in order to favorably set off their moral and social norms, Confucianism relied on the restoration of traditions. Considering the traditional focus of the Chinese on the past, where the "golden age" once existed, Confucius and his followers claimed to embody in their works the rules that would allow turning back time, returning humanity to its original state. Confucius expressed his ideal of returning to the past at a time when this was the only way to rally Chinese society and give it new strength in the face of the threat of internal collapse or external conquest. His followers, who tried to be guided by the letter rather than the spirit of Confucian teaching, turned the recommendations he preached into universal laws, a set of rules, the automatic observance of which can ensure a happy existence for a person. Hence - the focus of Confucianism on the ritual, the scrupulous fulfillment of the smallest instructions, the refusal to change even individual movements in the ceremonies performed, so as not to deviate from the path of salvation outlined by the Teacher. Confucianism not only did not seek to turn its adherents away from the state in which they happened to live, but also directly indicated that even a person who has reached a high level of wisdom should not give up his social activities, life in society, among friends and close relatives. This circumstance served the Confucian religion in good stead, having done it by the XNUMXnd century BC. BC e. the official religion of Chinese society. The desire to translate the ethical ideals proclaimed by Confucianism into practice led to the fact that Chinese officials had to pass a mandatory exam in order to get into public office, demonstrating not so much the knowledge of the subject as his moral qualities and all-round development. According to the precepts of Confucius, only a moral person can hold a public office, since it is precisely such an official who has a duty (“and”) that will be stronger than a natural sense of gain. Confucian teachings have been the intellectual backbone of Chinese society for several millennia. In medieval China, the education system, built on Confucian principles, was mandatory for all representatives of state power, although Confucianism did not claim sole power over the consciousness of each individual person, sharing it with Taoism and Buddhism. The desire to renew the teachings of Confucius, give it new energy and individualize to the utmost, bring it to human consciousness became the leading stimulus for the Chinese thinker Zhu Xi (1130-1200), who was the founder of neo-Confucianism. The principle of xin xue proclaimed by him, which used certain provisions of the Buddhist doctrine to update traditional Confucianism, was popular in Chinese society until the beginning of the 1911th century. In the XNUMXth century It was Confucianism that became the basis for the formation of Chinese conservatism, which asserted unconditional adherence to the principles on which Chinese society was based from the time of its inception, and accordingly rejected any borrowings and changes in the Western manner. As a result of the revolution of XNUMX, the dominant role of Confucianism as the official Chinese religion was shaken, but Confucianism finally lost its official status after the communists came to power. However, this religion would not be so viable if it so easily lost its influence during periods of social upheaval. Despite the fact that there is no official state religion in modern China, since it is replaced by the ideology of the Communist Party, Confucianism has retained its influence among ordinary people. Behind the scenes, it is present in the intellectual and religious atmosphere of modern China, demonstrating once again its ability to appeal not to changing social factors, but to permanent human nature. 3.2. Religion of ancient Japan (Shinto) For a long time, Japan was in cultural isolation, which was not long in affecting the nature of the religion that had developed in it, which managed to combine such various manifestations of religious feelings as the relentless adherence of the samurai to their code of honor, and with it the innate politeness of the Japanese and their desire to please as much as possible. guest. According to the mythological ideas of the ancient Japanese, the world was originally a combination of heaven and earth, which, not obeying external causes, but solely by their own desire, gave rise to several divine couples. The last of these, and the most powerful, was the married couple of Izanagi and Izanami. It is Izanagi who is considered the founder of Japan - from the spear raised by him, drops of moisture fell into the oceans, which, having hardened, became a ridge of the Japanese islands. In addition, Izanagi gave birth to the sun goddess Amaterasu, who became the patroness of the Japanese and the most revered deity of the entire Japanese pantheon. Emperor Jimmu, the founder of the Japanese imperial dynasty, was considered her offspring, whose direct descendants rule the Land of the Rising Sun (as Japan is allegorically called) to this day. In addition to some generally significant deities, which were worshiped by all representatives of the Japanese nation, each clan and family had their own tribal patron gods (komi). The total number of deities in Japan was so huge that it was impossible to record them all by name. The oldest religious treatises that have survived to this