Topic 4. Buddhism

4.1. Buddha, the basic principles of his teachings

Tradition attributes the merit of creating a new religion to a wandering preacher, although belonging to a royal family, Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BC), better known by his nicknames "Shakyamuni" (sage from the Shakya tribe) and "Buddha" (enlightened, awakened). Siddhartha was born into the family of the leader of the Shakya tribe who lived in the Ganges valley, was brought up in luxury and never encountered the phenomena that accompanied the growing up of his peers from less noble families - illness, poverty, death. In due time the young prince married, his wife gave birth to an heir, and only then did the story occur, which was often told by Buddhist preachers as an instructive incident. Once leaving his palace, Siddhartha met a beggar on the way, then a cripple, and finally met a funeral procession, after which he realized that if there is a goal in his life, as in the life of any other person, then this goal is to save other people from suffering. At the age of 29, the prince left the chambers of his palace to find a path that could save humanity from suffering, and only after seven years filled with ascetic mortification of the flesh and constant meditation, Siddhartha Gautama was able to achieve enlightenment and understand the true cause of suffering. From that moment began the preaching activity of the Buddha, which lasted until his death. Together with a group of disciples, the Buddha wandered throughout India, expounding the foundations of his teaching, which he called dharma (moral law).

Despite the fact that stories about the life of the Buddha are extremely common and are mentioned in many sources of the Buddhist canon, these sources themselves, the most famous of which is the Tripitaka, were compiled only in the XNUMXst century BC. BC e., so the question of the historicity of the stories told can be reduced to the following statement. Siddhartha Gautama is a historical character, but how far the views attributed are really his, and not the product of the work of other preachers, who wandered a lot in that era on the roads of India, this question cannot be decided with absolute certainty.

Buddhism was a natural result of the gradual transformation of the Brahminist religious system towards a world religion, addressed not to a particular caste or social group, but to all who wish to achieve divine wisdom. Much Buddhism took over from traditional Indian religious ideas, giving them a new meaning. Thus, the numerous pantheon of gods and spirits was not formally denied by Buddhism, but, in fact, the role of deities became secondary and insignificant, because the followers of the Buddhist doctrine argued that the worship of the gods in itself does not bring a person closer to salvation. Buddha was placed by the supporters of the new religion noticeably higher than the gods that preceded him, since they could not comprehend the wisdom that he was able to convey to people with his speeches and actions. In general, Buddhism paid very little attention to differences in ritual practices, although it focused on those forms of worship that were familiar in traditional Indian culture.

The connection of Buddhism with previous religious systems is also present in the main provisions of the dogma regarding karma and nirvana. Thus, the concept of the accumulation of spiritual merits, which determine the incarnation of the soul in the next life, is also preserved in Buddhism, but the priorities of human activity are radically changing. If in Hinduism the highest virtue was seen in ensuring the best rebirth for oneself by one's actions, then Buddhism insists that the only goal that is worthy of a person is to break the chain of rebirth and go beyond it. Understanding that the human soul (Atman) is equivalent to the World Soul (Brahman), leads a person to realize the illusory nature of the entire chain of rebirths, since the soul is eternal and unchanging, and constant rebirths serve as a cover of mystery that prevents a person from realizing this simple truth. Having managed to escape from the web of delusions, a person finds himself, as it were, aloof from the illusory side of the universe; in that fixed point relative to which everything moves, but which itself remains eternal and unchanging. It is this point, which is synonymous with a blissful state, that the followers of Buddhism call nirvana (although the concept itself already existed in the Hindu religion).

4.2. "Four Noble Truths" of Buddhism

The Buddha himself formulated his religious program in the form of four main provisions ("four noble truths").

1. Life is suffering.

2. There is a reason for suffering.

3. Suffering can be ended.

4. There is a path leading to the end of suffering.

The cause of suffering is a terrible thirst, accompanied by sensual pleasures and seeking satisfaction here and there; it is the desire for sense gratification, for well-being. The variability and inconstancy of a person who is never satisfied with the fulfillment of his desires, starting to desire more and more - this is the true cause of suffering. According to the Buddha, truth is eternal and unchanging, and any change (including the rebirth of the human soul) is evil, acting as a source of human suffering. Desires cause suffering, since a person desires what is impermanent, changeable, and therefore subject to death, because it is the death of the object of desire that causes the greatest suffering to a person.

