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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Social science. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
Section I. HUMAN SOCIETY 1. The concept of society and its essence Concept societies means a reasonably organized joint life and activities of large groups of people. These groups are united on the basis of common interests, needs, unity of language, views, foundations, traditions, origin, ideology, religion. It should be noted that in the very word society there is a root "general", expressing unity. It follows that the concept of society in its original sense meant community, union, cooperation, unification. It is society that is the main condition for a more or less normal life and development of people, for one person, left to himself, is powerless. Therefore, an important element in the formation of society is the unity, solidarity of people. Society is a universal way of organizing social ties, interactions and relationships between people. These connections, interactions and relationships of people are formed on a common basis, which is usually considered "interests", "needs", "motives", "attitudes", "values", etc. Society is heterogeneous and includes various phenomena and processes. The constituent elements of society are people, social institutions and organizations, social groups and communities. Each of these elements is in close connection with others and plays a certain role in the functioning of society as a whole. Social communities are created, as a rule, on the basis of the joint existence of people. Social groups are mainly formed depending on their place in the system of social production and social hierarchy. It is precisely because of its structure that society is qualitatively different from an arbitrary chaotic accumulation of people. The social structuring of public life gives it a stable character, gives rise to a new integral systemic quality that cannot be reduced to the sum of individual people. As a result, society acquires a certain independence in relation to its constituent elements, a relatively independent way of development. The structure of society is considered from various angles. Usually, such spheres of the life of society as material and production, social, political, managerial and spiritual are distinguished. Another approach to the structuring of society is associated with the allocation of processes of functioning and development in public life. The functioning of society is expressed in such social phenomena as socialization, the formation of social institutions, social stratification and mobility, social organization and social control. Development finds its expression in change through evolution or revolution. 2. Society and nature Society as a social organism interacts with its natural environment. The basis of this interaction is the exchange of substances with the natural environment, the consumption of natural products, and the impact on nature. Nature also affects society, providing it with favorable or unfavorable conditions for functioning and development. Often man and society are opposed to nature. The attitude towards nature as lower than everything created by man put man in the position of a conqueror of nature. Today, the inextricable connection between nature and society is recognized, which is mutual. Man and society originate from nature and cannot develop outside of nature, in isolation from it. But at the same time, man is the highest stage in the development of living nature, he also has a qualitatively new, special phenomenon - social properties that grow out of the interaction of people with each other. Consequently, one can neither equate the concepts of "nature" and "society", nor absolutely break and oppose them. Nature and society - these are two forms of manifestation of a single reality, which in human knowledge correspond to two main areas of natural science and social science. The scientific distinction between these concepts makes it possible to correctly understand the dual - natural-social, biosocial basis of man and society, not allowing both ignoring the natural principles in man and society, and denying the leading, decisive role of the social in this unity. Historical experience shows that any attempts to build socio-economic projects without taking into account and even more so contrary to the natural, natural needs of people and society invariably ended in failure. On the other hand, attempts to mechanistically transfer the laws of nature to society led to no less negative consequences in practice. Speaking about the isolation of society from nature, they usually mean its qualitative specifics, but not isolation from nature and the processes of its natural development. It is impossible to analyze a society without taking into account its interaction with nature, since it lives in nature. But due to the growing degree of society's influence on nature, the scope of the natural habitat is expanding and some natural processes are accelerating: new properties are accumulating that are increasingly moving it away from its virgin state. If we deprive the natural environment of its properties, created by the labor of many generations, and put modern society in the original natural conditions, then it will not be able to exist. 3. Environmental problems Ecology (from the Greek oikos - dwelling, residence) is the science of the native home of mankind, of the living conditions of people. In a stricter definition, ecology is a complex scientific direction that studies the patterns of interaction between living things and the external conditions of their habitat in order to maintain the dynamic balance of the society-nature system. It is known that human activity is the channel through which a constant "exchange of substances" between man and nature is carried out. With the development of the practically transformative activity of man, the scale of his intervention in the natural connections of nature has also increased. For a long time, man took from nature as much as his own productive forces allowed. But the scientific and technological revolution confronted man with a new problem - with the problem of limited natural resources, a possible violation of the balance of the system, with the need to respect nature. At the present stage, the need to regulate interactions in the society-nature system is recognized, taking into account the nature and boundaries of the permissible impact of society on nature in order not only to preserve it, but also to reproduce it. Now it has become clear that man's influence on nature should take place not contrary to its laws, but on the basis of their knowledge. Visible dominance over nature turns into irreparable damage to both nature and man. Therefore, as he said F. Bacon, man must dominate nature, obeying it. However, human impact on nature tends to disturb the established balance of ecological processes. Modern humanity has come close to global environmental problems that threaten its existence: air pollution, depletion and damage to the soil cover, chemical contamination of the water basin. Man, as a result of his own activity, has entered into a dangerous contradiction with the conditions of his dwelling. Awareness of the possibility of global catastrophes leads to the need for a reasonable harmonization of interactions in the society-nature system. According to many scientists, the noospheric development (from the Greek noos - mind, mind), which is the sphere of the living and reasonable, will help to rectify the situation. Noosphere - a special reality associated with deeper forms of society's transformative impact on nature. It involves not only the use of scientific achievements, but also the reasonable cooperation of all mankind, high humanistic principles of attitude towards nature - the home of people. 4. Society as a system Society is a complex system. The word system is of Greek origin, meaning "whole", "collection". The system includes interacting parts6 subsystems and elements. Connections and relationships between parts are of primary importance. Various changes and development take place in the system, new parts appear and old parts and connections between them die off. The nature of the unification of the elements of society into a single whole, into a system, is determined by objective social laws. The nature of the development of the system is influenced by the natural factor, but much also depends on the subjective factor - the will, interests and conscious activity of individuals and entire social groups. In the process of development of society, the leading component is the technology of ensuring the vital needs of a person. It developed from an appropriating and consuming type of management to a producing one. It is the productive type of management, expressed in the creation of the productive forces of society, which are regulated by satisfying human needs in the conditions of a certain development of productive relations, that formed the fundamental basis of society - its material production. New forms of ensuring one's life have found expression in the corresponding types of organization of society, the formation of its culture. Human society exists and develops, constantly reproducing its systemic, structural and functional relationships. Each new stage of social development is characterized by the fact that it uses all previous achievements. This is due to the transfer of material and technical, managerial, technological, spiritual and cultural heritage. Production and technological forms of activity are transferred in the form of material products, information, knowledge, skills and abilities. Human society in various forms of its life activity is presented, first of all, in the form of interaction of not only material, but also spiritual components. The material side of this interaction creates the initial conditions for the life of people. The transformation of natural materials is carried out in specific historical forms of labor activity in accordance with the social needs of people. The spiritual realm provides awareness of this process. Both of these sides are inseparable unity, ensuring the vital activity and self-development of society. The tendency towards survival, characteristic of any biological formation, is also inherent in society. Only in society is it not a natural instinct, but a conscious goal. 5. Orientation of social development There are different approaches to the analysis of social development. Scientists are trying to explain the process of transition of society from one state to another within the framework of linear, cyclic or nonlinear type of change. Linear type social dynamics considers all history as a movement directed forward in time and space. Linear dynamics involves progress (forward movement) and regression, i.e., it can be reproduced as a descending line in changing society. linear progress and regress represent a contradictory unity of opposites, one of which at a certain stage plays a dominant role. In general historical terms, linear progress and regress replace each other when the potential for growth on its own basis is exhausted. A certain influence on the limits of linear dynamics is exerted by the nature of the interaction of society with the natural and social environment. At the same time, the limits of the linear progress of society can be expanded by overcoming the historical gap by assimilating the social experience of the countries that are ahead. Cyclic processes are widespread in public life. Usually, cycles are understood as a certain set of phenomena, processes, the sequence of which represents a certain circuit for a certain period of time. The end point of the cycle, as it were, repeats the original, but only in different conditions or at a different level. Cyclical social changes occur in accordance with the seasons, but may span periods of several years or even several centuries. A clear example of the cyclic nature of social dynamics is the change of generations of people. Many social institutions, communities and even entire societies change in a cyclic pattern - the emergence, growth, flourishing, crisis and decay, the emergence of a new phenomenon. Many structures in society - social, economic, political, spiritual - are subject to such a scheme of changes. Cyclical changes are a cycle, they repeat the trends of the past. Each of the cyclic processes has similarities and repeating states. Cyclic processes contribute to the reproduction of the social system, are a way of existence and preservation of society. But society can change in an unpredictable way, that is, in a non-linear or cyclical manner. The random nature of development processes is studied by synergetics. The transition of society from one state to another can be unpredictable. The historical process is multivariate. 6. Revolutionary and evolutionary changes Concepts "evolution" and "revolution" help to understand the nature of social change. Often these concepts are seen as contradictory. Evolutionary processes are identified with gradual changes, revolutions with radical changes in the development of natural and social phenomena. But there are no absolute boundaries between revolution and evolution. Revolutions contain significant evolutionary inclusions, in many cases they take place in an evolutionary form. In turn, evolution is not limited to gradual changes, it also includes qualitative leaps. Consequently, gradual quantitative and qualitative changes in society are interdependent and interpenetrating links of one and the same development process. Social revolutions as a transition to a qualitatively new stage of development are natural. They do not represent any, even qualitative, but fundamental changes in the entire sphere of society. Social revolutions play a progressive role: they resolve numerous contradictions that accumulate during the evolutionary development of society; raise social development to a new level, discard everything obsolete. But in the twentieth century the attitude towards revolutionary processes is being revised. The position of the English historian and philosopher is most indicative in this regard. A. Toynbeewho, while recognizing the objectivity of the revolution, nevertheless evaluates it as a slowdown in progress. Toynbee believes that the revolution, destroying the obsolete order, at the same time produces such enormous destruction that they negate the positive aspects of the revolution. Therefore, modern science, without denying the revolutionary form of development, shifts the center of gravity in the analysis of social changes to an evolutionary, reformist form. In this regard, the theory of modernization is of interest, considering the process of transition of a traditional society to a modern one. Modernization has long been understood as "Westernization", that is, copying Western foundations in all areas of life. Modernization was described as a form of "catch-up" development, in which it was assumed that reaching a certain level of per capita income would automatically bring about changes in other areas of life. But this view did not stand up to the test of reality. At the present stage, neither reform nor revolution are absolutized. Both great revolutions and great reforms are known in social life. For example, the reforms of the ancient ruler Solon and many others. Today it is recognized that revolutionary explosions are the result of the inability of the power structures to carry out urgently needed fundamental reforms. 7. Social progress Progress (from lat. progressus - moving forward) there is such a direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from lower to higher, from less perfect to more perfect. The merit of putting forward the idea and developing the theory of social progress belongs, first of all, to the philosophers of the second half of the XNUMXth century, and the formation of capitalism served as the socio-economic basis for the very emergence of the idea of progress. The criteria for progress were the level of material well-being of members of society, the degree of social justice and equality, individual freedom and morality, the development of science and technology, the solidarity of members of society, etc. Classical ideas about progress see it as the movement of mankind towards a more developed state, and the movement is steady, which continues, despite deviations and accidents. Ideas about progress have long been based on the understanding of the irreversibility of linear time, a linear type of development, when progress is determined by the logic of previous development and is evaluated as a positive difference between past and present or present and future. However, after the First World War, doubts arose about the progressiveness of development, and especially doubts about moral progress. It has become clear and indisputable that progress in one area can lead to regression in another. The optimistic idea of the linear progressive development of mankind began to be criticized. But can we say that the idea of progress has exhausted its purpose? Modern scientists do not deny the idea of progress in existence. But there are scientists who believe that it is necessary to abandon the traditional understanding of the concept of "progress", since it implies a constant direction of change, while history proves that changes sometimes not only slow down, but stop and even reverse. A linear trend - up, down, forward - does not exist, the line is non-linear and indefinite, it is impossible to predict the direction of development. Scientists also believe that the value aspect should be removed from the theory of progress, because it is relative in nature (in fact, it is very problematic to consider the later stages of human development to be better than the previous ones.) At the present stage, much attention is paid to the "human dimension" of any changes, innovations. A modern assessment of development trends is based not on recognizing the role of the unprecedented development of science and technology, but on recognizing the priority influence of humanitarian knowledge. 8. Typology of societies Typology (from the Greek typos - imprint, form, sample and logos - word, teaching) - a method of scientific knowledge, which is based on the division of a system of objects and their grouping using a generalizing model. The need for typology arises when science deals with extremely heterogeneous sets of objects and solves the problem of their ordered description. Thinkers have come to the conclusion about the necessity and possibility of isolating certain stages of the development of society since ancient times. The typology of societies was associated with attempts to substantiate the "ideal society" project. The need for a typology was also caused by the pressure of the accumulated historical material. At the present stage, the most universal are formational and civilizational typologies. Formation model developed K. Marx. According to it, humanity moves from one stage to another. One or another stage of development corresponds to a socio-economic formation, which is distinguished on the basis of the dominant type of production, which is described as a historically specific unity of productive forces and production relations. K. Marx identified three socio-economic formations: primary (primitive, archaic), secondary (economic, based on private property), tertiary (communist). Historical development appears as a successive change of socio-economic formations. The decisive role in the development of society, according to Marxist theory, is played by production (economic) relations. They act as the basis of the formation that determines the superstructure of society, that is, the dominant ideas and views and the organizations corresponding to them. The transition from one formation to another is caused by contradictions, which in an antagonistic society take the form of class struggle, the highest form of which is the social revolution, the victory of which marks the transition to the communist formation. The formational approach did not suit all researchers. The basis for the criticism of the formation scheme was the fact that in its "pure" form in no country is a socio-economic formation found: there are always such social ties and institutions that belong to other formations. Among scientists, there was a growing desire to change the formational approach to a large-scale - civilizational one, which is based on identifying the commonality of the evolution of peoples, searching for similar ways of their development. The civilizational approach allows us to understand the genesis, features and trends in the development of various communities. Section II. SOCIETY AND CIVILIZATION 9. Essence of civilization Term civilization (from lat. civilis - civil, state) has a very wide range of meanings. It is usually used as a synonym for culture. As a state of society that embodies the most rational way of reproducing life in the given historical conditions and the most humane forms of human existence. As a stage of social development following barbarism. As the level of development of material and the degree of degradation of spiritual culture, as the final stage of the cultural evolution of any community, associated with the decline, decline of high culture. This position was defended by the German culturologist O. Spengler in his work "The Decline of Europe". As a large interethnic community of people, united by fundamental spiritual values and ideals, having special stable features in the socio-political organization, culture, economy and a psychological sense of belonging to this community - the definition of A. Toynbee, given by him in his work "Comprehension of History" and which has become the most popular in science. All the variety of approaches presented can be reduced to two main ones: the identification of culture and civilization and their opposition. Another approach in the views of civilization is based on the assertion of the priority of the universal connection of individuals and groups, through which a large-scale unity is created in space and time. These connections make it possible to subdivide societies into pre-industrial, traditional; industrial and post-industrial societies. Any civilization is characterized not only by specific economic, social and political relations, but also by its own system of spiritual values. It is the values that unite people in a civilizational community and ensure its unity. This circumstance led to the fact that a number of researchers began to identify culture and civilization. Culture, "civilization" in this case is opposed to "savagery", "barbarism". There is another point of view. According to her, culture - all the best in man, and civilization is associated only with standardized mass production. But most researchers consider spiritual values the basis of any civilization, therefore they do not oppose culture to civilization. The involvement of the civilizational component in the analysis of society made it possible to make his vision panoramic, to better understand social processes and phenomena. But a better understanding of social processes will be facilitated by the convergence of the civilizational approach and the traits of formational analysis that have justified themselves. 