LECTURE No. 9. Psychology in Russia

1. M. V. Lomonosov: materialistic trend in psychology

In terms of its contribution to the development of world psychological thought, Russian psychology occupies one of the leading places. However, Russian psychology was bypassed in foreign historiography. Foreign historiographers (Boring, Flügel, Murphy, and others), and equally representatives of the official philosophy and psychology of pre-revolutionary Russia (Radlov, Odoevsky, Vvedensky, Shpet, and others) tried in every possible way to belittle the role of the philosophical and psychological views of advanced Russian thinkers. However, this does not serve as a basis for considering Russian psychology devoid of originality and considering it as a copy and duplicate of European psychology.

The leading role of Russia in the history of world psychology was determined by the materialistic direction in the development of Russian psychology, within which the foundations of a natural-science understanding of the nature of mental phenomena were laid, and the prerequisites were built for the transition of psychology to precise and objective methods of research.

In Russia, scientific experimental psychology was formed on the basis of the philosophical materialism of the 1711th century, the largest representatives of which were A. I. Herzen and V. G. Belinsky. N. A. Dobrolyubov, N. G. Chernyshevsky. The beginning of the materialistic tradition, which was continued by the Russian revolutionary democrats of the 1765th century, was laid in the XNUMXth century. mainly M. V. Lomonosov A. N. Radishchev. M. V. Lomonosov (XNUMX-XNUMX) became the founder of the materialistic trend in psychology. The starting point in Lomonosov's philosophy is the recognition of the existence of the world independently of man. Nature develops according to its own laws and does not need the participation of spiritual power.

Man, like all living things, is a part of nature and is distinguished by a number of vital properties, the leading of which are the mind and the word. These leading properties of man differs from animals. Since a person is considered a part of nature, the mental features that are characteristic of him are properties that have a material beginning. Mental processes are nothing but a continuation in the human body of that mechanical movement that has affected the body. Proceeding from this, for the knowledge of mental properties, the same methods are suitable that are used to study all other natural phenomena.

Being a naturalist, Lomonosov highly appreciated the role of experiments in scientific knowledge.

In constructing a psychological picture of a person, Lomonosov repelled from Locke.

Mental begins with sensations, the cause of which is the impact of external objects.

Lomonosov believed that all types of sensations (sight, taste, smell, hearing, pain, etc.) are determined by the objective properties of the physical source.

Instead of Locke's primary and secondary qualities, Lomonosov singled out general and particular qualities, equally objective, but differing from each other. Lomonosov categorically denied the theory of innate ideas.

The basis of the "invention of ideas" are sensations and perceptions, and the mechanism for the formation of ideas is associations.

Of particular importance are Lomonosov's studies in the field of psychophysiology, where he established the dependence of sensations on external stimulation, the relationship between the sense organs and the brain, determined a number of specific dependences of perception on various conditions, put forward the wave theory of color vision, etc.

2. A. N. Radishchev. Man as part of nature

In the XVIII century. the materialistic tradition continues in the writings of the original thinker and philosopher A.N. Radishcheva (1749-1802). In the multifaceted scientific system of Radishchev, the problem of man occupies a central place. Man appears to him as the most perfect part of nature. What man has in common with nature lies in the material beginning. At the same time, a person differs from physical bodies in the level of bodily organization.

"Mind" is peculiar only to man. In addition to the common features that united man with the animal world, Radishchev identifies a number of features that distinguish man from animals: upright walking, development of the hand, speech, thinking, a longer period of maturation, the ability to empathize, social life.

A significant place in Radishchev's psychological views is given to the problem of the ontogenetic development of a person's mental abilities. The organs of mental functions, he believes, are the brain, nerves and sense organs. Without them, there is neither thought nor feelings: therefore, the soul is possible only in the presence of these organs. Moreover, the soul appears only under the condition of a developed brain, nerves and sense organs. The development of mental abilities occurs as the physical maturation of a person.

Pointing out a number of stages of mental ontogenesis, Radishchev emphasized the role of education. In his opinion, education does not create qualitatively new mental forces, it teaches only their better use.

The psychic, according to Radishchev, has as its origin sensations. Radishchev objected to the metaphysical view of thinking as the sum of sensations. The genetic connection between sensations and thinking does not imply identity between them. Radishchev noticed the generalizing function of thinking, its relative freedom to act independently of sensory impressions.

Based on the active role of thinking and relying on a number of other facts, he comes to the conclusion about the existence of a special active activity of the soul, as if not dependent on the body, but influencing it.

These considerations formed the basis of the proof of the immortality of the soul.