Since all pleasures are transitory, and false desire arises from ignorance, the end of suffering comes when knowledge is achieved, and ignorance and false desire are different aspects of the same phenomenon. Ignorance is a theoretical side, it is embodied in practice in the form of the emergence of false desires, which cannot be fully satisfied, and, accordingly, cannot give a person true pleasure. However, the Buddha does not seek to justify the need to obtain true knowledge as opposed to the illusions that people usually indulge in. Ignorance is a necessary condition of ordinary life: there is nothing in the world that is worth truly striving for, therefore any desire is, by and large, false. In the world of samsara, in the world of constant rebirth and variability, there is nothing permanent: neither things, nor the “I” of a person, because bodily sensations, perception and awareness of the world external to an individual person - all this is only an appearance, an illusion. What we consider "I" is only a series of empty appearances that appear to us as separate things. By isolating individual stages of the existence of this flow in the general flow of the universe, viewing the world as a set of objects, not processes, people create a global and all-encompassing illusion, which they call the world.

Buddhism sees the elimination of the cause of suffering in the eradication of human desires and, accordingly, in the cessation of rebirth and falling into a state of nirvana. For a person, nirvana is a liberation from karma, when all sadness stops, and the personality, in the usual sense of the word for us, disintegrates to make room for the realization of one's inseparable involvement in the world. The very word "nirvana" in Sanskrit means "attenuation" and "cooling down": attenuation resembles complete annihilation, and cooling symbolizes incomplete annihilation, accompanied not by physical death, but only by the dying of passions and desires. According to the expression attributed to the Buddha himself, "the liberated mind is like a fading flame," i.e. Shakyamuni compares nirvana to a fading flame that straw or firewood can no longer support.

According to canonical Buddhism, nirvana is not a state of bliss, since such a feeling would only be a continuation of the desire to live. The Buddha means the extinction of false desire, not the entire existence; destruction of the flames of lust and ignorance. Therefore, he distinguishes two types of nirvana:

1) upadhishesha (extinction of human passion);

2) anupadhishesha (extinction along with passion and life). The first type of nirvana is more perfect than the second, since it is accompanied only by the destruction of desire, and not by the deprivation of a person’s life. A person can achieve nirvana and continue to live, or he can achieve enlightenment only at the very moment when his soul is separated from his body.

Deciding which path is preferable, the Buddha came to the conclusion that the true path cannot be traversed by those who have lost their strength. There are two extremes that one who has decided on liberation from the constricting bonds of samsara should not follow: on the one hand, the habitual commitment to passions and pleasures derived from sensually comprehended things, and, on the other hand, the habitual commitment to self-mortification, which is painful, ungrateful and useless. There is a middle path that opens the eyes and endows with reason, leading to peace and insight, higher wisdom and nirvana. This path in Buddhism is called the Noble Eightfold Path, because it includes the eight stages of cultivation that are mandatory for passing.

1. Right view comes first because what we do reflects what we think. Wrong actions come from wrong views, therefore, the best way to prevent wrong actions is the right knowledge and control over its observation.

2. Right striving is the result of right vision. This is the desire for renunciation, the hope of living in love with all things and beings that are in this world, the desire for true humanity.

3. Correct speech. Even right aspirations, especially in order for them to lead to proper results, must be expressed, that is, they must be reflected in right speech. It is necessary to refrain from lying, slander, rude expressions, frivolous conversation.

4. Right action does not consist in sacrificing or worshiping the gods, but in non-violence, active self-sacrifice and willingness to give one's life for the benefit of others. In Buddhism, there is a provision according to which a person who has secured immortality for himself can help another person achieve enlightenment by transferring some of his merits to him.

5. Right life. Right action leads to a moral life free from deceit, lies, fraud and intrigue. If up to now we have been talking about the outward behavior of a saved person, here attention is drawn to the inner cleansing. The goal of all efforts is to eliminate the cause of sadness, which requires subjective purification.