10. Types of civilizations Civilization is a specific form of existence and development of society. The prerequisites for the emergence of human civilization appear already in primitive society, when the rudiments of material and spiritual culture arise. The beginning of human civilization is called the period when savagery and barbarism are replaced by a society based on a cultural and social basis. It is clear that this period is a whole epoch, which gradually accumulated the actual social foundations of society: a collective way of life, the satisfaction of human needs. The moment when the actual social order began to dominate over the natural one can be considered the beginning of human civilization. Following the established classification, the following types of civilizations can be distinguished: - cosmogenic; - technogenic or industrial; - post-industrial or information civilization. The first type of civilization covers Ancient world and the Middle Ages. It was based on gun technology and manual technology, characterized by a great dependence of society on natural forces, environmental conditions - the world space (hence the name of civilization). The basis of technogenic civilization is machine technology and machine technology. This is due to the development of science and technology, the gradual transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. The social structure of this civilization is associated with hired labor, market relations, and a high level of labor productivity. In a technogenic civilization, it is impossible to avoid contradictions, which are sometimes resolved through social revolutions. But people in this epoch also seize the possibilities of reforming social relations. According to scientists, by the 70s. In the twentieth century, industrial technologies and the type of civilization based on them have exhausted the possibilities for the further development of society. This has found its expression in a number of global crisis phenomena and global problems of mankind: the threat of global wars, the ecological crisis, the depletion of natural resources. In this regard, an important problem is the understanding of the further development of society. It is understood as the formation of an information civilization. Its appearance is associated with qualitative changes in the information field of society, with the formation of a single information space, the prototype of which is the global Internet. It is information technology that forms the basis of a new type of civilization - post-industrial. The information saturation of technological processes requires an increase in the level of culture and education of members of society. 11. West and East In the typology of civilizations, many scientists, politicians, publicists use the most common division of the world into two megasystems (from Greek megas - big): East and West. Eastern civilizations are traditional. Indeed, traditions and customs have been and are being given special importance here. The older generation acts as the guardian of traditions, and it is they who are surrounded by honor and respect. The main spiritual values of Eastern civilization have developed on the basis of religious and philosophical teachings - Taoism, Buddhism, Confucianism. In the East, following the natural course of things was welcomed, man here did not act as the "king of nature." The state played a special role in the East. The Eastern states were predominantly despotisms. At the head was the supreme ruler - the king, emperor, shah, sultan, who was considered the owner of the main wealth of agrarian societies - land. The presence of "supreme" state property gave rise to the absence of private ownership of land. This characteristic, following K. Marx, is considered to be formative and in this regard, the essence of the development of all Eastern societies is designated by the term "Asiatic mode of production." Eastern societies for the colossal role that the state played in their lives are called etatist (state). They are characterized by an exclusively vertical nature of ties. The power of the monarch was not limited by anyone and nothing, moreover, it was consecrated as God-given. If the world of the East maintained the stability of civilizational foundations, then the West experienced many civilizational changes. Today, such features as a market economy, legally protected private property, civil society, democracy, the rule of law, class stratification, mass production and culture are associated with the concept of "Western society". In the West, the beginning of the rupture of man with nature was laid. Later, on this basis, a desire arose to conquer nature, which ultimately gave rise to environmental problems. The focus on transformation led to a break with tradition. Ideas about development gradually acquired a linear character. From this perception, the idea of progress, rapid movement forward, was subsequently born. Christianity has significantly influenced the formation of the values of the West. A true revolution in the views of people was made by Protestantism, whose ethics, according to M. Weber, were of great importance for the formation of capitalism. Rational thinking has become widespread in the West, giving activity a pragmatic character. 12. Primary type of civilizations This type of civilization is called a non-progressive form of existence of human communities and is identified with the culture of the non-literate stage of primitive history. But the ancient people took a giant step - they moved to a cultural state. In the Stone Age (Paleolithic) cardinal changes took place in the life of an ancient person. At this time it appears Homo sapiens. Man invents not only primitive tools made of flint, but also more complex tools - bows and arrows. Man has learned to make fire. It was during this period that exogamy was cultivated - such a structure of society in which marriages between representatives of the same clan are prohibited. During this period, a person also changed physiologically: he completely became upright, the volume of his brain increased. An important turning point in the development of man is associated with the "Paleolithic revolution", the meaning of which was that man moved to the productive branches of labor - agriculture and animal husbandry. This is connected with the transition from a nomadic to a sedentary way of life, the emergence of settlement structures. The social structure was significantly transformed, marriage relations were streamlined, and a system of taboos was introduced. One of them - the ban on incest (incest) - many researchers consider the true moment of the emergence of man in the full sense of the word. The most ancient form of social organization was matriarchy, gradually the situation changed in favor of patriarchy. During this period, the first cultural form arose - a myth, the fundamental basis of which was the humanization of nature, the kinship of man with the outside world. Man at that time did not distinguish himself from nature, but was part of it. To survive, he had to find powerful patrons among the creatures inhabiting the world. These patrons became his gods, before whom a person experienced fear and hope. Sacred forces were identified with some animals and plants. This belief system is called totemism. Another belief characteristic of the myth was fetishism - the worship of inanimate objects, which were prescribed the ability to protect people. Another form of ancient religion - animism, belief in the animation of any phenomena of the world. From myth, mythical ceremonials and rituals, art stands out - drawings, dances, verbal creativity. Magical representations also played an equally important role in the early stages of history. The forms of magical rituals were very diverse: love, healing magic, magic aimed at providing favorable conditions for work. 13. Early Civilizations In the III millennium BC. e. the first civilizations were born - Egyptian, Babylonian, somewhat later Indian and Chinese, civilizational communities also arose in Asia Minor and Western Asia, in Palestine. The center of European civilization was the south of the Balkans, the Cretan-Mycenaean (Minoan) culture, which began in the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. the ancient Greek world. At the turn of our era, the first civilizations appeared on the American continent: the Incas, the Aztecs, the Maya. Ancient civilizations, with all their diversity, still represent a certain unity, in contrast to the primitive state of society. The emergence and development of cities, writing, the complication of social relations filled historical time with new content. Of course, the civilizations of antiquity retained much of the primitive society and, above all, dependence on nature, mythological forms of thinking, rituals focused on natural cycles. The religious beliefs of the ancient peoples reflected the change of seasons, the dying and rebirth of nature. However, the nature of the interaction of society with nature in the transition from primitive society to the most ancient civilizations changes significantly. This was due to the ever-expanding knowledge of people about nature, with their desire to make fuller use of its wealth to meet needs. The dependence of people on nature was still great, but the mastery of metals, the accumulation of knowledge, and their transmission through writing, strengthened the possibilities of people. The transition from primitive to civilization is also associated with changes in the nature of the interaction of people in society, the birth of new types of social relations. A new unit of social organization came to the fore - the family, which supplanted the primitive clan. During this period, a more complex form of social organization arises - the state. The initial task of the state was to build irrigation systems, with the help of which ancient people increased the size of fertile territories. The state acted as the organizer of these works. Later, the state acquires a wider range of functions and loses its direct connection with the construction of irrigation systems. The emergence of the state was facilitated by the emergence of social inequality and private property. The state acted as a means of protecting private property, that is, in the final analysis, as a protective and punitive body. Many provisions and truths that are relevant to the world of ancient people become clear only in the context of history, but, nevertheless, many achievements of the ancients help to better understand modern life. 14. Ancient civilization European civilization has its roots in the period antiquities. The ancient culture of the Mediterranean is considered the greatest creation of man. Antique culture expanded the boundaries of historical existence, rightfully declaring itself to be the universal significance of architecture and sculpture, poetry and dramaturgy, natural science and philosophical knowledge. Ancient Greece for many centuries did not represent a single geographical space. In socio-political terms, it existed within the framework of a special state system - city-states, most often defined by natural boundaries. But, despite these differences, ancient culture allows us to speak of itself as a certain integrity. What are the characteristics of ancient Greek culture? First of all, this culture cosmological. The cosmos is its absolute. Cosmos in Greek is not only the surrounding world, the Universe, but also order, the world whole, opposing Chaos. The Greeks perceived the surrounding world as beautiful, harmonious, and this attitude permeates the entire ancient culture, the leading category of which is the measure. The Greeks attached great importance to the harmony of the cosmos, nature, and man. ancient culture rational. The Greeks, perceiving many phenomena speculatively and on faith, subjected these views to proof. In the center of the ancient picture of the world was a man, so the ancient culture is anthropocentric. The cult of the body was great in Greek culture. The human body has become the measure of all forms of culture - architecture, sculpture, philosophy, physics, mathematics, astronomy, etc. However, the body was only one of the components of a harmonious personality. Every citizen of the Greek polis had to strive for the ideal kalokagatii (from the Greek words kalos - "beautiful" and agathos - "good", "kind"). The ideal of kalokagatiya meant the combination in a person of the beauty of an impeccable body and moral inner perfection. This was achieved through exercises, education and upbringing, which involved the development of physical and mental abilities in equal degree. Ancient culture was characterized competitiveness. This feature was embodied in artistic and sports competitions (the Olympic Games, the Pythian Games in Delphi, dedicated to Apollo, etc.). The Greek agon (competition, struggle) personified the ability of a free Greek to take part in the life of his policy. Greek culture is festive. Usually the holidays were accompanied by songs, dances, dramatic performances. 15. Ancient Greek Art In ancient Greece, various types of art flourished: architects created temples, sculptors, works that struck with the beauty of proportions. tragedy Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides up to the present time they are a model of dramatic art. Homeric epics serve as a reader of epic poetry. They are also immortal, like the theorems of Pythagoras and the physical calculations of Archimedes. The history of ancient art includes several stages. In the Crete-Mycenaean period (III-II millennium BC, palace culture flourished. But this civilization was destroyed. From the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries BC e. the period, conditionally called "Homeric", continues. This era is marked by the emergence "Iliad" and "Odyssey"- great epic poems. during this period, various crafts reach a high development, analysis and arithmetic calculation prevailed over the poetic vision of the world, a person becomes more independent of nature. Greek mythology became the soil for a new developed form of culture. The representations of the Greeks in the most systematized form are presented in "Theogony" of Hesiod. In the period archaic (VII-VI centuries BC architects, vase painters are glorified, poetry flourishes, music develops. Temple buildings erected in honor of the Olympic gods are especially widespread. By the middle of the VI century. the so-called black-figure vase painting reaches a high level - black lacquer on reddish clay, later black-figure painting was replaced by a red-figure style. The transition from the archaic to the classics was due to serious socio-political events: the struggle between democracy and tyranny, the war of the Greek city-states with the Persians. Athens became the center of ancient culture of the classical period, bringing together brilliant achievements in social and social thought and artistic activity. This city is in the XNUMXth century. BC e. impresses with the scope of monumental construction. In a short time, a temple was erected Parthenon, Propylaea, Temple of Athena the Victorious. Classical perfection reaches the sculpture of the Athenian masters. The famous sculptor Phidias embodied the ideal of the human person in the iconic statues of Athena and Olympian Zeus. Phidias' contemporaries were Miron - the author of the statue "Discobolus" and Polykleitos. Tragedy and comedy flourish. tragedy (literally "song of the goats") arises from a choral song sung by satyrs dressed in goatskins and depicting the constant companions of the god of wine, Dionysus. At the end of the XNUMXth century BC e. Athens is going through a difficult war with Sparta. Norms and principles of the state are breaking down. New cultural values are being formed. 16. Civilization of Hellenism Internecine wars, the decomposition of ancient Greek policies allowed Persia by the end of the XNUMXth century. BC e. become the chief arbiter in the Greek world. National unification became a necessity. However, the Greeks could not unite on their own. This task was carried out by the neighboring Balkan state of Macedonia, led by its king Philip. His son Alexander went down in history almost as the largest conqueror of all time. The ancient world did not know such a state formation as the empire of Alexander, which stretched from the Balkans to Lower Egypt and from the Danube to the Indus. The Greeks occupied the first place in it. The empire did not last long, it fell apart, but the Greek culture remained in all the conquered territories. Greek sculpture spread especially actively. But - it was only a replication of the originals of the classical period. The newly created images were far from the former harmony and were distinguished by excessive splendor. During this period, the attitude of a person changed: a citizen of a free policy gave way to a "citizen of the world", forced to combine his high destiny with the fate of a disenfranchised subject of the newly-minted rulers. The loss by the policies of foreign policy initiative was compensated by the security of their existence, greater social stability. Despite numerous military campaigns in the state of Macedonia, cities grew, trade routes were laid, science flourished, inventions were introduced. The horizons of the Hellenes expanded significantly - this was largely determined by military campaigns, trade and scientific travels to distant countries. The borders that closed the horizons of the Greek - a citizen of the policy, are removed, a previously unfamiliar "feeling of the world's expanses" is formed. This world was new, it had to be known and expressed in artistic forms. Architecture is rapidly developing, largely due to the desire of the rulers to glorify the power of their states in architectural monuments and the construction of cities. Art forms associated with the decoration of buildings are flourishing - mosaic, decorative sculpture, painted ceramics. Hellenism was of enduring importance in the history of mankind, enriching it with new discoveries in the field of scientific knowledge. Suffice it to mention the names of Euclid and Archimedes. Within the framework of philosophy, social utopias were born and developed. The treasury of world art has replenished with such masterpieces as the altar Zeus in Pergamon, statues of Venus de Milo and Nike of Samothrace, Laocoön sculpture group. Libraries appeared, a museum that served as a scientific center. 17. Ancient Roman civilization With the extinction of the Hellenistic states from the end of the XNUMXst c. BC e. the leading role in the ancient world acquires Roman culture. "Starting" almost simultaneously with Greece, Rome as a political reality outlived it for seven centuries. Information about the initial (royal) period of the history of Rome is rather vague and relates mainly to religious rites, holidays, and everyday traditions. The veneration of traditions was characteristic of Roman culture, which flowed into the cult of ancestors and simply elders. This was reflected in the structure of names, the burial ritual, in perpetuating the "deeds of the ancestors" (triumphal arches, columns, forums erected in their honor). Rome waged constant wars of conquest. This largely determined the organization, the way of life, and the very history of Rome. War, iron military discipline required military virtues - courage, fidelity, stamina, stern inflexibility, proud dignity, incompatible with the manifestation of fun, which was allowed as an exception only on certain holidays. Such virtues were required not only for war, but also for peaceful life, for the fulfillment of the duty of a citizen. The Roman plebs, with greater difficulty than the Athenian demos, achieved victories in the fight against the patricians. In the course of it, the struggle for various laws acquired paramount importance, which determined the special role of law in the life of society. The Romans were equal in their responsibility before the law, but there was no equality in the political and social sphere. The National Assembly was the highest authority, but ordinary people could not count on high positions (unlike the Greeks). An important role in the political process was played by statesmen distinguished by their oratory skills. Roman eloquence reached its apogee in the writings of Cicero. The Romans were not only a people of soldiers, but also a people of builders - architects, engineers, lawyers. Together with the power of Rome, the peoples of Europe came the order of aqueducts (water pipes), roads, the Latin school and Roman law. In the field of monumental sculpture, the Romans did not create monuments as significant as the Greeks. At the end of the XNUMXst century The Roman state became an empire. Ancient historians characterize this period as the "golden age" of Roman history. Names associated with it architect Vitruvius, historian Titus Livius, poets Virgil, Ovid, Horace. During this period, the most spectacular building in Rome was created - Ancient coliseum. Roman culture ended the period of antiquity. In 395, the Roman Empire split into Western and Eastern. But the traditions of Roman culture continued to exist. 18. Civilization of the Middle Ages Middle Ages - accepted in science designation of the period in the history of Western Europe between antiquity and modern times. This period covers more than a millennium (XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries) and in socio-economic terms corresponds to the birth, development and decay of feudalism. In this historically long process of development of feudal society, a peculiar type of relationship between man and the world was developed, qualitatively different both from the culture of ancient society and from the subsequent culture of modern times - the era of bourgeois production. Medieval man built his relations with the world on the basis of a feudal form of property, based on the personal and land dependence of peasants on vassal landowners, who appropriated their labor in various forms (in kind, rent). Medieval man existed in the conditions of a class-hierarchical structure of society, permeated from top to bottom with class isolation and relations of vassal service to the overlord. The medieval world was militant. Wars brought hunger, destruction, death and a sense of the tragedy of human life. The Christian religion and the Roman Catholic Church played a special role in the formation of medieval civilization. The Christian image of a person assumed two principles - body and soul, priority was given to the spiritual principle. The beauty of the body in Christianity was expressed in the triumph of the spirit over the body. The ancient athlete, as a symbol of ancient culture, was replaced by a medieval ascetic - a way of life with the ideal of spiritual elevation was affirmed. The moral values of Christianity fit into the famous triad: Faith, Hope, Love. Medieval man felt himself an insignificant particle in the big world. In this world, everything is created by God and is full of secret meaning. Man had to show humility, non-resistance to what is in the world created by God. The feudal society was class. The clergy were considered the highest class, the second - chivalry. The third estate was made up of a simple people who had to work and ensure the existence of all. Monasteries were an important structural link in society. Religion had a great influence on the development of art. In architecture, the Romanesque and Gothic artistic styles most clearly declared themselves. Cathedrals and other religious buildings were built in these styles. Universities became centers of scientific research. Cities became the most important cultural centers of the Middle Ages. The urban population was more independent, enterprising and had its own special features. 