day, written in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. (Kojiki and others), give only the total number of gods, which, depending on different sources, is either eight thousand or even a million. There are no special rituals of worship of these gods in the Japanese religion, but their habitat was considered to be a small stone temple, built, as a rule, in the courtyard of the ancestral dwelling. The Japanese themselves did not come up with a name for their original religion, so their neighbors, the Chinese, had to do it for them. The phrase "shin-to", which served as the basis for the name of the national Japanese religion - Shinto, in translation from Chinese means "the path of the local gods." Despite the fact that Buddhism, which penetrated the island state in the Middle Ages, occupied a significant place in the culture of Japan, Shinto managed to get along with the new religion and merge so organically into it that often in Buddhist temples a separate corner was allocated for the fetishes of patron spirits that served as objects of Shinto worship. . There were (and still exist) in Japan purely Shinto temples, which are distinguished by a more modest decoration than their Buddhist counterparts, as well as the almost complete absence of any religious objects. The role of the latter in the Shinto religion is played by the emblems of deities in the form of animal figurines (a legacy of primitive totemism). The servants of the Shinto shrine are special priests (kannushi), whose position is hereditary and passed within the same family from father to eldest son. The ritual of worshiping the figurines of the gods is also extremely simplified, it consists in offering modest gifts (rice, fruits, seafood, etc.) and pronouncing established magical formulas. The moral demands that the Shinto religion makes of its worshipers are few and far between and quite mundane. From those who profess the religion of their ancestors, unconditional submission to the imperial power and recognition of the divine origin of the emperor are required; purity, understood both in the aspect of everyday cleanliness, and in the refusal to come into contact with ritually unclean objects or animals and from committing unseemly acts. It is interesting that in Shintoism cruelty to animals was condemned, while religious precepts were silent about a similar attitude towards people. In the 1889th century The establishment of the military dictatorship of the mikado led to the fact that Shinto was declared the state religion, and Buddhism was banned. This was due to the presence in the Shinto religion of unconditional approval of any actions performed by the emperor. But the interaction of these two religions turned out to be so strong that already in XNUMX a law was issued in Japan officially proclaiming freedom of religion. In modern Japan, Shinto continues to play a leading role in the religious life of the country, although its scope is more limited to the sphere of family life than to public ceremonies, which are more festive than religious in nature. Despite the fact that Shinto is not a single religion, but breaks up into many separate currents, there is no struggle between the branches of Shinto, so each Japanese family is free to adhere to the version of Shinto to which its ancestors belonged, or change it in accordance with their own intentions. Modern Japanese culture, which welcomes the flourishing of new computer technologies and strongly encourages efforts to increase the technization and informatization of society, continues to combine technological progress with traditional forms of religion with an enviable sense of harmony. Medieval professional corporations are being replaced by cutting-edge firms, but the very Japanese principle of doing business remains unchanged, which consists in mutual respect for business partners, observance of clear subordination and hierarchy within each individual enterprise - those norms that have been brought up in the Japanese for centuries thanks to the Shinto religion. 3.3. Religion of ancient India (Brahmanism, Hinduism) India is often perceived only as the birthplace of Buddhism, which denies a very ancient and ramified religious Indian tradition, which goes back to two fundamentally different sources - the religion of the indigenous population of India (Dravids) and the religious ideas of the newcomer Indo-European population (Aryans), whose appearance in the river valley The Indus is dated by researchers around the beginning of the XNUMXnd millennium BC. e. Unfortunately, it is difficult to say anything definite about the Dravidian religion due to the impossibility of deciphering the inscriptions that have come down to us, but, judging by the images, even then (in the III-II millennium BC) the indigenous population of India worshiped a deity, which in a later Indian religion was named Shiva. Images of this god with three faces and six arms are preserved on the seals found at the site of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Brahmanism. That cult design of religious ideas, which dominates modern Indian religion, is associated by most researchers with the influence of the Aryan tribes. It was the Aryans who for the first time recorded a clear division into three main varnas (social groups) - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. Much later, a fourth varna, the Shudras, was added to them, which included the enslaved indigenous