6. Right effort consists in exercising power over the passions, which should prevent the realization of bad qualities and contribute to the strengthening of good qualities through detachment and concentration of the mind. To concentrate, it is necessary to dwell on some good thought, assess the danger of turning a bad thought into reality, divert attention from a bad thought, destroy the cause of its occurrence, divert the mind from the bad one with the help of bodily tension.

7. Right thinking cannot be separated from right effort. In order to avoid mental instability, we must subdue our mind, along with its tossings, distractions and absent-mindedness.

8. Right calmness is the last stage of the noble eightfold path, the result of which is the rejection of emotions and the achievement of a contemplative state.

4.3. Spread of Buddhism. Mahayana and Hinayana

The religious doctrine of Buddhism was in demand by Indian society, so not only mendicant monks, but also representatives of the nobility quickly began to join the number of its adherents. Already in IVb. BC e. a council was assembled in Rajagriha, at which, according to legend, a list of statements attributed to the Buddha himself was agreed upon, and the first attempt was made to compile a religious canon, since there were many discrepancies in understanding even the basic provisions of Buddhism.

Buddhism at that time did not know the superiority of any one school, there were several dozen of them, and the disputes between them were of a theoretical nature and did not lead to skirmishes and wars. This is due to the fact that already in early Buddhism a fairly clear monastic structure (sangha) was formed, subject to strict standards and retaining the absolute right to preserve the teachings of the Buddha in its original state. The adherents of the monastic way of existence of Buddhism were called Theravadins. Supporters of the division of all adherents of Buddhism into monks, whose ascetic way of life likened them and brought them closer to the Buddha himself, and parishioners, who were required only to observe the minimum necessary rituals, were opposed by the mahasanghiks. This school (or direction) of Buddhism insisted on the need for the utmost simplification of the ritual structure and focus on spiritual practices (meditations). Following the practices was mandatory for both monks and parishioners of monasteries, which removed the need for the existence of a large number of monks and limited their number to the minimum that was necessary to maintain religious shrines and perform the necessary rituals. Later Mahasanghika, already in the III century. BC e. who began preaching the Buddhist religion outside of India (in Ceylon, in Southeast Asia), became the founders of the reformist trend in Buddhism, called the Mahayana.

Mahayana and Hinayana. The final demarcation of the supporters of the conservative trend in Buddhism and the supporters of its reformism took place at the second council in Vaishali, after which two directions were formed that continue to exist in modern Buddhism. Spread first in the Ganges valley, Buddhism in the I-II centuries. continued to develop in North-Western India (Kushan Kingdom), where its new form appeared - Mahayana (Great Vehicle), while the former form was called Hinayana (Small Vehicle).

The prominent Buddhist thinker and theologian Nagurjuna (XNUMXst century BC) is considered to be the founder of the Mahayana. This creed has a missionary character, here the deification of the Buddha and faith in bodhisattvas (saints worthy of nirvana, but who abandoned it for the sake of instructing others on the true path) come first. In contrast, Hinayana considered participation in the highest truth and nirvana the lot of a relatively small spiritual elite. In the Hinayana, the Buddha is not a deity, but a real historical figure, even if he is a role model for other people. It is impossible to influence him with the help of prayers and sacrifices in order to achieve the fulfillment of his own desires, since he serves only as a mentor, and it is up to the person himself to go the whole way - from realizing the cause of his suffering to finding a way to eliminate them, and no one will help him take a decisive step. in power. In the Mahayana, the Buddha is a doctor who heals both conscious and unconscious patients to full recovery, while in the Hinayana, the Buddha is an instructor who explains how to act and gives his own destiny a personal example, but only to those who have realized their own disease and has the determination to cope with it.

In addition, Mahayana Buddhism is based on the idea that Siddhartha Gautama is not the only Buddha, and the total number of sages who have achieved enlightenment and have the opportunity to use this epithet reaches 1000. The idea that it is not necessary to be a monk and keep numerous vows, mortifying your flesh and humble your spirit, in order to achieve nirvana. Nagarjuna claims that any person is able to come to enlightenment, and his belonging to a spiritual rank can only facilitate this process, but does not guarantee its result at all.