19. Renaissance Civilization One of the key moments of European history was the Renaissance. It coincided with the discovery of the New World and the rediscovery of the ancient world. Renaissance (Renaissance) was associated with the process of formation of bourgeois relations in society, the emergence of the beginnings of the capitalist system. It was during this era that the scientific picture of the world was formed. Discoveries N. Copernicus, G. Bruno, G. Galileo substantiated the heliocentric view of the world order. One of the most important processes of the era was the rapid development of navigation and the great geographical discoveries. The Renaissance is characterized by a high appreciation of antiquity, its transformation into a model, an ideal. The term "revival" means the appeal at a new stage to the ideals of antiquity. The renaissance is flourishing humanism (from lat. humanus - human). The humanities also developed in the Middle Ages. However, the Renaissance brings a new accent to them - the transfer of the divine to the human. Humanism is based on the anthropocentric picture of the world, within its framework a new center is established - the personality of a person. The cornerstone of a new worldview is being laid Dante Alighieri, Francesco Petrarca. The humanist movement continues Gianozzo Manetti, Lorenzo Valla, Pico della Mirandola, Marcio Ficino and many others. In the Renaissance, the church gradually loses its influence, the sphere of secular life becomes more noticeable. But the Renaissance is a transitional era, in which there were complex interweavings, interactions of the old and the new, richness and diversity of cultural elements. The main type of spiritual activity of the Renaissance was art. The aesthetic and artistic ideal of the Renaissance was most fully expressed by architecture, sculpture, and painting. It was these types of art that had more opportunities to display the real world, its beauty and richness. Renaissance artists discover the laws of perspective, use chiaroscuro. Renaissance masters are often referred to as "titans", referring to their versatility. Creative talent was especially distinguished Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael Santi, Albrecht Dürer. The theater received a noticeable development in the Renaissance. It is characterized by an interest in the inner world of man. The Renaissance theater reaches its peak in the work of W. Shakespeare. The English genius, who worked at the end of the Renaissance, managed not only to embody in a dramatic form all the ideas, images of the era, but also tragically rethink them. The heroes of the great playwright ("Othello", "Macbeth", "Hamlet") are experiencing the collapse of ideals. 20. Reformation Movement Reformation It is customary to call the broad anti-Catholic movement for the renewal of Christianity in Europe in the XNUMXth century, the founders and leaders of which were Martin Luther and John Calvin. The Reformation was a profound transformation of Christian culture. The result of this change was not only a new version of the Christian denomination - Protestantismbut also a new type of person with a new attitude towards the world and himself. It was this type of person that became the driving force behind the rapid development of Western European civilization. The Reformation changed the semantic world of Christianity and laid the foundations for a new work ethic and became an inspiring force for the rational and practical transformation of the world. The Reformation movement began in Germany with theses of M. Luther, which he posted in October 1517 for discussion on the gate Wittenberg Church. The theses criticized the practice of selling indulgences - the absolution of sins. Luther categorically rejected another dogma of the church - the idea of salvation. He proceeded from the fact that human nature is fundamentally damaged by the fall, that no religious merits can bring a person closer to salvation. According to Luther, one could be saved only by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Because everyone is equally corrupt, Luther eliminates the distinction between priests and laity. In his opinion, every believer can communicate with God and perform worship. The priest in Protestantism is deprived of the right to confess and forgive sins, he is hired by the community of believers and is accountable to it. Luther proclaimed the Bible the only source of dogma; Protestantism denied the role of mediators between man and God. Luther translated the Bible into German for the first time, abolished the institution of monasticism, simplified worship, and abolished the veneration of icons. Protestantism differed from medieval Catholicism in its understanding of how true faith is manifested and realized. Within the framework of Protestantism, faith is realized, first of all, in earthly service to people, through the conscientious performance of one's professional duties. And here, not only the result is important, but persistence in fulfilling one's duty. Honest work in Protestantism, according to M. Weber, acquires the character of a religious feat, becomes a kind of worldly "austerity". At the same time, it is not work in itself that has salvific value, but inner faith. The Protestant must continually reaffirm his original salvation. The Protestant community became the prototype of the institutions of civil society, which also contributed to the formation of the rule of law. 21. Civilization of the Age of Enlightenment The eighteenth century in Western European history is called the Age of Enlightenment. Science and scientific rationality began to determine the nature of the worldview of a given time. The process of secularization - the separation of the state from the church, is gaining wide proportions. A new political and legal ideal is also proclaimed, in which a person, according to the English philosopher John Locke recognized as an independent (fr. Independent - independent, independent) - a worker and owner. The idea of progress comes to the fore. Appeal to reason, begun in the seventeenth century. F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes were continued by the scientists of England, which became the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Later, the ideas of rationalism reached France and received the widest distribution here. Enlighteners turned not just to reason, but to scientific reason, which is based on experience and is free from religious prejudices. H. Cherburn, J. Locke, D. Toland in England, J. - J. Rousseau, Voltaire, P. Gassendi, J. Mellier, J. Lametrie, D. Diderot, P. Holbach, C. Helvetius and the entire galaxy of encyclopedists in France "subjected to the judgment of reason and common sense" the whole of human history. The main character in the scientific and literary studies of the enlighteners is Man. The social problem becomes relevant. Interest in the personality of a person is also distinguished by the work of German enlighteners G. Lessing, G. Herder, F. Schiller, W. Goethe. New trends of the era are reflected in the artistic culture. Here, too, there was a process of breaking down centuries-old ideas, according to which art creates a special ideal environment, more significant than the real, earthly life of a person. The halo of exclusivity was removed from the sublime samples. The art of the Enlightenment used the norms of classicism, but with the help of them reflected the new content. During this period, new artistic trends appeared - sentimentalism, romanticism. A striking phenomenon of the purely secular culture of the Enlightenment is the Rococo style, focused on creating comfort and grace. Gardens and parks became the visible embodiment of the "better worlds" for the people of the Enlightenment. When creating them, various elements of the landscape were selected, but the main task was to preserve the feeling of naturalness. During the Enlightenment, theater flourishes, as does music. XVIII century often call "Golden Age of Theatre". It was the theater, due to its specificity, that made it possible to most effectively perform the accusatory functions of art. A new musical genre appears - opera. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the era is creativity Bach and Mozart. 22. Industrial Civilization The eighteenth century was distinguished not only by its rationality. In the countries of Western Europe at that time, the capitalist mode of production began to take hold, the road to which was most fully opened by the Great Bourgeois Revolution in France. At the end of the War of Independence, bourgeois social relations were finally established in the USA. In the development of society, such factors as the rapid change of technical achievements and technologies, economic competition, the alienation of man from the results of labor, and the struggle of workers for economic rights became more and more obvious. The number of major cities centers of vibrant economic life. With the development of steam transport, distances began to "shrink". This facilitated the convergence of different regions of the Earth, accelerated the process of information exchange. Money, wealth, capital acted as new "idols", the worship of which became the meaning of life. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century began the formation of large-scale machine production. industrial civilization came, bringing with it a sense of the enormous possibilities of man, faith in his ability to transform the world around him, to make unprecedented changes in all spheres of public life. В XIX-XX centuries. there is a further development of industrial society, its exit beyond the European continent. Under the influence of the industrial revolution, there were noticeable changes in the social and political spheres. Traditional social groups gave way to the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Community ties are gone. Democracy was established in political life, and civil society gradually took shape. But in the emerging industrial society, not everyone could realize their potential and abilities. The search for a more just society continued at this stage in the framework of the socialist idea, which was actively developed by French philosophers. A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, German philosophers K. Marx and F. Engels. Radical changes in science and technology could not but affect the development of the culture of industrial society. New information opportunities gave rise to a new type of culture. Cultural values became available to the general public. The production of mass culture was standardized, calculated for average tastes and needs. Such a culture led to the loss by the individual of his "I", destroyed the authenticity of the personality. The mass media, radio, cinematography, and, later, television actively contributed to the spread of mass culture. 23. Post-industrial civilization Post-industrial theory was first put forward by an American scientist Daniel Bell in 1965. In the hypothesis of Bell and his supporters, the idea is expressed of changing periods in the historical development of society. In Bell's interpretation, this change is caused by a gradual decrease in the role of the industrial factor in the life of society. In the second half of the twentieth century. in the West, many other concepts of post-industrial society have appeared: super-industrial, technotronic, cybernetic, information, etc. They are united by the following ideas. Firstly, one of the factors in the emergence of this society is considered to be a new generation of technology, primarily information technology. Due to this circumstance, the name "information society" is gradually replacing all others. Secondly, the characteristic moment of these concepts is the identification of the information society as a special stage in the historical and socio-economic development of society. It is at this stage that the main factor in development is the production and use of scientific, technical and other types of information. Moreover, information is becoming a more important component of social life than land, labor, capital, raw materials. The most valuable becomes mental work based on computer science and super technology. The end product of such production is not millions of standardized goods, but individual consumer goods and services. The best way to organize is not bureaucracy, but adhocracy (temporary situational organization). Two main features characterize the information society: demassification and destandardization of economic and social life; a high level of innovation, the rapid speed of changes taking place in society. The process of informatization, predicted as a model of the future, is actively gaining momentum in our time, affecting many regions of the planet. At the heart of the ego at the present stage is the computer revolution. The social dominants of understanding the world are also changing, human activity becomes creative. Experts believe that the formation of the infosphere will change the scientific picture of the world. Computerization creates opportunities for a sharp increase in mental activity. The emergence of the infosphere should be accompanied by the development of culture and education. Lack of attention to the latter areas will reduce the possibilities of society. Interaction "human-computer" will inevitably indicate the problem of social isolation of people. The transition to the information society will also be associated with a number of other socio-psychological difficulties. 24. Globalization In the modern world, integration ties between individuals, organizations and states are significantly strengthened. Researchers call this process globalization. Globalization covers various spheres of society, but they have received the greatest development in the economic life of the world community. Large international companies play a significant role in economic globalization - transnational corportions (from Latin trans - through, beyond), i.e. companies operating in more than one country. The scale of activity of such companies is impressive. About 600 TNCs provide more than a fifth of the world's industrial and agricultural production. The economic power of large corporations is comparable to the gross domestic product of an average state. The trend towards the formation of integration structures can also be traced in the political field. These include military-political blocs, the UN, the GXNUMX, the European Parliament, Interpol, the International Tribunal, the OSCE, etc. Powerful integration processes are also developing in the sphere of culture. Modern means of communication contribute to the rapprochement of cultures, the formation of a common lifestyle, common standards of consumption. Modern interpretations of the global world differ in the subject of research. Some scientists study the global problems of mankind and see the unity of the world in a unifying strategy for solving them. Others consider the emerging integrity of human existence to be the subject of research. Many scientists identify globalization с Westernization. But the attitude to this process causes a different reaction. Some believe that following the path of Western civilization is progressive, while others see the expansion of the West as a negative process of suppressing the identity of local cultures. The globalization of mankind is beyond doubt, however, even the modern global space contains deep-seated contradictions and dangers. Interactions in the world are not unidirectional. The political influence of countries is also not equivalent. The hierarchy of technologies creates the basis for the hierarchy of countries' political influence on global processes. Many modern nation-states are faced with the fact that their living space is subordinate to TNCs, which also own metatechnologies. This influence is not only positive, but sometimes destructive. Experts believe that a state system for regulating social relations is necessary, otherwise social destabilization is inevitable. And the world community will again have to look for new ways of development. Section III. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY 25. Public relations Science has long been searching for an elementary "cell" of a social system, that is, for such a "simplest formation" from the analysis of which it would be legitimate to begin the study of society. In short, scientists are looking for something analogous to an atom or a biological cell. An individual, a social group, a family acted as such a "cell". But the definition of society as a set of relations between people made it possible to break through to the truth. It is social connections and relationships that are represented in the theories K. Marx, P. Sorokin, M. Weber as significant social phenomena from which the study of society should begin. The concept of "social relations" in modern literature occurs in two senses: in a broad sense, when everything is meant, any relationship between people, since they are formed and implemented in society, and in a narrow sense. In a narrow sense, social relations are understood as diverse forms of interaction and interconnections that arise in the process of activity between large groups of people, as well as within them. Society is a highly complex system of versatile social relations. All the richness of social relations can be subdivided into material and spiritual (ideal) relations. Material relations arise and develop in the course of human practical activity. Spiritual relations are formed in advance, passing through the consciousness of people. This mediation of relations by consciousness raises objections. What is the final product for spiritual production (ideas, spiritual values) is also present in material practical activity. But here it acts as a means of achieving the final result (goal setting), as a moment of spirituality of material activity. The division of social relations into material and ideal is extremely wide, each of these divisions includes many types. The classification of material relations is usually based on the main spheres of social life, while spiritual relations are based on the structure of social consciousness and its forms (moral, political, legal, artistic, religious relations). Some social relations combine features of both material and spiritual relations. For example, political relations, insofar as they reflect the views of the subjects of political action, are spiritual, ideal, but with their other side they are formed in the course of practical activity, and in this aspect they are material. The same interweaving of various relationships is characteristic of family relationships. 26. Social institutions For human society, at a certain stage, it becomes vital to consolidate certain types of social relations, to make them mandatory for members of a particular society or a particular social group. The basic element of the regulation of social relations are social institutions. Social institutions (from Latin institutum - establishment, institution) - these are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities and relations between people that perform socially significant functions. The main purpose of a social institution is to ensure the satisfaction of important vital needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race, the upbringing of children, and implements relations between the sexes and generations. The need for security and social order is provided by political institutions, the most important of which is the institution of the state. The need for obtaining means of subsistence and distribution of values is provided by economic institutions. The need for education - by educational institutions, etc. Social institutions are able to fulfill their purpose by streamlining, standardizing, formalizing social activities, connections and relationships. This process is called institutionalization, that is, the process of forming a social institution. In the course of institutionalization, social values, norms, patterns of behavior are determined and consolidated. All this provides a state of balance and stability of society. Institutions have their own characteristics. Among them are the following: 1. Cultural symbols (for the state - this is a flag and coat of arms, for the church - a crucifix, crescent or star of David, for a family - a wedding ring). The image of an industrial organization is expressed in a trademark. Music can also become a symbol. National melodies, national anthems, wedding march are used to form the image of the institute. Buildings can be symbols of institutions - a home, symbolizing the homeland, religious buildings as a symbol of the institution of the church, schools as a symbol of education, government buildings as a symbol of power. 2. Codes of conduct (oath of allegiance to the country, oath of allegiance at marriage, Hippocratic oath, etc.). 3. Ideology. Social institutions perform the functions of consolidating and reproducing social relations, regulating them, integrating (rallying people), transferring social experience, communication links based on personal relationships, and exchanging information. 27. Family as a social institution The classic example of a simple social institution is family institution. The family is the main carrier of cultural patterns, a necessary condition for the socialization of people. It is in the family that a person learns social roles, receives the basics of education, and behavior skills. Marriage is the foundation of family relationships. Marriage is a historically changing social form of relationship between a man and a woman, through which society regulates and sanctions their sexual life and establishes their marital and kinship rights and obligations. When it comes to family, we primarily represent husband, wife and children. This form of family organization is called the conjugal or nuclear family. It is based on a couple of people connected by marriage. A common form of family organization is the kindred family, which is based not only on the marital relationship of two people, but also on the blood ties of a large number of relatives. Each society develops its own system of patterns of behavior in the family, these patterns are historically determined and have a pronounced economic basis. In some societies, marriage involves a contractual relationship, in some - the initial stage of creating a family is romanticized. In most countries, there is only one type of marriage - monogamy, that is, the marriage of one man with one woman (at the same time). However, in the development of society, polygamy was practiced, a form of marriage in which there is more than one partner in a marriage. Theoretically, three forms of polygamy are possible: group marriage (in which several men and women are simultaneously in a marriage relationship); polyandry (when one woman has several husbands); polygyny (polygamy). In the event of difficulties in family life, the marriage can be terminated by divorce. Society does not benefit from such instability of the family. Therefore, in every society there are certain rules and laws that make divorce difficult. The institution of the family performs important functions in society. Thus, the family performs the function of sexual regulation in society, is responsible for the reproduction of new members of society, that is, it performs a reproductive function. The family is central to the process of socialization. The family performs the function of emotional satisfaction. The need of people for close, trusting communication is a vital element of human existence. The family performs a protective function (physical, economic, psychological). 