population of the Hindustan peninsula. Varnas were divided according to the functions they performed in society. Brahmins served as priests and were responsible for performing sacrifices, which were the main form of religious rituals in the first stage of the existence of the ancient Indian religion. Wars and rulers of numerous Indian principalities originated from the varna of the Kshatriyas. Vaishyas were engaged in crafts and trade. The Shudras were engaged in agriculture and those types of work that were considered unworthy of the representatives of the three higher varnas. The idea of a clear division of the varnas was substantiated in a mythologized story about the history of their occurrence. According to this myth, the gods, having decided to create the world, performed a ritual on the giant Purusha, dividing his body into separate parts, each of which became the prototype of the corresponding natural or social phenomenon. From the soul of the slain giant, the Moon arose, from the eye - the Sun, the head turned into the sky, and the legs became the earth, his ears became the cardinal points. Brahmins appeared from the breath of Purusha (therefore, they were considered the keepers of wisdom, and each of their words was evaluated as a manifestation of indisputable authority), from the hands of kshatriyas (protectors and warriors), from the hips - vaishyas (workers), and from the feet - sudras. The inequality of the Shudras in comparison with the rest of the varnas was also manifested in the fact that they were forbidden to participate in the performance of many religious rites, even to be present during the utterance of mantras (sacred incantations). Despite the fact that political power was concentrated in the hands of the Kshatriyas, they were considered subordinate to the Brahmins, since they had the exclusive right to communicate with the gods, so the early form of Indian religion, which existed almost unchanged for more than a thousand years, was called Brahmanism. The sacred texts of Brahmanism were the Vedas (from the Indo-Aryan root ved - "to know", cf. Russian "to know"), of which there were four. The most significant and ancient in origin was considered the Rigveda - a collection of sacred hymns, the earliest of which served as witnesses to the existence of an Indo-European religious community. The Samaveda and Yajurveda, which included sacred incantations and magical formulas with a description of the rites performed in the process of their pronunciation, were inferior to her in time. The latest of the Vedas is the Atharva Veda, which included hymns and hymns, referring already to the era of the Aryans in India. Judging by the hymns of the Rigveda, the total number of Indian deities was enormous: only the main gods were 33, and the total number of all deities was 3339, spirits were added to them - devas and asuras. Interestingly, the asuras in Brahmanism were in the position of negative beings, and the devas were positive, while among the Iranians, who belonged to the same group of Indo-European peoples as the Aryans, the distribution was reversed: good asuras and evil devas. This fact can only testify to the fact that in the original Indo-European religion there was no clear division of spirits into good and evil, but they (devas and asuras) were divided according to some other principle unknown to us. Many of the Indian gods had a clearly expressed Indo-European origin, for example, Dyaus-pitar (cf. Zeus-pater - god-father) - the god of the sky; Ushas (Greek Eos) - the goddess of the morning dawn, etc. The most popular gods from the Indian pantheon at the early (Vedic) stage of the development of religion were Varuna, Indra, Surya and Agni. Varuna was sung in many hymns as the supreme god, but, apparently, such an appeal, often found in Vedic hymns, was a kind of respect for the god to whom the petitioner addressed, and in no way reflected the real hierarchy of the deities of the pantheon. In the surviving texts, Varuna acts as the personification of the sky in its gloomy, thunderous appearance, as well as the flowing waters. Indra was considered the god of rain, so he had lightning as an obligatory attribute, and the most common mythological plot, of which Indra was the hero, was the story of his victorious battle with the serpent Vritra, which prevents the access of water to the drought-tormented lands. Striking the snake with a blow of his lightning, Indra releases a stream of water that spills over the parched fields. Surya acted as the god of the sun, therefore, in ancient Indian myths, he appeared in the form of a radiant horseman, riding his fiery chariot across the sky and giving people light and warmth (Helios performed a similar function in Greek mythology). One of the most revered (in terms of the number of hymns dedicated to him and rituals held in his honor) was the fire god Agni. Emphasizing the importance of fire for ensuring the normal existence of the family and the whole community, the ancient Indians respectfully called Agni "the guardian of the house." According to the religious ideas of Brahmanism, any living being consists of a body and a soul, and the soul is immortal and has the ability to persist even after the death of the material body, which falls into the kingdom of the god Yama, the ruler of the world of the dead. After death, the human soul moves to another body or object. Who exactly the soul will reincarnate into is determined