An interesting interpretation within the framework of the Mahayana is given to the idea of ​​posthumous retribution, which was absent in traditional Buddhism (a person either continued to be reborn in a different guise, or was completely eliminated from samsara), - the concepts of hell and paradise arise. In hell, those who do not observe the moral standards preached by the followers of Buddhism are condemned to languish and be subjected to severe torment. Heaven is reserved for those souls who have only one rebirth on earth before reaching nirvana. Mahayana, which promised liberation from suffering not for the elect, but for all who are able to decide on the path leading to this liberation, turned out to be much more popular than Hinayana.

Hinayana preachers brought Buddhism to Ceylon and Southeast Asia, as a result of which adherents of this branch of Buddhism currently live in these areas. The followers of the Mahayana turned their gaze to the north and northeast: in the I-II centuries. Mahayana Buddhism entered China (Chan Buddhism), from where it spread to Korea and Japan (Zen Buddhism). But the adherents of this doctrine, especially after the final displacement of Buddhism from its homeland, found their main refuge in Tibet.

4.4. Tibetan Buddhism

After the III-IV centuries. the process of ousting Buddhism from India began, and Southeast Asia found itself in the sphere of the spread of the Hinayana direction of Buddhism, Tibet became the main center of the Mahayana. Almost the entire further history of Buddhism is connected with this country. Initially, adherents of Hinayana brought Buddhism to Tibet, but this school did not gain much popularity, so it was replaced by the Mahayana, which managed to get along with the local Tibetan Bon-po religion, contributing to the creation of Tibetan Buddhism.

The main Bon gods were Heaven and Earth. In addition to them, there were a lot of different spirits (spirits of mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, etc.), as well as numerous evil demons. In the Bon religion, to this day, there is a priestly organization, whose representatives communicate with spirits, conjure, trying to appease some and suppress others. The remnants of shamanism are especially pronounced in the Bon religion, which left its mark on the Tibetan version of Buddhism, which was unable to avoid the influence of the local indigenous religion. Tibetan Buddhism is the result of mutual influence and practically a merger of two religious trends: local Bon-po and Indian Buddhism. This process began in the XNUMXth century. Later, around the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, the process of separating the most influential Buddhist trends, schools and sects from a single religious stream, primarily the Gelugpas and Sakyas, began.

The first Mahayana preacher who brought the Buddhist religion to Tibet and actively contributed to its spread was Padma Sambava (XNUMXth century). Following the basic tenets of the Buddhist creed, he focused much attention on providing the ritual side of Buddhism, providing this religion with a rich toolkit of magical rites, spells and divination. Already in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries, after a short struggle with the orthodox supporters of the Bon religion, Buddhism managed to finally gain a foothold in Tibet, forming a whole network of monasteries inhabited by monks, who, according to the Tibetan tradition, were called lamas (hence another name for Tibetan Buddhism - lamaism).

The history of Tibetan Buddhism marked the gradual strengthening of some schools and directions, and then their replacement by others. So, in the XIII century. The most influential Buddhist monastery in Tibet was Saskia, maintained by the Chinese emperors of Mongolian origin from the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). From the name of the monastery comes the name of the sect - Sakya. Its power turned out to be short-lived and already at the end of the XIV century. was undermined by the emergence of the Gelugpa sect. The founder of this sect, Tsongkawa (1357-1419), proclaimed the slogan of the moral purification of Buddhism and a return to harsh monastic morality, which resulted in the centralization of the spiritual power of Tibet in the hands of the Panchen Lama, who was the embodiment of Buddha-Ami-taba, and the Dalai Lama, who was considered an avatar bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. The hereditary principle was not used in the election of the Dalai Lama, and the determination of the future ruler was carried out by a council of higher lamas, who found a child in the Tibetan villages, who was the rebirth of the deceased Dalai Lama, and proclaimed him a new spiritual head. Already in 1639, the Dalai Lama combined both spiritual and secular power in his hands, and theocratic rule was established in Tibet (a form of government in which the highest power belongs to representatives of a particular religion). The residence of the Dalai Lama was the holy city of Lhasa, the entrance to which was strictly forbidden to foreigners, since it was there that the main Buddhist shrines were concentrated, and the number of sacred Buddhist books stored in Lhasa and numerous commentaries on them was simply immense.

Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism) relegated nirvana as the supreme goal of salvation to the background, replacing it with a carefully designed cosmology within which there was enough room for everyone: believers and non-believers, laymen and monks, people and animals. The gigantic cosmological system in Lamaism is centralized and hierarchically ordered. At the head of the world hierarchy is Buddha Adi-Buddha - the creator of all things. Its main attribute is emptiness as potentially any of the possible forms that can be created. The goal of human life is also not to achieve nirvana (more precisely, nirvana is an extremely distant and practically inaccessible goal), but to get into the sphere (loka) of the Universe, the most favorable for a person. As such a sphere, one of the sections of paradise most often acts, the very concept of which is borrowed from Mahayana Buddhism, which is under the auspices of the Buddha Amitaba. The immediate goal of human actions is to accumulate good karma, which will allow you to be successfully reborn and get an experienced lama as your guide in your next life, who will help you achieve the desired paradise. According to Tibetan Buddhism, in this position, which diverges from the orthodox Buddhist tradition, the achievement of nirvana is impossible without the help of the lamas, each of whom is significant not only in himself, but also as an avatar of the great bodhisattvas of the past.

Particular attention in Lamaism is paid to death and proper preparation for it, since a person can achieve enlightenment not only during life, but also in the intermediate state in which the soul is on the way from one body to another. The so-called “Tibetan Book of the Dead” is dedicated to a description of the actions that a soul must perform in order to achieve bliss and liberation from suffering, the full name of which, translated from Tibetan, is “Liberation through listening in the post-mortem state” (abbreviated as “Bardo Thodol” "). [30] This book discusses three states that the soul goes through after death:

1) Chikhai Bardo - mental states that the soul goes through immediately at the moment of death;

2) Chonyid Bardo - the state of "karmic illusions" that accompanies the stay of the soul in an intermediate incarnation;

3) Sidpa Bardo - the awakening of the birth instinct and the path of the soul towards the body intended for it.

During each of these states, the soul can free itself from the bonds that attract it to samsara, which is served by parting words designed to keep in the memory of the dying person the steps that he has to take on this path, as well as prayers and mantras read over the body of the deceased in order to facilitate the process of liberation of his soul. The easiest way to get into nirvana is instant liberation at the time of death, but if the merit accumulated during life is not enough for this, then you have to use other methods. In the second stage, the liberation of the soul is hampered by the appearance of various illusions that look material and are designed to distract the thoughts of the deceased from liberation with the help of various tricks. If they succeed, then the chance of salvation is sharply reduced, since at the third stage nirvana is practically inaccessible: all thoughts about a possible liberation are interrupted by the instinct of a new birth.

4.5. Modern Buddhism: main features

At the moment, Buddhism, despite the upheavals to which it was subjected in the 800th century, is one of the three world religions, numbering about 1959 million followers, most of whom live in East and Southeast Asia. The end of the existence of an independent Buddhist state came in 2004, when China captured Lhasa, after which the XNUMXth Dalai Lama was forced to leave the Holy City and continue his missionary work to spread the Buddhist faith outside his homeland. Currently, the conflict between the Chinese government and the Buddhist hierarchs led by the Dalai Lama remains unresolved, so numerous Buddhists living in China are forced to do without the spiritual guidance of their mentor and head, although at the instigation of the Chinese Communist Party a separate Buddhist Church of China was organized , having its own head. The XNUMXth Dalai Lama carries out active educational activities, visiting on official or unofficial visits almost all countries of the world where Buddhist communities exist (in XNUMX he visited Russia).

German religious scholar G. Rothermundt identifies the following directions for the activation of Buddhism in the 31th century. [XNUMX]

1. Strengthening the role of Buddhism in both purely religious and political aspects in Southeast Asia. Already in 1950, the World Fellowship of Buddhists was organized in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), the residence of which was moved to Thailand a few years later. Particularly noticeable manifestations of this Buddhist "renaissance" became noticeable in the 1960s, which was served by active protests by Buddhist monks against the use of napalm by the United States during the war with Vietnam. Several monks in 1963 and 1970 staged public self-immolations in protest against such an inhumane way of warfare.