28. Social communities and groups Society as an integral system consists of many subsystems with different qualities. One of the most important types of social systems are social communities. Social community - this is a really existing set of individuals, characterized by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of social action, behavior. The formation and development of a social community occurs on the basis of social ties. Among the grounds that determine the formation of a community, the following are usually distinguished: similarity, closeness of the conditions of people's life; commonality of needs; the presence of connections, interactions; the formation of one's own culture, a system of norms governing interactions; strengthening community organization; social identification of community members, their self-assignment to this community. Social communities are distinguished by a variety of types and forms. So, in terms of quantitative composition, they vary from the interaction of two people to numerous social movements. According to the duration of existence - from lasting minutes and hours (spectacular events) to living centuries and millennia of ethnic groups, nations, religious associations. However, much more significant in the classification of social communities is the allocation of one or another basic system-forming feature. Usually, territorial, ethnic, demographic, cultural and other communities are distinguished. A social group acts as a kind of mediator between an individual and society. A person is aware of his belonging to society and his social interests through belonging to a particular social group. It is within its framework that the foundations of social life are laid. Membership in various groups determines the status and authority of a person in society. Society in its concrete life reality acts as a set of many social groups. A social group is a relatively stable set of people connected by common relationships, activities regulated by norms. Grouping is based on a common interest for all its members, expressed for specific purposes. A social group, in contrast to a community, is characterized by greater stability, a high degree of cohesion, and a uniform composition. Not every association of people acts as a social group. Unstable associations of people cannot be recognized as social groups. They are called quasi-groups that exist for a short time, the interactions between people in their composition are not strong, often random (crowd, audience, public). 29. Demographic communities Word demography translated from Greek means "people" and "I write" - description of people. Currently, there are two approaches to the interpretation of the science of demography. In a narrow sense, demography is interpreted as population statistics and studies the size of the population, dividing it into age and sex groups, as well as the direction of change in this composition due to fertility, mortality, and changes in life expectancy. The second approach includes the study of those social factors that affect the population, its size and qualitative composition and dynamics. Socio-demographic structure society includes a set of interacting groups distinguished by gender, age, genetic characteristics, ethnicity or race, and place of residence (urban - rural). Gender structure society allows you to see the numerical ratio of men and women in society. The gender structure has a significant impact on family and marriage relations, the birth rate of the population. When studying the age composition of the population, they usually proceed from the allocation of such age groups: children (from birth to 14 years); young people (14-30 years old); people of mature age (30-6o years old), old people (people over 60 years old). According to genetic (to a sign of health), four groups of the population are also usually distinguished: absolutely healthy people, relatively healthy, relatively sick and disabled people (disabled people). Isolation of the demographic structure is a statistical representation of a society. The dynamic side allows you to study demographic changes - fertility, mortality, resettlement, migration. A society can be characterized in terms of its settlement structure. Settlement communities are understood as a set of people who have a permanent place of residence, are dependent on each other in everyday life and carry out joint activities in order to meet social needs. Communities as social formations have a long history. This is the formation of communities of nomads, settled agricultural communities, hunters and gatherers. At a certain stage in history, urban settlements began to develop. The process of growth in the number of cities and urban population is called "urbanization". Nowadays it is believed that the apogee of urban civilization is over and the crisis of the city as a form of settlement has come. Demographic characteristics affect the development of society, facilitating its progressive development, or, on the contrary, causing its degradation. 30. Ethnic communities Ethnic community occupies a prominent place in public life - ethnos, which can be represented by various social formations - a tribe, a nationality, a nation. Ethnos - a stable community of people historically established in a certain territory who have similar, stable features of culture (including language) and the psyche, as well as self-consciousness, a sense of their own ethnic correlation (identification). There are several approaches to understanding the origin and development of ethnic groups. Some scholars believe that ethnic formations were the first socio-cultural formations that arose in ancient times. At this stage, society has developed such forms of community of people as clan and tribe, united into a whole by blood-kinship ties. Territorial, neighborly ties between people formed the basis of a higher form of community-nationality. The original concept of the origin and development of ethnic groups was developed by a Russian scientist L. N. Gumilyov. According to his position, the ethnos arose as a result of human adaptation to the environment, that is, it arose as a biological phenomenon, as part of nature. There are scientists who consider ethnicity only a product of human consciousness. In everyday speech, the concept of "ethnos" is used as equivalent to the concept "nation". But these concepts are not identical. Ethnic groups arose from ancient times, nations began to form during the period of the birth of bourgeois society. The concept of a nation is more often used in the sense of a political and civil community. Nations have become a higher form of ethnic community of people. A nation is characterized by such features: a common territory, language, economic life, common features of the mental warehouse, fixed in the mentality of a particular people. Special attention should be paid to such a sign of "nation" as national self-consciousness (identification with the nation). This sign is subjective and it is this that often serves as an argument against its materiality. In reality, one can speak of a nation as a really existing one only when all other signs are supplemented by a clearly expressed national self-consciousness. Among the indicators of national self-consciousness, knowledge of the history of one's people (historical memory), attitude to national traditions, customs, language, and a sense of national dignity are usually distinguished. But the main, integrating, obviously, are self-distancing, recognition of differences between oneself and representatives of other nationalities, on the one hand, and awareness of the inextricable links of one's "I" with the life and destinies of this ethnic group. 31. Social stratification In each specific society, different individuals, groups, communities, institutions occupy an unequal position. Social inequality presupposes the existence of a hierarchical structure of society. To describe the system of inequality between groups of people, the concept is used "social stratification". Originally translated from Latin, the word "stratum" meant "veil". In English, it began to be understood as a layer, a layer of society. Thus, stratification describes the stratification, ranking them in accordance with their places in society. In sociology, there are many concepts of social stratification. Historically, one of the first is the Marxist doctrine. The leading place in this theory is given to the social class structure of society, within which such elements as classes (the core of the system), social strata and social groups interact. In Marxist theory, the emergence of classes is explained by economic causes; the role of classes in society is explained on the basis of property relations, the relationship to the means of production. The class struggle serves as the driving force of social development. In this system, there are basically two levels: classes of owners and classes deprived of ownership of the means of production. Already at the beginning of the XNUMXth century, the narrowness of this approach became obvious. It was noted that the concept of the social-class structure of society should include itself and many other connections and relationships. Moreover, as society developed, property relations also did not remain unchanged. Under these conditions, the concept of "class" no longer allowed for a deep study of the changes taking place in society. It has been replaced by a more specific and flexible unit - the stratum, layer. Loss is a kind of social community that unites people on some common grounds. However, not any sign acts to distinguish a stratum, but only a status one, that is, one that objectively acquires a rank character in a given society: “higher - lower”, “better - worse”, “prestigious - not prestigious”, etc. Proponents of the theory of stratification argue that the stratification system is associated with the dominant value system in society, which allows ranking various types of activities and roles. Because of this, social stratification acts as a socio-cultural stratification. The stratification structure of society multifaceted, its analysis cannot be based on any single, albeit integral, criterion. Usually, an integrated approach is used to analyze the stratification structure of society. 32. Social status and social role A person, being a social being, interacts with other people, participates in joint actions. To analyze the inclusion of an individual in various social groups, the concepts of social status and social role are used. In the space of social connections and interactions, the actions of people, their relations with each other, are determined to a decisive extent by the position (position) they occupy in society and the social group. A certain position occupied by an individual in a society or group, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations, is called social status. The status fixes the set of functions that a person must perform in a social group, society, and the conditions that must be presented to him for the implementation of these functions. Social status characterizes the place of the individual in the social stratification of society, its activities in various spheres of public life, the assessment of this activity by society. Social status is reflected both in the internal position (attitudes, value orientations) and in the external appearance (clothing, demeanor and other signs of social belonging). But human activity is multifunctional. Therefore, a person has many statuses. In this totality, the key, main or integral status characteristic of this individual is most often distinguished. It often happens that the main status is due to the position of a person, his profession, it can be both racial affiliation and social origin. Each person during his life acts in various social roles, that is, he has a certain set of qualities necessary to perform his functions. The expected behavior associated with a person's status is called a social role. A social role is a status-oriented behavior pattern. A social role can be seen as a status in motion, a status in its actual implementation. The role is already a status. Each status for its implementation requires many roles. In role behavior, a significant place is occupied by norms that are acquired by the individual mainly through training. In the course of role-playing learning, individuals learn not only to fulfill duties and exercise rights, but also acquire attitudes that correspond to this role. Training for most roles begins in childhood. As a person grows older, the process of role-playing learning becomes more complicated. But a person often distances himself from the role, behaves contrary to the requirements of the norms and expectations of people. If a person does not play the role in accordance with expectations, he enters into a certain conflict with the group or society. 33. Social mobility The theory of social stratification serves as a methodological basis for the formation of the theory of social mobility, or social movement. Social mobility is a set of social movements of people, i.e. changes by an individual or social group of social status, a place occupied in the stratification structure of society. Term "social mobility" was introduced into scientific circulation P. Sorokin. According to P. Sorokin, there are two types of social mobility: vertical and horizontal. Vertical mobility, in turn, depending on the direction of movement is divided into upward mobility (social rise, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social stratum to another, located at the same level. This type of mobility may be associated with a change in place of residence (migration), a transition to another religious group (change of religion), etc. Scientists also distinguish between group and individual mobility. Group mobility occurs when movements are made collectively, the status of one or another stratum changes. Group mobility takes place, first of all, where there are changes in the system of stratification itself. It is usually associated with major social transformations in a particular society: social revolution, scientific and technological revolution, civil wars, upheavals and reforms. Individual mobility means the social movement of a specific person: career advancement associated with advanced training, education level, occupying administrative positions, that is, what is called a service career. One of the beneficial ways of upward individual mobility is a profitable marriage. The accessibility of pathways for social mobility depends both on the individual and on the structure of the society in which he lives. Individual ability matters little if society allocates rewards based on prescribed roles. Ways to achieve higher status may be closed due to ethnic or social-class1 discrimination. Individuals also often have the problem of adapting to the new subculture of a higher status group. In order to overcome the cultural barrier, individuals have to accept new standards of life that correspond to a new social level, to assimilate patterns of behavior from a higher social stratum. 34. Social Conflict An integral part of social life are conflicts, the emergence of which is facilitated by the existing socio-economic, political, cultural contradictions. The high susceptibility of society to conflicts contributed to the emergence of a special branch of scientific knowledge - conflictology. Word конфликт (from lat. conflictus) means a collision. Conflict is understood as a clash of opposing goals, positions, opinions and views of opponents or subjects of interaction, a struggle between people or groups. Conflicts can take many forms - from a simple quarrel between two people to major military clashes. All conflicts are caused by specific reasons, among which are: the presence of opposite value orientations, life attitudes; ideological and other disagreements; presence of social inequality. No conflict arises instantly, its occurrence is preceded by pre-conflict stage - accumulation of tension, irritation, exacerbation of contradictions. The conflict situation gradually transforms into an open conflict. But in order for the conflict to become a reality, an incident or occasion is needed, that is, some external event that sets the conflicting parties in motion. An incident can happen by accident, or it can be provoked. The incident becomes a signal for the beginning of an open confrontation. In conflictology, the conditions for resolving social conflict have been developed. Among them stand out: - timely and accurate diagnosis of the causes of the conflict; - mutual interest of the parties in overcoming contradictions on the basis of mutual recognition of the interests of each of the parties; - joint search for ways to overcome the conflict. Direct negotiations of the parties to the conflict, negotiations through an intermediary, with the participation of a third party can be used here. Efforts to finally eliminate the contradictions that caused the conflict, the cessation of the struggle is achieved on post-conflict stage. The consequences of social conflict are contradictory. On the one hand, conflicts lead to the destruction of social ties, to large material costs, on the other hand, they are a mechanism for resolving social problems. There is an opinion in the scientific community that conflict is a temporary state of society that can be overcome by rational means, and it is possible to achieve a level of development when social conflicts disappear. But other scientists recognize conflicts as useful, since as a result of them new phenomena appear, social tensions are released, changes of various scales occur. 35. Social organization Term organization applied very widely. Organization represents the highest level of development of social systems. The phenomenon of organization is studied in various aspects by various sciences: cybernetics, biology, technical disciplines, economics, sociology, etc. An attempt was made to create a general theory of organizations on the basis of interdisciplinary research. The simplest definition of an organization has been proposed C. Barnard. In his opinion, organization is a system of consciously coordinated goals of the activity of two or more individuals. This definition states that an organization is a social community and has a functional-target nature, i.e., it is created to achieve certain goals and is evaluated through successful or unsuccessful goal achievement. In other words, these characteristics emphasize that the organization is a society and an instrument for providing the function of uniting and regulating the behavior of people for the sake of a specific goal that cannot be achieved by people separately, alone. The organization arises on the basis of the division of labor and its specialization on a functional basis. The specialization of organizations determines the internal specialization of units and members of the organization. Therefore, in social organizations there are various horizontal structures: workshops, services, bureaus, etc. These structures provide the technology for the organization's activities. In the organization system, vertical structures are also formed, which are built on a hierarchical basis. This device of the organization provides coordination, management of the interaction of individuals, groups and contributes to the achievement of a common goal. In every organization, the managed and the managing subsystems are clearly distinguished, which means that in every organization there is a relationship of power. The system of power in social organizations most often looks like a pyramid, at the top of which is the control system, and below it are various levels of the controlled subsystem. On the basis of this hierarchy, a ladder of job dependencies arises, suggesting the subordination of the lower levels of the organization's personnel to higher official structures and persons. Within the framework of the social structure in the organization, a certain stratification system is formed - a differentiated ranking of individuals and groups. This ranking is based on the distribution of all members of the organization by status and roles in accordance with their place in the organization. In a social organization, a hierarchy assigns people to jobs. Section IV. MODERN ECONOMY 36. The essence of the economy The word economics is used to refer to both material activity and the science of the laws of such activity. It is believed that the word "economy" has existed since antiquity, when the sages of ancient Greece combined two words - oikos (home, household) and nomos (I know the law). So, in a literal translation from ancient Greek, "economy" is a set of rules for managing a household. In our time, the concept of "economy" denotes a wide area in the life of society, which includes the economy of enterprises, industries, countries, as well as finance, money circulation, etc. The great Greek philosopher Aristotle is considered the founder of the science of economics. The economy was born under the sign of pragmatism, from the need to understand the complexity of the economic mechanism of society. Economic science distinguishes the following types of economic (economic systems): - traditional (pre-capitalist); - market (capitalist); - planned (socialist); - mixed. These types differ in the type of ownership of economic resources, as well as in the way of solving the main economic issues (what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce), the method of coordinating the economic activities of people, firms, and states. The traditional economic system is characterized by: land (the main means of production) and capital are in communal or state ownership. Resources are distributed in accordance with existing traditions. In this economic system, such questions as: what to produce, whether it is profitable, for whom to produce and how to produce - do not stand. Factors of production are used inefficiently here. In a market economic system, land and capital, as a rule, are privately owned, and limited resources are distributed by market mechanisms, the main issues of the economy are decided by the producer himself according to the laws of the market. The market system has a cyclical, spontaneous nature, subject to crisis phenomena. Therefore, it is no coincidence that as an antipode to this economy, a planned economy arises, in which land, capital, means of production are owned by the state, limited resources are distributed by the state in accordance with plans. The state also decides the main issues of the economy. The introduction of a planned economy into economic life was not crowned with success. Currently, in most countries there is a mixed economic system in which both the market mechanism and state regulation operate. 