3. Philosophical and psychological views of A. I. Herzen, V. G. Belinsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov

An important milestone in the history of Russian psychology was the philosophical and psychological views of AI Herzen.

The ideas developed by Herzen in the book "Letters on the Study of Nature" differ primarily in dialectics. Herzen succeeded in establishing the unity of philosophy and particular sciences, the unity of the empirical and the rational in cognition, the unity of being and consciousness, the unity of the natural and the historical, the unity of the sensory and the logical.

Man was considered by Herzen as a part of nature, and his consciousness - a product of historical development. In man, Herzen saw the line from which the transition from natural science to history begins.

Herzen's general views on psychology make it a science, the subject of which should be the relationship between the moral and physical sides in a person.

Psychology, relying on physiology, must move away from it towards history and philosophy. Consciousness, human thinking is a product of the higher development of matter. The material basis of consciousness is the physiological functions of the brain, and the objective content of consciousness is the objective world. The connecting link between thinking and feeling is practical activity, which for him has not yet acted as a criterion of truth.

Herzen was very positive about the empirical, experimental and experimental methods of obtaining knowledge proclaimed by Bacon.

At the same time, Herzen was far from the one-sidedness of Baconian empiricism. He considered it necessary that empiricism must be permeated and preceded by theory and speculation.

The next step forward in the development of scientific psychology is associated with the name of VG Belinsky. When evaluating a person as a whole and his mental properties, he adhered to the anthropological principle. Pointing to the unity of mental processes with physiological ones, Belinsky believed that one physiological basis is enough to explain mental phenomena.

He allowed it to be quite possible, with the help of physiology alone, "to trace the physical process of moral development."

The ideas of N. A. Dobrolyubov (1836-1861) served to strengthen the materialist tradition in scientific psychology, in which the position on the external and intra-corporeal determination of mental phenomena was emphasized with renewed vigor.

His main thoughts in the field of psychology are outlined in his critical articles: “Phrenology”, “Physiological-psychological view of the beginning and end of life”, “Organic development of man in connection with his mental and moral activity”.

When considering various issues related to the problem of man, Dobrolyubov relied on the latest data from natural science. The whole surrounding world is in constant development, in continuous movement from simple to complex, from less perfect to more perfect. The crown of nature is man with his ability to be conscious. Strength is an essential property of matter. For the human brain, that power is sensation. The brain is the only "source of higher life activity" and "mental functions are directly related to it."

Dobrolyubov directs this basic thesis against dualism. The edge of criticism was also directed against vulgar materialism. Dobrolyubov is especially sharp against phrenologists who tried to explain mental processes by the shape and volume of the brain.

So, mental phenomena are entirely based on the activity of the sense organs, nerves and brain, and the only way to detect them is to objectively observe their external bodily manifestations.

Dobrolyubov's provisions on the external determination of all mental processes are of great importance. The external world is the objective content of consciousness. It is reflected through the sense organs. There can be no objectless thought. Feelings and will also arise in us due to impressions received from external objects. Before a feeling appears, the object of this feeling must first be reflected in the brain as a thought, as an awareness of the impression.

The same is true with the will. Dobrolyubov pointed out that "the will as a separate, original ability, independent of other abilities, is impossible to admit. To a greater extent than feeling, it depends on the impressions made on our brain."

4. N. G. Chernyshevsky. Subject, tasks and method of psychology

N. G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) was an associate of Dobrolyubov. One of Chernyshevsky's merits is that he was the first among the great materialists of Russia to raise the special question of the subject, tasks, and methods of scientific psychology. He considered psychology to be one of the exact fields of knowledge.

Natural science played an exceptional role in the accumulation of knowledge and in the transition of the moral sciences to exact methods of research. The circumstance that puts psychology among the exact sciences is connected with the fact that in the field of morals, as in the field of natural phenomena, certain regularities and necessary causes operate. From this follows the main task of psychology, which should be reduced to clarifying the causes and laws of the course of mental processes. Chernyshevsky associated the formation of scientific psychology, on the one hand, with the correct definition of the subject of psychology, and, on the other hand, with the acceptance and transition of psychology to exact scientific methods of research.

What are the causes and those psychic regularities that should form the subject of psychology and which are special cases of the universal laws of nature? This is the dependence of the human psyche on the outside world, on the physiological processes occurring in the bodily organs. Another regularity is certain mutual influences within the mental processes themselves, caused by external circumstances. The emergence of all mental phenomena is necessarily associated with the activity of bodily organs. The essence of any activity is the processing of an external object. Any activity presupposes the presence of two objects, one of which acts, the other is subject to action. In this case, the essence of mental activity is the processing of an external object. The content of sensations and ideas are objects of the external world.