2. The emergence of new religious trends and sects, the doctrine of which is dominated by the principles of the Buddhist religion. This process is especially active in Japan, where traditional Buddhist views are being reoriented in the light of modern problems and questions that ordinary people demand answers from religion. So, by the mid-1960s. the number of Buddhist sects in Japan exceeded 165, although this number does not yet mean a qualitative assimilation of Buddhist teachings. Most of these sects focus their attention not on issues of dogma, but, interpreting the main provisions of the Buddhist religion in a simplified way, turn to the solution of topical social issues, for example, they try to solve the question of the justification for the widespread use of technical innovations from a religious standpoint.

3. The revival of the Buddhist movement in India. Almost disappeared on the Hindustan Peninsula in the Middle Ages under the pressure of orthodox Hindus and Muslims, Buddhism is gradually returning to its homeland. This is obviously due to the change in Indian society itself, which is gradually being freed from caste and varna enslavement, which requires corresponding changes in the religious system. Buddhism turns out to be more convenient and in demand by the general population. The first steps towards the return of Buddhism were associated with the decision of the Indian government to allocate territory in the north of the country for the location of the residence of the Dalai Lama, who was expelled from Tibet in 1959. It was on the territory of this residence that the First World Council of Buddhists was held in 1976, with delegates from almost all over the world.

4. Striving for the gradual unification of the various Buddhist sects. This process goes in parallel with the formation of new sects, but it is aimed at reaching an agreement between the traditional areas of Buddhism, primarily between representatives of the Mahayana and Hinayana. Despite the discrepancies that exist between representatives of various branches of Buddhist teaching, the Dalai Lama has been trying in recent years to intensify the process of centralization of various sects and schools under the auspices of Tibetan Buddhism.

5. The activation of missionary activity and the penetration of Buddhism into the countries of Western Europe and the USA. A special role in this process should be recognized for Dr. Suzuki (1870-1960), a representative of Japanese Zen Buddhism. Numerous books and brochures written by him in a popular science style, which set out the postulates of Zen Buddhist teaching in a simple and accessible form, became especially popular in the second half of the XNUMXth century. Of course, such an interpretation of the Buddhist canon leads to an almost complete rejection of rituals and rituals, but much attention is paid to koans - riddles that cannot be solved with the help of logic, but can move a person to instant insight. The confession of Buddhism in such a simplified form led to a fashion for other oriental teachings - feng shui, divination from the I-ching book, etc.

To these five areas of Buddhism revitalization, one can add the sixth - the restoration and rapid development of Buddhism in Russia. The history of Russian Buddhism dates back to the 1917th century, when the peoples traditionally professing the Buddhist religion, Kalmyks, Buryats, joined the Russian Empire (at the beginning of the 1741th century, Tuvans joined them). Before the revolution of XNUMX, Buddhism was under the patronage of the Russian government: under the datsans, according to the decree of Empress Elizabeth I of XNUMX, schools were opened in which the indigenous population studied. One of the mentors of the future Dalai Lama XIII was the Buryat Lama Agvan Dorzhiev.

After the October Revolution in Russia, a struggle began against both shamanists and Buddhists. In 1931, the Mongolian and Kalmyk-Oirat types of writing were replaced by the Latin alphabet, in 1939 - by the Cyrillic alphabet. From 1927 to 1938, all 47 datsans and dugans that previously existed in the Baikal region and Buryatia were closed and destroyed. Not a single datsan operated from 1938 to 1946, only in 1947 two monasteries resumed work - Ivolginsky and Aginsky. The next increase in the number of datsans occurred only in 1991, but it was significant - by 10 at once. At present, it is in the Ivolginsky datsan that the residence of the head of Russian Buddhists and the viceroy of the Dalai Lama of KSU, who bears the title of Bandido Khambo Lama, is located.

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Author: Anikin D.A.

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