37. Material production The key to the study of the economic life of society is the analysis of material production, since society cannot exist without the production of material goods necessary for the life of people. The production of the means of subsistence forms the starting point of the history of mankind, its first historical act. This sphere is not only historically the first, it is also the "progenitor" of all other spheres of society's life - social, political, spiritual. It is the economic sphere as a basis that integrates the remaining subsystems of society into integrity. In the process of material production, people interact with each other in order to effectively influence nature. In this area, the satisfaction of man and society with material goods takes place: food, clothing, housing, etc. The mode of production of material goods (the economic mode of production) includes productive forces and production relations. Productive forces are a system of subjective (human) and material (technical, objects of labor) elements necessary for the process of material production. Man is the decisive element of the productive forces. Means of labor- a complex of things that a person places between himself and nature to influence it. Among the means of labor, tools of labor are distinguished, with which a person directly affects nature. Objects of labor - everything for which human labor is directed. The relations of production that develop between people in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods are called relations of production. The relations of production represent a complex system imbued with a single principle. This means that in this system there are some fundamental relationships that cement it, act as backbone. This relation, first of all, is the main production relation - the relation of ownership of the means of production. There are various forms of ownership - personal, private, public. At present, most experts believe that private property is most closely connected with human nature, with its vital needs. It is she who gives people property independence, develops personal initiative, stimulates and improves entrepreneurial skills, and instills a sense of responsibility in their business. Private property strengthens the legal consciousness, the culture of law-abiding. A person's life is manifested in his property. In our country, the importance of private property was denied, but time proved the unreasonableness of this. 38. Technique In the field of economics, technology occupies a pivotal position. Technology is understood as a system of created means and instruments of production, as well as methods and operations, the ability to carry out the labor process. In technology, humanity has accumulated its centuries-old experience, techniques, methods of cognition and transformation of nature, embodied all the achievements of human culture. Being a continuation and multiple strengthening of the organs of the human body (arms, legs, fingers, eyes, brain), certain technical devices, in turn, dictate to a person the techniques and methods of their application. Purpose and function of technology - to transform nature and the human world in accordance with the goals of people. Technique cannot be an end in itself. It has value only as a means. In the process of using technology, everything depends on what a person makes of it, what it serves. An important question is also what kind of person will subjugate it to himself, how he will show himself with the help of technology. Now there is no doubt that the consequences of the invasion of technology in social life are incredibly diverse, and in the long term even unpredictable. The rapid development of technology has led scientists to understand that technology must be subordinated to man. The philosophy of technology insists that man respect the delicate balance in nature and give permission only for such an instrumentalization of the world that strengthens this balance without destroying it. She insists that human knowledge should not be directed against the rest of the world, knowledge should not be a force used for the purpose of control and manipulation. The historical process of the development of technology includes three main stages: manual labor tools, machines, automatic machines. Technique in its development now, perhaps, is beginning to approach the human level, moving by analogy with physical labor and its organization with the mental properties of a person. This leads to the fact that it becomes more difficult to control the technique. Becoming uncontrollable, technology can lead to disastrous consequences for a person and society. According to K. Jaspers, technology contains not only unlimited possibilities of usefulness, but also unlimited dangers: technology has turned into a force that carries everything with it. Never before has man had such creative technical possibilities and never possessed such destructive means. Will man be able to balance technological progress? You can often hear a rather pessimistic answer: there is no control over the demon of technology. It seems to be a matter of time. 39. Income and expenses Along with property relations in economic life, no less important place is occupied by relations distribution and consumption. The income of the individual and society is made up of a number of sources. They can be a person’s wages, and income from capital placed in a bank, and rent for land, and dividends on existing shares and amounts inherited or won, for example, in a lottery, etc. The amount of income, their stability, reliability of sources influence human behavior in economic life. Fluctuations in income are associated with differences in property relations. Even in modern conditions, inequality persists in society. Among the causes of inequality is the division of labor caused by differences in abilities, in the level of education and training, etc. In civilized countries, there are programs of state social assistance to people who are not able to earn a living (disabled people, children who are dependent on their parents). There are also social security benefits and unemployment compensation. Assistance programs and benefits help reduce inequality in income distribution. In connection with the problem under consideration, it is impossible to bypass such an issue as equality. At the present stage, it is realized that the equality of people does not exist by nature. Consequently, there can be no equality in distribution relations. It is believed that income equality undermines incentives to work, to expand production, to take risks, and as a result negatively affects the state of the economy, reduces the total amount of income distributed. Any income, even rather high ones, requires attention, active work to preserve, increase, and rationally use them. They ultimately influence consumption, which refers to people's spending on goods and services. Economic science highlights some features of "consumer behavior". Middle-income people spend most of their income on food, clothing, and housing. As income rises, so does the cost of acquiring these items, with more emphasis on their quality. A consumer can choose a model of his behavior depending on a number of conditions (size and stable income, number of income sources, consumption patterns, etc.) Much depends on the achieved level of economic culture as a criterion of civilization. Rational consumption is now welcome, increasing up to certain limits. 40. The essence of market relations The origins of market relations go deep into hoary antiquity, when people entered into a sale and purchase relationship through a simple (natural) exchange of goods, when they mutually acquired what they did not have, but which was vital for them. The market, historically formed as an objective economic and social reality, developed and civilized along with society. This is a natural mechanism for identifying existing needs and satisfying them, a form of relationship between producer and consumer, consecrated by the practice of many centuries of human history. The market, first of all, controls and regulates the ratio of supply and demand, reveals the viability of enterprises, firms and even individuals, constantly keeping their business activity at a high level, stimulating competitiveness. The market economy is set in motion by economic motivation, primarily by motives aimed at achieving profit. Profit in the most general terms, it can be defined as the difference between the amount of money received for the goods and services sold and the total costs of the enterprise for their production and sale on the market. Profits are made when goods are sold at their cost. Economic benefit forms the basis of all economic life in a market: the seller wants to sell at a higher price, and the buyer wants to buy cheaper. Market is an arena of transactions driven by economic interests. There are no antagonistic contradictions in the desires of producers, as long as everyone has buyers and a place to sell, as long as there is demand. But as production volumes grow, each of the manufacturers wants to capture the entire sales market. The desires of the producers are in conflict and the struggle between them becomes inevitable. The market is cruel and impartial. It obeys only the principle of supply and demand. The greater the demand, the higher the price and vice versa: this is his imperative. The consumer through the market influences the entrepreneur who produces goods, but the enterprise can also influence the consumer, say, through advertising, thereby influencing the market, pushing new products by changing the tastes and needs of the consumer. Market It's the process of buying and selling. But no less important is the activity of the enterprise associated with a comprehensive analysis of the state of the market. The process of anticipating the needs of potential buyers and meeting them by offering goods and services is called marketing (from English market-market). The main thing in marketing is its target orientation and complexity, i.e., the merging of all the components of this activity into a single technological process. 41. Market types In the modern economy, there is not one market, but a whole system that consists of markets: - consumer goods and services; - means of production; investments, i.e. long-term investments; - foreign currencies; - valuable papers; - scientific and technical developments and innovations; - information; - work force. The variety of markets is usually classified into: 1. According to the economic purpose of the objects of market relations from which markets are formed - goods and services, labor, currency, stock market, credit, real estate (including labor and land markets); 2. From the point of view of compliance with the current legislation, legal (legal) and illegal (shadow) markets are also distinguished; 3. On a spatial basis, markets are distinguished: local, national, regional, world; 4. According to the degree of restriction of competition: monopolistic, free competition, etc. 5. By the nature of sales: - retail; - wholesale. In general, a market organism is a constantly developing and self-regulating mechanism. An important market is the labor market - a system of social mechanisms through which some members of society - workers - have the opportunity to find work, while others - employers - can hire workers. The market sells and buys a special commodity - labor power. Work force - these are physical and mental capabilities, skills, abilities that allow a person to perform certain types of work, while ensuring the necessary level of labor productivity and quality of manufactured products. The price of labor power is its wages. Wages - this is the amount of monetary remuneration that the employer pays to the employee for the performance of a certain amount of work or the performance of official duties for a certain time. The minimum price of labor power is determined by the subsistence minimum - the level of income that a worker needs to meet the most necessary level of needs. An integral element of the labor market is unemployment - this is a situation in the economy in which some people cannot find work. The state is working to reduce it. At the same time, the modern economy has come to the conclusion that the complete eradication of unemployment is impossible, and there is no need for this. Experts believe that it is necessary to have a natural level of unemployment, this helps to maintain the necessary competition in the labor market. But a high level of unemployment can lead to many negative phenomena in society and to social conflicts. 42. Entrepreneurship as a type of activity In market theory, entrepreneurial activity is singled out as a special factor of production. The specificity of entrepreneurial activity is revealed in a dynamic economy, when the factors that determine the magnitude of supply and demand change. In the field of entrepreneurship, the following cases of economic development are usually distinguished: - production of a new good or creation of a new quality of a good; - introduction of an unknown method, new for this branch of production; - development of a new sales market; - obtaining a new source of raw materials or semi-finished products; - Carrying out an appropriate reorganization of the market structure. Under these conditions, a special role is played by entrepreneurs who do not just combine factors of production, but show initiative and are able to take economic risks. The subjects of entrepreneurial relations are various business participants (individuals). They act in this capacity mainly through the organization of individual production (family business). The activities of such entrepreneurs are carried out both on the basis of their own labor and with the involvement of hired workers. Entrepreneurial activity can also be carried out by a group of persons linked by contractual obligations and economic interests. The association of partners allows solving problems of a larger scale compared to individual entrepreneurship. Various types of associations act as subjects of collective entrepreneurship: joint-stock companies, rental collectives, cooperatives, etc. In some cases, the state represented by its relevant bodies is also referred to as business entities. The object of entrepreneurship is a certain creative activity, the features of which are that it materializes in goods and services, as well as in the corresponding income. Entrepreneurial activity performs the following functions: resource (ie, the mobilization of capital, labor, material, natural and information resources); organizational (production and sale of goods and services); creative (development of new goods and services); all-round development and strengthening of private property. Based on the functions, the main thing is that modern entrepreneurship acts as the most important force that ensures dynamism and flexibility, self-renewal of the economic system associated with scientific and technical progress, which serves to realize the creative and organizational abilities of wide sections of workers. 43. Essence of money In ancient times, when exchange operations began to take shape, people did not think about what the value of things was. They simply exchanged items that they had in abundance for what they needed. Over time, the exchange became more and more regular. There was a need to find an equivalent intermediary, that is, the need for such a product that could serve as a measure of the cost of what is sold and what is bought. Among different peoples, this role was performed by various objects, including cattle. But later, money became a means of exchange of goods. We can say that money is a measure of the value of goods and a means of circulation: in the first case, money is a sign, and in the second - a material object - whether it be an ingot of gold, silver or a special piece of paper: the cost of all goods and services is effective in them. Buying or selling something people are interested in the price of the product - monetary value. Money can be defined as a special sign, enshrined by the state in the form of a legal norm, which gives this sign the legal authority of a generally accepted medium of exchange for goods. It is a way of public expression of the economic value of a product. Since money is a sign that expresses the value of goods, it is necessary that this sign be durable, wear out little in circulation and be able to be divided into parts without collapsing. For its manufacture, some metal (gold, silver) is used. Just as money is a sign of the value of commodities, paper is a sign of the value of money. If this sign is benign, then it may well replace them. Therefore, there is a real and symbolic coin. The process of turning real coins into iconic form has a long history. Modern money - signs of goods. Money has an indirect value: it cannot be consumed or used for anything. At the same time, money is the most common means of all things. But the side of consumption here is completely different from that in the case of, for example, food, the use of clothing, etc. The consumption of money is carried out in the use of means of purchase or sale. The essence of the need for money is to have a medium of exchange. Ultimately, money is a universal means of mutual exchange of the results of people's labor. Economists define money as a special commodity that performs the functions of a measure of value, a means of circulation, a means of creating treasures, savings and savings, a means of payment. Money - This is a common scale for things that are different in their specifics. Money, in itself having no value, has a monstrous power. Possession of them sometimes transforms a person. 44. The role of the state in the economy At present, almost all really operating economic systems are characterized by a close interweaving of market relations with elements of state control and regulation. To exercise the regulatory role, the state uses various levers of influence on the economy. Legal regulation is aimed at streamlining market relations. A special place is occupied by antimonopoly legislation, the purpose of which is to limit the dictate of monopolistic associations on the market. Another lever for regulating the economy is the system of state orders, the purchase of certain goods that increase demand, that is, expand the domestic market. The most important lever is financial and economic regulation. The monetary system is the main lever of influence on the economy. The state provides it with money and controls their circulation in order to maintain economic stability. The ways and extent of government intervention in the economy are controversial among economists. Two views are now popular, reflecting different directions in economic theory: monetarism and Keynesianism. Position monetarists (D. Hume, M. Friedman): it is possible to free the economy from state tutelage as much as possible, to reduce taxes and government spending, enabling the market mechanism to provide a stable economic system on its own. According to monetarists, the only correct policy of the state is to increase the amount of money in the economy no faster than the productivity of the country's economy grows. Representatives of the Keynesian trend associated with the name of the English economist J. Keynes believe that only the market mechanism is not able to solve the diverse problems in the economy. They consider it necessary to have more state intervention in the economy, its regulation by increasing or reducing demand through changes in the money supply. According to J. Keynes, only an active financial policy of the state, stimulating demand, is able to cope with many market troubles, such as unemployment. To meet the modern economic needs of society, supporters believe J. Keynesgovernment action is necessary and inevitable. In practice, the governments of most states use a wide range of stabilization measures, both monetary and Keynesian. The impact of the state on the market mechanism is carried out through direct and indirect regulation. Direct regulation involves the use of administrative methods, indirect - the methods of monetary and fiscal policy. 45. Monetary and fiscal policy The conductor of the monetary policy of the state is central bank in cooperation with commercial banks. In economic practice, the following tools for regulating the money supply are used: setting the discount rate of interest, setting the required reserve ratio. The Central Bank issues money to commercial banks, the latter - to its customers for a fee, called interest on the loan. By raising or lowering the discount rate, the central bank makes credit more expensive or cheaper. If loans become more expensive, then the number of people willing to take them decreases accordingly. This leads to less money in circulation and helps to reduce the rate of inflation (the process of raising the price level in the country), but exacerbates the decline in production, as firms are deprived of the opportunity to obtain credit. By lowering the discount rate of interest and making credit cheap, the state increases the number of borrowers, which contributes to the rise in production. But an increase in the money supply in circulation leads to an increase in inflation. The activity of the state in the field of taxation, regulation of public spending and the state budget is called fiscal policy. The state budget - this is a consolidated plan of state revenues and the use of the funds received to cover all government expenditures. The state, using the budget, can significantly influence the economy, stimulate production and social processes. The main levers of this influence are the regulation of taxation and government spending. The main source of budget revenues are taxes - mandatory payments levied by the state from individuals and legal entities to the budget. The mechanism of taxation is rather complicated. There are direct and indirect taxes. A direct tax is a fee in favor of the state, levied on each citizen or organization, depending on the amount of income or the value of property. Indirect tax - this is a fee in favor of the state, levied from citizens or organizations only when they carry out certain actions, for example, when purchasing certain types of goods. The budget policy is also aimed at balancing revenues and expenditures, since a significant increase in government spending and a shortfall in taxes leads to a budget deficit, one of the negative economic indicators. In order to overcome the budget deficit, the state can borrow money from citizens and organizations. The amount the government owes to creditors is called public debt. The budget deficit and the amount of public debt are the most important indicators of the state of the economy. 