Chernyshevsky comes out with a scourging criticism of subjective speculations, in which the adequacy of the reflection of the external world in sensations and ideas is called into question. Thought processes develop on the basis of sensations.

Chernyshevsky assigned an important role in understanding the human psyche to needs. With the development of needs, he linked the genesis of cognitive abilities (memory, imagination, thinking). Primary needs are organic needs, the degree of satisfaction of which affects the emergence and level of moral and aesthetic needs.

Animals are endowed with only physical needs, they only determine and direct the mental life of the animal.

The higher the development of a person, the more weight is given to him by the "private aspirations" of each organ for the independent development of its forces and the enjoyment of its activity.

Chernyshevsky's great achievement in the analysis of the human psyche is the distinction between temperament and character. He pointed out that temperament is due to heredity or natural factors. As for character, it is determined mainly by the conditions of life, upbringing and actions of the person himself. Therefore, the essence of a person, his character and thoughts should be known through his practical deeds. Chernyshevsky, more than any of the Russian materialists, came to an understanding of the social conditioning of mental development. The anthropological principle of Chernyshevsky had a positive meaning in the sense that it provided a natural scientific basis for mental phenomena, asserted their material conditionality.

The derivation of mental phenomena from natural principles and the laying of a physiological basis for them served as a sure guide and indication for the transition of psychology to precise, experimental methods of research.

5. P. D. Yurkevich about the soul and inner experience

Chernyshevsky's first opponent was the idealist philosopher P. D. Yurkevich. The main argument against the idea of ​​the unity of the organism was the doctrine of "two experiments".

Yurkevich defended "experimental psychology, according to which mental phenomena belong to a world devoid of all the definitions inherent in physical bodies, and are cognizable in their essence only by the subject who directly experiences them.

The word "experience" gave reason to say that psychology, using this inner experience, is an empirical field of knowledge and thus acquires the dignity of other strictly experimental sciences, alien to metaphysics.

Chernyshevsky's "anthropological principle" rejected this empiricism, created a philosophical basis for asserting an objective method instead of the subjective one.

The same principle, postulating the unity of human nature in all its manifestations, and therefore also mental ones, rejected the previous concept of the reflex, dating back to Descartes, according to which the body was split into two tiers - automatic bodily movements (reflexes) and actions controlled by consciousness and will.

Chernyshevsky's opponents believed that there was only one alternative to this "two-tier" model of behavior, namely, the view of this behavior as purely reflex. The person thus acquired the image of a neuromuscular drug. Therefore, Yurkevich demanded "to stay on the path that was indicated by Descartes."

Turning to the dispute between Chernyshevsky and Yurkevich, we find ourselves at the origins of the entire subsequent development of Russian psychological thought.

The ideas of the "anthropological principle" led to a new science of behavior. It was based on an objective method as opposed to a subjective one.

She used the deterministic concept of the reflex discovered by physiology in order to transform it in order to explain mental processes on a new basis, which, according to the testament of the anthropological principle, preserved the organism as an integrity, where the bodily and spiritual are inseparable and inseparable.

6. I. V. Sechenov: a mental act is like a reflex

Based on two directions of Russian philosophical and psychological thought, Sechenov proposed his own approach to the development of fundamental problems of psychology. He did not identify a mental act with a reflex one, but pointed out the similarities in their structure. This made it possible to transform previous ideas about the psyche and its determination.

Comparing the psyche with a reflex, Sechenov argued that, just as a reflex begins with the contacts of an organism with an external object, a mental act has such contacts as its first link. Then, during the reflex, the external influence passes to the centers of the brain.

In the same way, the second link of the psychic act unfolds in the centers. And, finally, its third link, as in the reflex, is muscle activity.

A new important point was the discovery by Sechenov in the brain of the reflex inhibition apparatus. This discovery showed that the body not only reflects external influences, but is also capable of delaying them, that is, not reacting to them. This manifests his special activity, his ability not to follow the lead of the environment, but to resist it.

With regard to the psyche, Sechenov explained both the process of thinking and the will with his discovery.

A combative person is distinguished by the ability to resist influences unacceptable to him, no matter how strong they may be, to suppress unwanted inclinations. This is achieved by the braking apparatus. Thanks to this apparatus, invisible acts of thinking also arise. It delays the movement, and then only the first two-thirds of the whole act remain.

Motor operations, due to which the body performs the analysis and synthesis of perceived external signals, however, do not disappear. Thanks to inhibition, they go "from outside to inside."

This process was later called internalization (transition from outside to inside). A person does not get his inner psychic world ready. He builds it with his active actions. It happens objectively. Therefore, psychology must work by an objective method.