by the presence of good or evil deeds in its previous earthly existence. The law of the reincarnation of the soul, depending on the positive or negative characteristics it has accumulated, is called karma, and the chain of reincarnations that the individual soul goes through is called samsara in Brahmanism. To ensure a favorable rebirth, one must lead a moral life, do good deeds and avoid bad deeds, otherwise a person may be reborn as a member of a lower caste or an animal. Any reincarnation is not the end of the chain, others will surely follow, therefore it depends on each living being how much he wants to correct the consequences of previous rebirths and improve his karma. Hinduism. The gradual development of religious ideas in Indian society, accompanied by increased competition from Buddhism, has led to the fact that the Vedic (Brahminist) religious system has undergone a significant transformation, adapting to the more complex social structure, which requires simplification of the foundations of dogma and religious practice. The result of the reform of Brahmanism was the emergence of Hinduism (III-II centuries BC). Hinduism adopted from Brahmanism such important features of religious teaching as belief in the existence of an immortal soul, ways to improve karmic fate (asceticism, yoga), as well as attention to the performance of everyday rituals. The role of ritualistics, already devoid of excessive specification and binding to varnas and castes, turned out to be so high in reformed Hinduism that, despite the principle of proselytism proclaimed by this religion (only one who was born in a family professing Hinduism can become a Hindu), there are often cases when a person another nation or race can become a Hindu by carefully observing all the ritual requirements of that religion. Two gods came forward as the supreme deities of Hinduism, who were also present in the ancient Indian pantheon, but there were in secondary roles. We are talking about Vishnu and Shiva, whose admirers form two main trends in modern Hinduism: Vishnuism and Shaivism. Vishnuism. Vishnu is mentioned in the early sacred hymns of the Rig Veda as one of the minor gods, whose original function was to provide fertility. In Hinduism there is a reorientation of his activity, and Vishnu becomes the patron god, the bearer of happiness and good luck, the savior and protector. It is he who becomes the supreme deity of the Hindu pantheon, while other deities or heroes begin to be perceived as his avatars (reincarnations). Initially, there were nine avatars: fish, turtle, boar, lion, dwarf, Parushurama, Rama, Krishna, Buddha. In the XNUMXth century a tenth avatar was added to them - a rider on a white horse, marking the end of the existence of this world with his appearance. Shaivism. As already mentioned, the god Shiva (or his analogue) existed among the Dravidian population of ancient India. Subsequently, he entered the pantheon of Indian gods as a deity dangerous and requiring constant sacrifice to reduce the danger emanating from him. The very name Shiva is an epithet meaning "good". The real name of this god is Rudra. His function in the universe was, according to Hindus, ambivalent: he was responsible for creation and at the same time for destruction. For example, in one of the most popular mythological stories, he acted as a dancer who destroys this world, but immediately creates a new one on its remains. That is why Rudra was often called not by his real name, but by one of the epithets reflecting that of his hypostasis, which was central within a certain ritual or cult. Shiva's wife is Devi, who also had dual characteristics: she simultaneously acted as both a guardian goddess and an avenger for the crimes committed. In modern India, it is Hinduism in its two main directions - Vaishnavism and Shaivism - that is the dominant religious movement (Buddhists in India, paradoxically, are practically absent, and Muslims occupy only the north of the Hindustan peninsula). Of course, some changes in the religious life of Indians are taking place. They are connected primarily with the fact that the importance of caste and varna affiliation is decreasing. Thanks to the perseverance of modern reformers in Hinduism, there is a tendency towards a gradual reconciliation of representatives of the four varnas with another group of the population, which in traditional Indian society was so disenfranchised that it did not belong to any varna, but bore the name "untouchables". Representatives of this community performed the dirtiest work that was unacceptable for representatives of the Hindu religion - cleaning sewage, organizing funerals, etc. At the same time, many religious rituals retain their significance even now, for example, funeral rites, which consist sometimes his widow is burned together with her husband), the desire for ritual purity, rituals associated with eating, etc. << Back: Early forms of religion (Religion of Neanderthals and primitive peoples. Religion of Ancient Egypt. Religion of Ancient Mesopotamia. Religion of Ancient Iran (Mazdaism). Religion of Ancient Greece. Religion of Ancient Rome. Religion of the peoples of Central America) >> Forward: Buddhism (Buddha, the basic principles of his teachings. The “Four Noble Truths” of Buddhism. The spread of Buddhism. Mahayana and Hinayana. Tibetan Buddhism. Modern Buddhism: main features) Author: Anikin D.A.
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