46. Main indicators of the economy Historically, the initial indicators were those that measured the scale of development of only the sphere of material production. This was natural for pre-industrial and industrial production, where only labor for the manufacture of useful things was valued. To measure the development of the production sector, an indicator was used - the total social product. It included all products of material production created during a certain period. If it was expressed in value form, then it acted as a gross social product - the sum of the value of goods manufactured at all enterprises. A completely different type of indicators reflects the state of the national economy in the modern era. The initial indicator is the gross (total) value of all products. It is equal to the sum of sales of all goods and services. This set is subdivided: into intermediate (it comes from the producers of raw materials, component materials) and into the final one, which is used for consumption. Since intermediate products are re-added at each technological stage in the manufacture of finished products, they are subtracted from the gross cost. This is how the main economic indicator is formed - the gross national product (GNP) - the total value of the final products that are created in the national economy during the year. The GNP includes net export (the difference between the value of goods exported from the country and the value of imported goods). However, in different countries, the share of foreign trade activity is not the same. Therefore, to identify the degree of development of the economy, the indicator of gross domestic product (GDP) is used. It is the gross national product minus balance (from Italian saldo - calculation, balance) of the balance of payments (the difference between the value of exports and imports). At the same time, the indicators take into account the final results of economic activity only within the country. The composition of GNP and GDP includes not only the new value, but also depreciation (the part of the final product that replaces the spent fixed capital). If you subtract the amount of annual depreciation from GDP, you get a new indicator - net national product (NNP). If indirect taxes are subtracted from the NNP, then the indicator of national income is formed. Section V. POLITICAL LIFE OF MODERN SOCIETY 47. Essence of politics The meaning of the word "politics" its etymology is best expressed: the Greek word politike is the art of government. The definition of this concept was first given in ancient Greece, where the word policy denoted the state, and the word politics denoted state or public affairs. This understanding of politics is still true today, only in the most general sense. In the ordinary sense, politics is identified with restrictions, violence. But a scientific approach helps to cover political phenomena and processes at a more serious theoretical level. In modern science, there are several approaches to understanding politics. First of all, this is a historically established idea of politics as the management of society, and since the state is engaged in this, politics in this approach is reduced to state activity. There is a widespread view of politics as a mechanism for regulating relations between various social strata, groups, and state entities. Depending on the ideas about these interests, in this version, politics is considered as a struggle or cooperation between them, sometimes as a complex interaction. Theorists also note that politics is of an imperious nature. The allocation of the category of power as a determining one follows from the fact that the sphere of politics not only covers the state, the political system, but also goes beyond them. The variety of approaches to explaining the meaning of politics complicates the expression of its concept, its formulation. In the most general terms, politics is understood as a sphere of activity associated with relations between social groups and various social strata, the purpose of which is to conquer, retain and use state power. Such a definition points to the state as the central element of politics, and the state itself is considered as the main category of the science of politics. This approach originates from Aristotle, who inextricably linked politics with the state. But it also corresponds to modern ideas, as it combines such key elements as the state and power. The opinion is quite well-established that politics appears where and when natural consent is lost, but there is a need for coordinated behavior. Unlike other social institutions, politics serves to satisfy not personal needs, but generally significant interests, the implementation of which is impossible without the power of the state. The essence of politics is to ensure the integrity of society, to coordinate interests. 48. Power and Power Relations Power is of great importance in the life of man and society. Modern cratology - the science of power (Greek "kratos" - power, "logos" - teaching) unites more than 70 areas and branches of knowledge that analyze the phenomenon of power. Most modern scientists in the most general terms represent power as the ability of some individuals to control the actions of others. However, disputes over the nature of power continue. Usually, there are two main approaches to defining the essence of power relations. The first approach is associated with the name Max Weber, who understood power as part of interpersonal relationships for exercising control over the actions of others and overcoming their resistance to this control. What stands out in this definition is that the dominating subject strengthens his power due to a more complete reduction of the position of another subject to the position of the object. A peculiar reaction to this approach was the concept of power, considering it as a certain relationship between subjects, their specific interaction. This approach to explaining the essence of power relations is called "systemic". His followers believe that power is connected with the achievement of the general goals of the social system, with the organization. Within the framework of this approach, power is seen as an integrating factor, a regulator of social relations. At the present stage, the significance of this approach has been updated, in which power is viewed from the positive side, as the most important communicative factor of society. But in reality, the main content of power is still the subordination to the will of its bearers of persons, all subjects of the system, by virtue of which various social roles are performed: ruling and subservient. There are several methods for implementing the role of the dominant. Coercion, physical or mental. Power holders also resort to methods of persuasion and encouragement, use authority. Power - this is a two-way relationship between the subject (active principle) and the object (passive principle). In order to influence the behavior of other people, the subject of dominance must have at its disposal certain resources, i.e., means of reinforcement with which to influence the behavior of subordinates. Power resources - these are either important values (money, commodities), or means that can influence the inner world of a person (mass media), or tools that can be used to deprive a person of certain values, the highest of which is life. Resources, along with the subject and object, are the most important foundations of power. 49. Legitimacy of power Legitimacy means recognition and support by the majority of the population of this government, its right to govern, and not just impose its will. The term "legitimacy" should be distinguished from the term "legality", which means the legal existence of power, its legitimacy, compliance with legal norms. In order to win and retain legitimacy, the trust of the people, the authorities resort to arguing their actions, referring to the highest values (justice, truth), history, feelings, emotions, moods, the real or fictitious will of the people, the dictates of the time, etc. Typology of legitimacy, created by Max Weber, includes three main principles: tradition, charisma, legal rationality. In specific political systems, these principles are intertwined with the predominance of one of them. legal power is based on the recognition of legal norms, the constitution, which regulate the relationship of control and subordination. These rules are open to change through procedures established by law. To justify their power, the elite refers to the current legislation, which provides for the free expression of the will of citizens, election, equality of all political forces operating within the framework of the law, and limiting the scope of the state. During the period of radical changes taking place in society, there is, as a rule, a crisis of the legitimacy of power. The old regime is losing its legitimacy, and the new one is not yet gaining it. The position of the new regime largely depends on how it tries to assert its legitimacy. The literature highlights the following means of legitimization authorities: political, ideological, legal, ethical, psychological. We are talking about the scientific and technical support of the political course in laws, the tax system, the promotion of the values of this policy, the formation of beliefs, and the influence on the media. A strong argument is the division of participants in political relations into friends and opponents, an appeal to history, the will of the people, national traditions, economic and technical feasibility. The ethical justification of the policy emphasizes its civic, cultural merits, focus on achieving the common good.. Ideological legitimization consists in justifying power with the help of an ideology that justifies the correspondence of power to the interests of the people, nation or class. Successful economic policy, strengthening public order and improving the well-being of the population are also effective means of legitimizing the government, and the population's confidence in it. 50. Separation of powers The generally accepted norm in democratic states is the principle separation of powers. The excessive concentration of power in one hand, the monopoly of any body of political control on power is regarded as the greatest danger threatening democratic principles. Separation of powers theory implies the presence of fixed powers of the executive, legislative and judicial bodies, allowing political institutions, being independent of each other, within their competence to control each other and prevent the concentration of power dangerous for democracy in the hands of any one of its branches. The principles of formation and relationship of authorities are different. However, the general rule is that the legislature controls the executive, and both strictly adhere to the framework of the law, which is supervised by the judiciary, independent of either the legislature or the executive. The supporters of the theory of separation of powers assign the leading role in the system of authorities to the parliament, referring to its competence the sphere of legislation and thereby presenting it with the right to determine the boundaries of the activities of the executive and judicial authorities. Parliament - the highest legislative body of the state, a representative nationwide institution, elected on the basis of universal and equal suffrage by secret ballot. Modern parliaments usually consist of two chambers. In federal states, the presence of two chambers makes it possible to combine the principle of representation of the population of the country as a whole with the representation of the lands and other entities that make up the federation. A significant role in the system of separation of powers is assigned to the judiciary. But on the question of the importance of the judiciary in the system of separation of powers, answers are not always equivalent. In some cases, the emphasis is on the fact that in the system of separation of powers, the court should act as a kind of guarantor of the balance that has developed between them. In other cases, the court is seen as an institution acting as an intermediary between the legislative and executive powers. But at the same time, it is sometimes indicated that the court does not cope with this task. In third cases, the court is presented as an institution designed to adapt the state structure to the constitutional requirements for the separation of powers. There are different points of view on the issue of the relationship between the legislative and executive powers. The problem of optimizing the authorities remains relevant today. 51. Political system A politically formed society has a mechanism of power that ensures its normal functioning as a single social organism. This mechanism is called political system. The use of a systematic approach makes it possible to single out political life from the rest of the life of society, which can be considered "environment" or "environment", and at the same time establish the existence of links between them. The political system consists of many subsystems, structures and processes, it interacts with other subsystems: social, economic, ideological, cultural, legal. The understanding of politics as a single, complexly organized mechanism came only in the XNUMXth century. The structural elements of the political system include: 1. Organizational (state, political parties, socio-political movements). 2. Normative (political, legal, moral norms and values, customs and traditions). 3. Cultural (political ideology, political culture). 4. Communicative (from Latin communicatio - communication, communication) (forms of interaction, communication, communication within the political system, as well as between the political system and society). At the present stage, there are many definitions of the concept of a political system. In general, it can be argued that politic system - this is a universal control system of society, the components of which are connected by political relations and which ultimately regulates the relationship between social groups, ensuring the stability of society and a certain social order based on the use of state power. The political system is an important means of social integration, containment of the destructive influence of social differences on the functioning of the constituent parts of the social organism. The classification of political systems is very diverse, based on a significant number of different criteria. Renowned researcher of political systems G. Almond identifies four types of systems. It is an Anglo-American, continental European, pre-industrial and partially industrial, totalitarian system. This typology is based on different political cultures. Depending on the orientation towards stability or change, political systems are divided into: conservative, transforming. Among the latter, reactionary and progressive political systems are distinguished. A systematic approach to the analysis of political life is of great importance. It allows you to unify the terminology, creates the possibility of a comparative analysis of different types of systems. 52. The state is the leading institution of the political system The state is the most important institution of the political system. The significance of the state is determined by the maximum concentration in its hands of power and resources, allowing it to effectively and decisively influence social change. The emergence of the state as a social institution reflected the processes of complication of people's life, differentiation of interests of groups and individuals. State - This is an organization of political power that promotes the predominant implementation of specific social interests within a certain territory. The main distinguishing feature of the state is sovereignty, i.e., supreme power within the state and independence in relations with other countries. Being sovereign, state power extends to the entire population; it is endowed with the exclusive right to issue laws and other normative acts binding on all, to administer justice, to establish and levy taxes and fees. The state also has special organs and institutions, including coercion (army, police, prisons, etc.). The laws and powers of the state apply to people living in a certain territory. The main directions of the state's activity in managing society are embodied in its functions. The most significant functions of modern states include: ensuring economic development, social protection, protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens, law and order, democracy, national defense and mutually beneficial cooperation with other countries. Functions characterize the domestic and foreign policy of the state. States differ from each other in their internal organization, in forms of government, state structure, and state regimes. According to the forms of government, states are divided into monarchies and republics. At the present stage, there are two types of monarchies - dualistic and parliamentary. A characteristic feature of a dualistic monarchy is the division of power between the monarch and parliament. In a parliamentary monarchy, the status of the monarch is limited both at the level of legislative and executive powers. Parliamentary monarchies are often referred to as constitutional monarchies. Modern republican forms are divided into parliamentary and presidential. According to the forms of government, unitary and federal states are distinguished. The simplest and most common form is a unitary state (a single state entity, divided only into administrative-territorial parts). More complex is the federation. 53. State regime In addition to having certain forms of government and government, states differ from each other in their regimes. The state regime is understood as a system of methods, ways and means of exercising political power. Any changes that occur in the essence of the state, first of all, are reflected in its regime, and it affects the form of government and the form of government. According to one point of view, the concept of "state regime" is regarded as identical to the concept of "political regime". According to another point of view, the concept of "political regime" is broader than the concept of "state regime", because it includes not only methods and techniques for the exercise of political power by the state, but also by political parties and movements, public associations, organizations. The state regime acts as a real manifestation of organizationally formalized power, as a process of its functioning. The state regime is the most dynamic component of the form of the state, sensitively reacting to all processes and changes, in particular in the correlation of social class forces. The state regime largely individualizes the form of the state, determines its role in the state-legal mechanism and socio-political significance. The most general classification of state regimes is their division into two types - democratic and non-democratic, or anti-democratic regimes. The characteristic features of a democratic regime are the following: the constitutional proclamation and exercise of the socio-economic and political rights of citizens and their organizations, the existence of a number of political (including opposition) parties, the election and replacement of central and local government bodies, the official recognition of the principle of legality, the principle of separation of powers, the existence of institutions of representative and direct democracy, the existence of democratic legislation, etc. A non-democratic regime is characterized by the liquidation or restriction of the rights and freedoms of citizens, the prohibition of opposition and other organizations, the restriction of the role of elected state bodies and the strengthening of the role of executive bodies, the concentration of enormous power in the hands of the head of state. The logically complete and most dangerous type of undemocratic regime is fascism. Fascist regimes - an indicator of a sharp aggravation of contradictions within society, a crisis in the political power of the ruling class. 54. Rule of law In the scientific literature, the rule of law is defined as a type of state whose power is based on Right, is limited by it and realized through it. But such a representation is not enough for an adequate understanding of the phenomenon of the rule of law, which is a complex system. In the idea of a rule of law state, two such elements are usually distinguished: the freedom of a person, the most complete provision of his rights; limitation of state power. A person as an autonomous subject is free to dispose of his forces, abilities, property, conscience. Law, being a form and measure of freedom, should maximize the boundaries of the limitations of the individual. The prerequisites for a decent human existence provide human rights that underlie the diverse rights of the individual. Human rights as the main link in the incentive regime for the individual is a source of constant reproduction of his initiative, an instrument for the development of civil society. Human rights act as a connecting link between the individual and the state. It is in binding, limiting the law of the state that the essence of the rule of law lies. Here law acts as the antipode of arbitrariness and as a barrier on the way to it. The legal framework contributes to the suppression of unreasonable and illegal abuse of power, violation of human rights. As a way to limit political power, the rule of law and its dominance in public life are advocated. Under the rule of law, an effective way to limit power is also the mutual responsibility of the state and the individual. Under the rule of law, the individual and the ruling subject should act as equal partners who have concluded a kind of agreement on mutual cooperation and mutual responsibility. Establishing in the legislative form the freedom of society and the individual, the state itself is not free from restrictions. Obeying the law, state bodies cannot violate its prescriptions and are liable for violations or failure to fulfill these obligations. On the same legal basis, the responsibility of the individual to the state is built. Of course, the level of legal consciousness, legal culture in society, the presence of civil society and the exercise of control on its part over the implementation of laws by all subjects of law are of great importance in the development of a rule-of-law state. At the present stage, the rule of law appears to a greater extent as an ideal, not receiving its full embodiment in any country. 