7. Development of experimental psychology

The success of psychology was due to the introduction of an experiment into it. The same applies to its development in Russia. Scientific youth sought to master this method. The experiment required the organization of special laboratories, N. N. Lange organized them at the Novorossiysk University. At Moscow University, laboratory work was carried out by A. A. Tokarsky, at Yuriev University by V. V. Chizh, at Kharkov University by P. I. Kovalevsky, and at Kazan University by V. M. Bekhterev.

In 1893, Bekhterev moved from Kazan to St. Petersburg, taking the chair of nervous and mental illnesses at the Military Medical Academy. Having accepted Sechenov's ideas and the concept of advanced Russian philosophers about the integrity of man as a natural and spiritual being, he was looking for ways to comprehensively study the activity of the human brain.

He saw ways to achieve complexity in the union of various sciences (morphology, histology, pathology, embryology of the nervous system, psychophysiology, psychiatry, etc.). He himself conducted research in all these areas.

Being a brilliant organizer, he headed many collectives, created a number of journals, where articles were also published on experimental psychology.

A doctor by education A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) was in charge of the psychology laboratory. He developed characterology as the study of individual differences.

Explaining them, he singled out two spheres: the endopsyche as the innate basis of the personality and the exosphere, understood as the system of relations of the personality to the surrounding world. On this basis, he built a system for classifying individuals. Dissatisfaction with laboratory experimental methods prompted him to come up with a plan to develop a natural experiment as a method in which deliberate interference with human behavior is combined with a natural and relatively simple environment of experience.

Thanks to this, it becomes possible to study not individual functions, but the personality as a whole.

The Institute of Experimental Psychology, founded in Moscow by Chelpanov, became the main center for the development of problems in experimental psychology.

A research and educational institution was built, which had no equal in terms of working conditions and equipment at that time in other countries.

Chelpanov put a lot of effort into teaching experimental methods to future researchers in the field of psychology. The positive side of the institute's activities was the high experimental culture of research conducted under the guidance of Chelpanov.

When organizing the experiment, Chelpanov continued to defend as the only acceptable kind of experiment in psychology, which deals with evidence of the subject's observations of his own states of consciousness.

The decisive difference between psychology and other sciences was seen in its subjective method.

An important difference between the doctrine that developed in Russia was the assertion of the principle of active behavior. Interest in the question of how, without deviating from the deterministic interpretation of man, to explain his ability to take an active position in the world, and not just to be dependent on external stimuli, sharply escalated interest.

The idea is emerging that the selective nature of reactions to external influences, focus on it, are based not in immaterial willpower, but in special properties of the central nervous system, accessible, like all its other properties, to objective knowledge and experimental analysis.

Three prominent Russian researchers, Pavlov, Bekhterev, and Ukhtomsky independently came to similar ideas about the active installation of the organism in relation to the environment. They were engaged in neurophysiology and proceeded from the reflex concept, but enriched it with important ideas. A special reflex was identified in the functions of the nervous system. Bekhterev called it the concentration reflex. Pavlov called it an indicative, adjusting reflex.

This newly distinguished type of reflexes differed from the conditioned ones in that, being a response to external stimulation, in the form of a complex muscular reaction of the organism, it ensured the concentration of the organism on the object and its better perception.

8. Reflexology

A fundamentally new approach to the subject of psychology was formed under the influence of the works of I. P. Pavlov (1859-1936) and V. M. Bekhterev (1857-1927). Experimental psychology arose from the study of the sense organs. Therefore, in those days, she considered the products of the activity of these organs - sensations - to be her subject.

Pavlov and Bekhterev turned to the higher nerve centers of the brain. Instead of isolated consciousness, they asserted a new object, namely, holistic behavior. Since now instead of feeling, the reflex has become the initial concept, this direction has become known under the name of reflexology.

Pavlov published his program in 1903, calling it "Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology in Animals". To understand the revolutionary meaning of Pavlov's doctrine of behavior, one should bear in mind that he called it the doctrine of higher nervous activity. It was not about replacing some words with others, but about a radical transformation of the entire system of categories in which this activity was explained.

Whereas previously a reflex meant a rigidly fixed, stereotyped reaction, Pavlov introduced the principle of conventionality into this concept. Hence his main term - "conditioned reflex". This meant that the body acquires and changes the program of its actions depending on the conditions - external and internal.

Pavlov's modeling experience consisted in working out the reaction of the salivary gland of a dog to sound, light, etc. Using this ingeniously simple model, Pavlov discovered the laws of higher nervous activity. Behind each simple experiment was a dense network of concepts developed by the Pavlovian school (about a signal, temporal connection, reinforcement, inhibition, differentiation, control, etc.), which made it possible to causally explain, predict and modify behavior.