55. Welfare State According to researchers, the idea of a legal democratic state does not fully reveal the essence of a modern highly developed state. In the world theory and practice of state building in recent decades, the concept of "welfare state" (from German Sozialstaat). The concept of "welfare state" was first put forward in the middle of the nineteenth century. German scientists Lorenz von Stein. In his opinion, the state should make progress for all members of society. As a result of strong pressure from below in favor of improving the socio-economic situation of workers in a number of European countries at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. a number of measures to protect the social interests of the lower classes were developed and legislated. A powerful impetus for the further development of the theory and practice of the welfare state was the "New Deal" of the President of the United States F. Roosevelt. The life of many countries included various systems of social security, insurance of citizens of the state. Measures were taken to ensure full employment. In the plans for social development, much attention was paid to health care and education. After World War II, many states fixed the welfare state as a constitutional principle. At present, the developed countries of the world are social states. Most scientists, considering the essence of the welfare state, see it through the prism of the specific activities of the state in the social sphere, social regulation. Many scholars link the activities of the welfare state with private initiative that brings funds for social programs. There are scientists who believe that a modern welfare state should help reduce social injustice. Along with the concept of a welfare state, scientific literature uses the terms "welfare state" and "welfare state" as synonyms. The successful functioning of the welfare state is possible only on the basis of a highly developed economy, which must be socially oriented, serving the interests of all sections of society. In the political sphere, a consensus of the main political forces is needed on the goals and objectives of the development of a given society, the established system of social institutions. The spiritual atmosphere in the welfare state is distinguished by a developed sense of citizenship, social solidarity, and humanism. 56. Civil Society The concept of civil society was formed simultaneously with the concept of the rule of law, which was supposed to ensure their interaction. At the present stage, civil society is understood as a set of independent institutions and relations independent of the state, based on individual freedom, political pluralism and democratic rule of law. There are two understandings civil society - in the broad and narrow sense. In a broad sense, civil society includes everything that is not included in the sphere of state relations, i.e., is not directly regulated by state structures. With such an approach, civil society is possible in various states, including non-democratic ones. Civil society in the narrow sense, in its own sense, is the reverse side of the rule of law, they do not exist without each other. There can be no complete separation between civil society and the rule of law, and the interactions between them are constantly changing. In the structure of civil society, family, economic, cultural, ethnic, religious and moral relations are usually distinguished, as well as political relations between individuals and subjects of political life not mediated by the state. In civil society, in contrast to state structures, not vertical ties (i.e., relations of power and subordination) prevail, but horizontal relations of competition and solidarity between legally free and equal partners. The first level in the structure of civil society constitute economic relations that satisfy the basic human needs for food, clothing, housing, etc., ensuring the livelihoods of individuals. This level of relations is realized through enterprises, consumer and other associations and structures. The second level of the structure of civil society - these are socio-cultural relations that satisfy the needs for procreation, health, raising children, and spiritual improvement. This level includes such institutions as the family, the church, educational and scientific institutions, creative unions, sports societies. Third level constitute relationships that contribute to the realization of the needs for political participation and are associated with the individual choice of value orientations. The cultural and political preferences of individuals are realized with the help of interest groups, political parties, socio-political organizations, ensure the pluralism of social development and the realization of the rights and freedoms of the individual. 57. Political parties Political parties play an important role in the life of society. In the structure of society, they have a specific place - at the junction between civil society and the state, hence their role as a link between them. But the "borderline" essence and role of parties is not limited to this. On the one hand, they bring into civil society a significant element of politicization, that is, of what is characteristic of the sphere of the state. On the other hand, due to their political nature, parties tend (especially in the case of coming to power) to nationalization, which negatively affects civil society. Term "the consignment" comes from the Latin word parties - part. Political parties represent the most active, organized part of the population. Parties, like other public associations, are characterized by solidarity, a common goal, agreement on the means and ways to achieve this goal. However, unlike other public associations, political parties are aimed at fighting for the conquest and use of power. Political parties are characterized by an organizational structure, membership, intra-party relations, party political leadership, the presence of program and statutory documents that consolidate the ideological and organizational foundations of the party. As a subject of the political process, the party performs the following functions: 1. Aggregation of social interests (reducing the set of private interests of citizens, social groups into an aggregate political interest); 2. Articulation, representation of social interests; 3. Political socialization of citizens, etc. Parties are divided into mass and personnel. On the basis of ideology, parties are distinguished as conservative, liberal, socialist, communist, nationalist, clerical (religious), etc. Today in many countries the issue of the future fate of political parties is being discussed. Apathy towards political parties and politics in general is growing in society, and the functions of parties are largely taken over by the media and independent candidates. However, the parties remain a solid political force and take all possible measures to increase their ratings. In particular, with the aim of acquiring the status of all-people's parties in public opinion, parties deliberately go to the erosion of their ideological and social-class certainty. Through parties, various social forces have the opportunity to express their attitude to the current policy and even their protest, which often takes the form of slogans and statements. 58. Political elite and political leadership Political activity is personalized. The answer to the question of who exercises power is given by the theory of elites and political leadership. Term "elite" comes from the French word "elite" - which means the best, selective, chosen. In political science, the elite are persons who have received the highest index in their field of activity. Equivalent to the concept of "elite" - "ruling elite", "ruling stratum", "ruling circles". In its original, etymological meaning, the concept of elite is widespread in everyday language. Often they talk about elite grain, elite animals, about the sports elite. The differences between people that exist in human society, which determine their unequal abilities to manage and influence social processes, make it possible to speak of the political elite as the bearer of the most pronounced political and managerial qualities. A great contribution to the development of the theory of elites was made by such scientists as G. Mosca, V. Pareto, R. Michels and others. They proceeded from the fact that under any form of government, the "minority" - the elite - is in charge of the incompetent majority. V. Pareto represented society in the form of a pyramid with an elite at the top. The most gifted from the bottom rise to the top, replenishing the ranks of the elite, whose members, in turn, degrading, "fall down" into the masses. At the present stage, the political elite is understood as a large social group that has a certain level of political influence and is the main source of leadership for the institutions of power of a particular state. The elitism of society can be eliminated only through public self-government. However, at the present stage of the development of human civilization, the self-government of the people is more an ideal than a reality. The activities of various organizational structures are personified in specific individuals - leaders. Leadership as a social phenomenon is inherent in human nature. Leadership in political science is considered as one of the mechanisms for regulating the relations of people, social groups, institutions, and society as a whole. Its essence is the relationship of dominance and subordination, influence and following. At the present stage, there are various classifications of leadership that make it possible to understand the nature of leadership (the theory of traits, the defining roles of followers, situational theories, etc.). Political leaders, expressing the interests of certain classes, can have a significant impact on the course of events. Not every subject of politics is capable of mastering the art of leadership. It can be a person who is distinguished by independent thinking, expressing the interests of the masses. 59. Ideological systems of modernity World practice has developed many different ideological systems. The largest of them are - liberalism, conservatism, socialism. All these ideological currents are undoubtedly connected with the activities of certain political parties and state structures. One of the most widespread ideological currents is liberalism (from lat. liberalis - free). The foundation of liberalism is based on the principle of individual freedom, its self-worth in relation to all social institutions, the responsibility of the individual both to himself and to society, recognition of the right to self-realization of all people. Liberalism in all its manifestations defended the demand for individual freedom, the dignity of the human person and tolerance for the views and beliefs of other people. Linking individual freedom with respect for human rights, liberalism quite organically combines the principles of individualism and humanism. The ideology of liberalism is based on the identification of freedom and private property. Private property is regarded as a guarantor and measure of human freedom. But supporters of liberalism do not deny the need for the state to protect the individual from the negative consequences of the functioning of a market economy. Conservatism has been the opponent of liberalism for a long period of history. The ideology of conservatism is based on the recognition of the inviolability of the natural order of things. Therefore, conservatism is based on traditionalism - the idea of preserving traditional values associated with family, religion, class divisions. Proceeding from this attitude, the conservatives affirm the priority in the social development of continuity over innovations. Conservatives opposed the extremes of democracy associated with egalitarianism (egalitarianism). The third influential current is the socialist ideology. An attempt to scientifically define this ideology was made by K. Marx and F. Engels. Based on the ideas of these thinkers, Marxism was formed, proclaiming itself the ideology of the proletariat. At the beginning of the twentieth century. Marxism split into Leninism and Social Democracy. These currents are connected by a number of values: the idea of equality and brotherhood of all people, social justice, the priority of the public over the personal, the recognition of the need for state intervention in the regulation of social relations. Leninism is a more radical doctrine, as it presupposes revolutionary changes. The Social Democrats affirm the priority of evolutionary changes on the way to achieving equality and social justice. Section VI. LEGAL SPHERE OF PUBLIC LIFE 60. Essence of law Law is a product of social development. It regulates social relations. Without law, the existence of a civilized society is impossible. Law is expressed in a legal norm, which is a general rule of conduct binding on all. Legal norms are divided into laws and by-laws. Laws are adopted by the legislative bodies of the state or by the people as a result of a referendum and have the highest legal force. Regulations These are law-making acts of the competent authorities. There are acts of general effect that apply to everyone, acts of limited effect (for example, on officials), acts of exclusive action (during military operations, natural disasters). Rules of law are imperative (from the rules of which it is impossible to deviate) and dispositive (which can be changed at the discretion of the parties). In terms of content, a rule of law consists of a disposition, that is, the rule of conduct itself, a hypothesis - an indication of the conditions for applying the rule, sanctions - establishing the threat of adverse legal consequences of non-fulfillment or violation of a legal norm. It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of right and law. Law is older than law. The ancient peoples had natural norms of legal behavior, but, of course, no one made laws. Law and laws were formed gradually directly from customs in the form of an establishment. It had nothing to do with the genuine law and the law of the period of established statehood. At its core, law and law are associated with a sense of order and a sense of duty, that is, with moral principles. Morality corresponds to human nature, but it is not enough. In order to ensure the normal functioning of society, a coercive law is needed: the coercive compulsion of phenomena. This is one of the essential differences between the norms of law and moral norms. Law is an expression of the rule of law in society. In each state, legal norms - laws - are issued and act. They prescribe what to do and what not to do. Ignorance of the law does not exempt from the need to fulfill it. But laws that are not provided with an implementation mechanism remain a dead letter: a valid right is one that contains the conditions of its existence, that is, protects itself from non-execution or criminal ignorance. Therefore, the essential fact of law is its recognition by the people and trust in this system of law, strictly observed and regulated by the state itself. 61. Correlation of law and law The problem of the relationship between law and law has always existed. The essence of this problem is reduced to the following. There are laws that meet the legal criteria, which are considered "legal laws". Here the right and the law coincide. But there are also laws that do not meet legal criteria, and, therefore, do not coincide with law. In this case, to resolve the problem of the relationship between law and law, as well as in solving the issue of the relationship between state and law, two different approaches collide. One of them is focused on the fact that the state is the only and exclusive source of law and that everything that the state says through its laws is law. Another approach is based on the fact that law, as a regulator of social relations, is considered relatively independent of the state and the law, or even preceding the law, as a natural law, socio-historically conditioned, born in objective social relations. In this case, the state and law are recognized as relatively independent institutions in relation to each other. Law is defined as a form of freedom in real relations, a real measure of this freedom. With such a legal understanding, the state is not only not considered as a creator or source of law, but, on the contrary, is itself declared bound or, at least, significantly limited by law in its actions. It is presented as an institution that not only establishes how much it formulates or derives law, thanks to legislative activity, from the objectively existing economic, socio-political and other reality. The state, in this case, is the creator and source of laws, but not rights. The state monopolizes legislative, not law-making activities. But in this case, questions arise: what is the criterion for "legal laws"? Which laws can be considered as coinciding with law and which not? What are the objective grounds for classifying some laws as legal? In the literature, as a criterion for distinguishing between law and law, the "general will" was proposed, moral grounds - justice, goodness, humanity, evil. For these purposes, the concept was also used - the legal ideal, the "law of laws". But all this still does not contribute to solving the problem of the relationship between law and law. At present, the fact of unresolved, but at the same time of great social significance, the problem of the relationship between law and law for legal systems is being ascertained. 62. Sources of law The main place in the system of sources of law is occupied by the law. The content of the law is considered in a broad sense as a synonym for law, or rather - legislation. Laws are all normative legal acts emanating from the state in the person of all its rule-making bodies. Under the law is understood the norm, e.e. general rule, designed for an unlimited number of cases. It follows from this kind of reasoning that the distinctive feature of the law is its normative character. But in legal literature, the concept of law in its "narrow", proper sense is much more often used. A law is a "primary legal act" adopted in a special manner on the main issues of the life of the state, expressing the state will and having the highest legal force. True, the view that the law a reflects the interests of the general will is questioned. Even at the beginning of the twentieth century. French scientist M. Oriou demanded to abandon the illusions of the infallibility of the law. For in fact, the law is “a matter of the will of the majority that exists in the legislative body of the country. Therefore, one can speak of the “general will” not as a fact, but as an ability and potential opportunity to adequately reflect and fully express the “general will” of the people or the whole society. Laws are issued on the most important issues of state and public life. The main law is the Constitution of the country. Laws include codified laws - codes (codes of laws), for example Civil, Criminal, Customs, Family. For some branches of law, the Fundamentals of Legislation apply. Separate laws are adopted to regulate a number of relations. Laws are closely related and interact with other sources of law. Among them are legal custom and legal contract. A legal custom is a state-sanctioned rule of conduct that has developed in society as a result of its repeated and prolonged application. It is one of the oldest and one of the most important sources of law for early legal systems. Legal customs basically coincide with customs, with the difference that the former, being sanctioned by the state, acquire legal force and are provided in case of violation by state coercion. While customs, without having legal force, are provided by public opinion. A legal contract contains a rule of a general nature, norms of conduct that are binding on everyone. In this it differs from ordinary contracts concluded in various spheres of public activity. 63. Branches of law The legal system of modern society combines the following main branches. 1. State (constitutional) law. This is a branch of law that regulates the foundations of the social and state structure of the country, the foundations of the legal status of citizens, the system of state bodies and their main powers. The norms of administrative law regulate social relations that develop in the process of implementing the executive and administrative activities of state bodies. 2. Financial law - a set of rules governing social relations in the field of financial activity. 3. Land law regulates social relations in the field of use and protection of land, its bowels, waters, forests. 4. Civil law - the most voluminous branch in the system of law, which regulates a variety of property and related personal non-property relations. The norms of civil law fix and protect various forms of ownership, determine the rights and obligations of the parties in property relations, regulate relations related to the creation of works of art, literature, etc. 5. Labor law - a branch of law that regulates social relations in the process of human labor activity. The norms of labor law, for example, determine the conditions for employment, establish working hours and rest periods, and labor safety rules. 6. Family Law regulates marital relations, establishes the conditions and procedure for entering into marriage, determines the rights and obligations of spouses, parents and children in relation to each other. 7. Civil procedure law regulates relations arising in the course of consideration by courts of civil, labor and family disputes. 8. Criminal law - a code of norms establishing what kind of socially dangerous behavior is criminal and what punishment is applied for its commission. The norms of criminal law define the concept of a crime, establish the types of crimes and the amount of punishment for criminal acts. Criminal procedural law determines the procedure for the production of criminal cases. The norms of this branch regulate the activities of the bodies of inquiry of the preliminary investigation, the prosecutor's office, the court and their relationship with citizens during the investigation, during the trial and in the resolution of criminal cases. 9. Correctional labor law regulates relations that develop during the execution of criminal penalties and are associated with corrective labor influence. They establish the procedure for serving the convicts of the measure of criminal punishment assigned to them, and also regulate the activities for the correction of convicts while serving their sentences. 64. Lawmaking Among the variety of legal phenomena covered by the concept of the legal system, lawmaking occupies one of the central places. The extent to which the current norms of law - from law to instructions - express the needs and interests of society, effectively influence people, depends on the achievement of the goals that the norms are aimed at. Rule-making activity forms the initial stage of the process of legal regulation, which also includes law enforcement and law enforcement. Literally lawmaking is the process of creating legal norms that are enshrined in laws and by-laws issued by the competent authorities. Often the concept of lawmaking is associated primarily with the procedural activities of various state bodies. But no less widespread is the opinion that lawmaking covers the entire process of creating a legal norm, starting from the birth of an idea about it in connection with identifying the need for legal regulation of relevant social relations and ending with its adoption and enforcement. Proper organization of lawmaking is a necessary condition for the quality and effectiveness of the results of lawmaking - laws and by-laws. Ideally, in the process of lawmaking, the legislator is always faced with the task of reflecting the phenomena of public life in the normative legal prescriptions as accurately as possible and correctly responding to emerging problem situations. The qualitative characteristics of declarative normative legal acts and laws are the most deficient. The specificity of all declarative laws and norms from a legal point of view is that they are not equipped with a mechanism for their implementation. Moreover, a significant part of the declarative norms does not have regulatory properties at all, since they are political slogans and programs translated into the language of the law. Along with "norms-goals", many declarative norms proclaim the assignment to citizens and organizations of more rights and opportunities than the political, economic and social reality of the country can present and guarantee in a given period. Often, insufficient attention is paid to ensuring internal consistency, problem-free and scientific validity of the adopted regulatory legal acts. Laws and by-laws may differ from the provisions of the constitution - the basic law of the country. Under these conditions, the role of legal science in optimizing lawmaking and improving the quality of its result - laws and by-laws - is growing. 