Ideas similar to Pavlov's were developed in the book "Objective Psychology" (1907) by Bekhterev, who gave conditioned reflexes another name: combinational.

There were differences between the views of the two scientists, but both stimulated psychologists to radically restructure their ideas about the subject of psychology.

9. P. P. Blonsky - psychology of child development

Blonsky considered behavior from the point of view of its development as a special historical process that depends on social influences in a person ("Essays on Scientific Psychology" (1921)). He attached particular importance to the practical orientation of psychology, which allows "the politician, the judge, the moralist" to act effectively. Developing a comparative genetic approach to the psyche, Blonsky analyzed its evolution, which was interpreted as a series of periods with distinctive features, and the difference between the periods was considered due to changes in a large complex of factors related to the biology of the organism, its chemistry, the ratio between the cortex and subcortical centers. The most significant of Blonsky's psychological works is his work Memory and Thinking (1935). Adhering to the genetic approach, he singles out different types of memory that have replaced each other as dominant in different age periods. In ontogenesis, he allocates motor memory, which is replaced by affective, the latter - figurative memory, and at the highest level of development - logical. A new principle in the development of memory is introduced by human speech. Verbal memory is formed.

His work prompted to highlight the role of learning in the mental development of schoolchildren.

Blonsky's research is characterized by an attitude toward correlating the child's mental development with the development of other aspects of his body and personality. He attached particular importance to work as a factor in the formation of positive personal qualities.

Special attention was paid to the problem of sexual education of adolescents. The works of Blonsky played an important role in the scientific explanation of both intellectual and emotional processes, interpreted in the context of the unity of solving psychological and pedagogical problems with an emphasis on fostering love for work.

10. Unity of consciousness and activity

The studies of M. Ya. Basov (1892-1931) were usually attributed to a special science - pedology.

It meant a comprehensive study of the child, covering all aspects of his development - not only psychological, but also anthropological, genetic, physiological, etc.

Prior to Basov, the views on the subject of psychology were sharply opposed to each other by supporters of the long-recognised belief that this subject is consciousness, and supporters of the new belief, who believed that it was behavior. After Basov, the picture changed. It is necessary, he believed, to move to a completely new plane. To rise above what the subject is aware of and above what is manifested in his external actions, not mechanically combine one and the other, but include them in a qualitatively new structure. He called it activity.

Adherents of structuralism believed that the mental structure consists of elements of consciousness, gestaltism - from the dynamics of mental forms (gestalts), functionalism - from the interaction of functions (perception, memory, will, etc.), behaviorism - from stimuli and reactions, reflexology - from reflexes. Basov, on the other hand, suggested that activity be considered a special structure, consisting of separate acts and mechanisms, the links between which are regulated by the task.

The structure can be stable, stable. But it can also be created anew each time. In any case, activity is subjective. Behind all its acts and mechanisms is a subject, "man as an actor in the environment."

Labor is a special form of interaction of its participants with each other and with nature. It is qualitatively different from the behavior of animals. Its primary regulator is the goal to which both the body and the soul of the subjects of the labor process are subject.

Basov, heading the pedological department of the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute. Herzen, invited Rubinstein to the Department of Psychology, where he wrote his main work "Fundamentals of General Psychology" (1940). The leitmotif of labor was the principle of "unity of consciousness and activity."

The idea that a person's communication with the world is not direct and immediate, but is accomplished only through his real actions with the objects of this world, changed the entire system of previous views on consciousness. Its dependence on objective actions, and not on external objects in itself, becomes the most important problem in psychology.

Consciousness, setting goals, projects the activity of the subject and reflects reality in sensory and mental images. It was assumed that the nature of consciousness is initially social, conditioned by social relations.

Since these relations change from epoch to epoch, consciousness is also a historically changeable product.

The position that everything that happens in the mental sphere of a person is rooted in his activity was also developed by A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979).

At first he followed the line outlined by Vygotsky. But then, highly appreciating Basov's ideas about the "morphology" of activity, he proposed his own scheme for its organization and transformation at various levels: in the evolution of the animal world, the history of human society, and also in the individual development of a person - "Problems of the development of the psyche" (1959).

Activity is a special integrity. It includes various components: motives, goals, actions. They cannot be considered separately. They form a system.

Appeal to activity as a form of existence inherent in a person makes it possible to include in a wide social context the study of the main psychological categories (image, action, motive, attitude, personality), which form an internally connected system.

Author: Luchinin A.S.

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