65. Legal liability Legal responsibility called the use of measures of state coercion against offenders to restore the violated law and order and punish the person who committed the offense. Without an established system of legal responsibility, the law becomes powerless and unreliable, does not justify the social expectations placed on it. Legal norms, as well as the rights and obligations of members of society arising from them, turn into good wishes if the authorities are not able to organize the restoration of violated rights, enforcement of duties, and punishment of violators of legal prohibitions. On the other hand, state coercion, with the help of which law and order are protected, most of all affects the individual, his interests, rights and freedoms. If it is used to protect an unjust right, outside the law and contrary to the law, the problem of social interaction between law and state coercion becomes especially acute. For many centuries of human history, coercion has often been used arbitrarily, at the discretion of those in power, and the measures of state coercion themselves have often been disproportionately cruel to the offense. The range of norms and social relations that form the content, the scope of legal responsibility, has developed historically. Modern principles of responsibility began to emerge in the minds of society and in the law in force during the period of the overthrow of the feudal system. In the process of combating the feudal regime, the main provisions of the modern theory of law and the practice of lawmaking regarding the principles of applying coercive measures for the commission of offenses were affirmed. The main and main principle position was that coercion as a way, a means of protecting the right should not violate the right itself, but can be carried out only on the basis and within the limits of the law. Another achievement of the political-legal theory and legislation on liability was the desire to regulate the activities of state bodies that use coercion by law, to subordinate these activities to special control and verification. To prevent and suppress unreasonable and unlawful acts and decisions on liability, practice, legislation and theory define two means. First, a person accused of an offense is endowed with a set of "rights to defence", including the opportunity to use the services of a lawyer, to seek mitigation of responsibility. Secondly, much attention is paid to improving the procedure for ensuring the rule of law. Section VII. SPIRITUAL SPHERE OF PUBLIC LIFE 66. General concept of culture All the spiritual life of society in a single system covers culture. Everything that opposes nature as something cultivated and created by human labor belongs to culture. The dictionary of V. Dahl gives the following interpretation of the word "culture": "processing and care, cultivation, dressing, mental and moral education. This interpretation is fully consistent with the original Latin use of the word culture, leading its origin from the word "colo, colere" - to cultivate, cultivate the land, engage in farming. But already in ancient Rome, the term culture acquired the meaning of upbringing and enlightenment, that is, "processing" of oneself. In the modern sense, the word "culture" has been known only since the XNUMXth century, since the Enlightenment. The concept of "culture" began to be associated with the activity of a person, including the active role of his consciousness. In the future, scientists tried to go beyond such a narrow understanding of culture. But the phenomenon of culture is so complex that it is impossible to give an unambiguous definition to it. Nevertheless, there are approaches in science that allow covering cultural phenomena in general. Among them, a descriptive approach stands out, representing culture as the result of all human activity. But in this concept, culture appears in a static state. Within the framework of this approach, the material and spiritual areas of culture are rigidly divorced, in fact, interconnected with each other. The descriptive approach does not capture the systemic attribute inherent in culture. This shortcoming is trying to eliminate the evaluative (axiological) approach, in which the degree of culture is determined by correlating the phenomenon being evaluated with what is chosen as a standard. In the study of the phenomenon of culture, an activity approach is also used, which considers culture as a specifically human mode of activity. But the most universal interpretation of the phenomenon of culture is formed by a philosophical approach. Culture is understood by philosophy as the highest human instinct, which compensates for the inadequately satisfied real needs of people by creating a symbolic space - world of culture. The need to surround oneself with a figurative, illusory reality is generated by the incompleteness, openness of human nature, which completes itself through creative activity aimed at searching for the higher meaning of being. Its result is the development of the spiritual potential of the individual, i.e., the degree of her freedom, power over herself, society and nature increases. 67. Elite and mass culture The ideas of the elitism of culture have developed in society as a result of the development of heritage Enlightenment Within the framework of the theory of the elitism of culture, the essence of culture is seen in its highest achievements, masterpieces. Culture in this case is perceived as a separate rise of creative genius. Elite culture is understandable only to the initiated, it cultivates a system of values that is far from the interests of ordinary people. Here art exists for art's sake. An elitist culture creates a distance between itself and other cultures, a distance that is part of the social hierarchical order. For a long time, elite culture remained inaccessible to many. But the gradual process of democratization of social life, the achievement of a high material level, the technical equipment of production led to the emergence of a mass society in which cultural values ceased to be the property of narrow sections of society, but acquired an egalitarian (leveling) character, which led to the emergence of mass culture, i.e. average culture created by the media and replicated with the help of a highly equipped industry. The expression "mass culture" is usually used with a sense of disdain. Many eminent scientists T. Adarno, E. Fromm, J. Ellul critical of the process massification of culture. In their opinion, mass culture performs an addictive function: it distracts people from reality, leads them into the world of illusions and dreams. But the concept of mass culture is also interpreted positively: millions of people are drawn to culture. The negative meaning of the expression "mass culture" is that it is not often that the masses are given the opportunity to rise to the level of real culture; on the contrary, culture itself, faking the primitive tastes of the backward sections of the population, sinks, simplifying and deforming, to a level that shocks true upbringing: something gray, or even just stupidity, is presented to the intelligent, highly educated masses. Mass character of culture It doesn't have to be low level. After all, it is possible and necessary to give worthy things to the broad masses of the people, striving to elevate them to spiritual loftiness, even to the highest masterpieces of culture. In order to raise the culture of the masses, one must turn to the history of culture, to the entire cultural heritage of mankind, and not try to drag the educated strata of society down - to something simplified. Mass and elite cultures are not hostile to each other. Achievements, artistic techniques, ideas of elite art cease to be innovative after a while and are adopted by mass culture, raising its level. 68. Morality, morality The life of people in society is subject not only to legal, but also to moral principles, which is studied by ethics. The word ethics came into scientific use from the French language, and to France - from Ancient Rome. However, science also knows an earlier source - Ancient Greece, where the concept of "ethos" existed, which in ancient times meant the location, dwelling, and also the lair of the beast, the bird's nest. Over time, it acquired a deeper meaning, meaning no longer just a certain place of residence, but the stable internal nature of any phenomenon - character, custom, way of life, inner disposition, temperament. Word "it with" gradually begins to acquire a normative meaning, i.e., to mean the rule of life, behavior. The word "ethos" in its new meaning served as the basis for the formation of an even more complex concept of "ethics". The analogue of the words "ethos" and "ethics" in the Latin language was the concept of "morality" (from Latin moralis - referring to temper, character, disposition of the soul, habits), and in Russian - temper. Later, in the course of the development of history and culture, the concepts of "ethics", "morality", "morality" began to acquire various semantic shades, although in their origin they are approximately the same type. It should be noted that in the living language all these terms intersect and are interchangeable. But in scientific terms, they are not unambiguous. The word "ethics" refers to the doctrine of morality. Around the concepts of "morality" and "morality" are scientific disputes. The main evaluative categories of ethics and morality are: good, evil, justice, duty, conscience, honor, dignity, happiness, meaning of life. Morality is the universal core of values, moral ideals and principles. It reflects the generally accepted standards of behavior and evaluation of human actions. Morality is manifested in the attitude of a person to his family, his people, homeland, other peoples. It extends to the relationship of the individual to himself. Moral norms act as unwritten laws: everyone obeys them as they should. Accordingly, the moral sanction (approval or condemnation) has an ideal-spiritual character: a person must be aware of the assessment of his behavior by public opinion, accept it and correct his behavior for the future. Morality presupposes relative freedom of will, which provides the possibility of a conscious choice of a certain position, decision-making and responsibility for what has been done. Moral norms, principles and assessments ultimately express and consolidate the rules of behavior that are developed by people in labor and social relations. 69. Religion as a phenomenon of culture Religion - one of the most ancient phenomena characterizing the spiritual life of society. In its most general form, religion can be defined as a worldview and behavior that are determined by belief in the supernatural. Religion as an integral socio-cultural phenomenon is studied by a special philosophical discipline - religious studies. The term "religion" is defined differently: some derive it from lat. "religare" - to bind, others from "relegero" - to collect. The most adequate root is lat. "religio" - piety, holiness. Essentially, religion is an expression of the recognition of the Absolute. God, on whom everything finite depends, including man. In the sociology of religion, there are two leading trends in understanding its essence. One goes back to the French philosopher E. Durkheimwho saw in religion a system of collective ideas that contribute to the cohesion of society, maintaining its integrity. Thus, the consolidating function of religion was put forward as the main one. Another direction has developed within the framework of "understanding sociology" under the influence of ideas M. Weber and considered religion as a motive for social action, directing human activity in the direction of specific life goals. The psychological aspect of the search for the essence of religion focuses on the compensatory function. Religion is presented as a way to make up for human impotence before nature, society and in relation to itself. It contributes to the internal harmonization of the personality and achieves this as a result of emotional unloading, catharsis (from the Greek. katharsis - cleansing), mystical cleansing of the soul from layers of sensuality and physicality. In a philosophical key, from the point of view of the tasks of the spiritual plan, religion is understood in the aspect of its ideological, moral function. It perceives (the function of world outlook), explains (world outlook), evaluates (perception of the world), and supplies meanings (moral function) to the totality of knowledge that is developed in various fields of activity. Religion produces ordering in the "vertical direction", spiritually elevating everything that is evaluated, giving it a sacral (sacred) meaning. The main attention is transferred to the highest object, which goes beyond the scope of human existence and understanding. The ultimate goal of man's religious efforts is his salvation. It is understood as the complete overcoming of unfreedom and alienation, conceived as physical and moral evil, and can appear in various forms: faith in the highest gift from God, as salvation through the church, in the form of mystical revelation or piety, as moral perfection. 70. Science plays an important role in modern society Science. Science has not always played such a role. In the earliest stages of its development, more important for people was practical knowledge related to ensuring their own existence and not dressed in the form of scientific theories. Knowledge of the world was carried out with the help of pre-scientific forms of knowledge: religion, myth, magic. However, this situation is constantly changing. Science originated in antiquity. At that time, she did not yet have the forms that she currently has. As a special field of activity, science began to take shape in the XNUMXth century. But for a long time its results were not widely demanded in society. But during this period, the main values that characterize modern science were formed: the desire for accurate knowledge, the preference for logic and rationality, the combination of empirical accuracy with the validity of theory. By the nineteenth century science becomes one of the most important institutions of society. Modern science is multifunctional. It forms a worldview, within which a rational explanation of any phenomena of reality is supposed. This worldview recognizes only causal relationships and refuses to recognize higher powers. Science is closely related to technological progress. It was science that directed human civilization along the industrial path. With the development of science, a new philosophy has come, placing man at the center of the world. It is man who is recognized as the master of nature. According to this philosophy, there is nothing unknowable in nature, and a person can influence everything. At the present stage, the interests of science are combined with the interests of production. Many industries are investing heavily in research programs. Finally, science helps to create forecasts for the development of society and develop programs in accordance with which it is possible to solve both global and private problems facing humanity. People have a great need to know what the consequences of their actions will be. When making a decision, the state often turns to specialists in order for them to assess its reasonableness and validity. At the present stage, the results of scientific research are of great industrial and military interest. In developed countries, huge funds are allocated for the development of science. The amount of scientific information is constantly growing. The process of differentiation of science continues, more and more scientific disciplines appear. Interdisciplinary research is becoming important. In general, the importance of education is growing. 71. Philosophy Science and philosophy are closely related to each other. All the achievements of the sciences are used by philosophy as a prerequisite for its study. Philosophy literally translated as love of truth (from the Greek phileo - love, sophia - wisdom). Philosophy - the area lying between science, religion, art and synthesizing some of their features. It is related to science by relying on reason, operating with conceptual forms, a critical orientation, with religion - faith in the initial postulates, emotional conviction in the correctness of one's own vision of the world, with art - a variety of schools and trends. Philosophy can be called the formulation of questions about the ultimate meaning of being. It is defined as the science of things, how and why they are possible. It measures the breadth and depth of everything to be understood. As a worldview, philosophy is critical to reality, because it evaluates it from the standpoint of the ideal. The normative-evaluative nature of her statements inevitably bears a personal connotation. These beliefs do not claim to be true, but express the attitude of people towards the world. Since philosophy seeks to answer the main question: "Who are we, where do we come from and where are we going?" - insofar as it forms a stable circle of problems, concepts, giving options for answering it. This defines her subject. It is impossible to single out one main question in philosophy. This may be the problem of the beginnings, the essence of man, the nature of happiness, freedom, inequality, the relationship between thinking and being, etc. The assessment of truth is inapplicable to philosophical constructions. In Greek, truth is literally translated as unhiddenness. The highest criterion of philosophical truth is reality as a whole (being). Only concrete truth is subject to cognition, which is not truth in the philosophical sense of the word. It is the discovery of such concrete truths that science is concerned with. In science, truth is a statement that can be checked for its correspondence with reality. A philosophical statement is accepted due to subjective preferences, therefore, in the field of philosophy, it is impossible to single out a theory taken as a model (paradigm) for solving a problem around which all philosophers would unite. Philosophers speak only of the degree of approach to truth, as our thinking moves more and more towards a state where it corresponds to being. Philosophy comprehends, but does not reveal the truth. It gives new meaning to familiar concepts. Philosophy helps to see a specific truth from different angles, that is, makes it voluminous, thereby contributing to the advancement of mankind along the path of knowing the world. 72. Mass media The sphere of culture has a tendency to constant expansion in its development. New directions and spheres are emerging. Not the last role in this process of development is played by mass communication. Communications in this case, it is understood as the transfer and exchange of information in society with the aim of influencing it. In sociology mass communication is a socially conditioned phenomenon, the main function of which is to influence the audience through the content of the transmitted information. An indispensable condition for the implementation of mass communication is the availability of technical means that ensure the regularity and replication of mass communication. Among the technical means that provide communication, it is customary to distinguish between the media (mass media), the means of mass influence and the actual technical means. К Media include periodicals (press), radio and television. In today's society, "electronic media" is becoming more important. The means of mass influence include cinema, theater, circus, all spectacular performances and fiction. The means of mass influence do not differ in regular appeal to a mass audience. Technical means of communication (telephone, teletype, etc.) do not have a mass coverage of the audience, and the transmitted information may be of a purely personal nature, not related to socially significant aspects of life. Mass media provide regularity and replication of information and due to this they are a powerful mechanism for influencing a mass audience. An important condition for the functioning of mass communication is the social significance of the transmitted information. Along with the social relevance of semantic information, evaluation information is of great importance. This is explained by the fact that the media, as social institutions, have the status of an official source of information in which the mass audience has confidence. The truth of semantic information is difficult to verify, so the audience also listens to evaluative information, which reflects the opinions in society. The impact of information depends on how it meets the social needs of the audience and how regular it is. It is known that the information that is replicated with the help of the media, which are either under the control of the state or in the possession of private owners, reflects the interests of the owners and their worldview. Mass communication performs informational, regulatory, cultural functions in society. Section VIII. INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY 73. Individual person person Considering society as a complex system, it should be noted that a person is its universal component. Without man it is impossible to imagine either economic, political, social or spiritual life. The concept of "man" in everyday speech is identified with the concept of "personality". However, there are deep semantic differences between them, the roots of which go back to the depths of human culture. These concepts have been used for about two thousand years. Their origin is associated with the ancient theater, where the word persona (personality) meant a mask that an actor put on his face when playing a certain role. At the same time, a person, on the one hand, masked his "I", and, on the other hand, he correlated himself with a certain social group. In modern science, concepts "person" and "personality" get divorced. The concept of "man" is used to characterize the universal qualities and abilities inherent in all people. This concept emphasizes the presence in the world of a special historically developing community, like the human race. But humanity as such does not exist on its own. Individuals live and act. The existence of individual representatives of humanity is expressed by the concept of "individual". An individual is a single representative of the human race, a specific carrier of all social and psychological features of humanity: mind, will, needs, interests, etc. The concept of "individual" in this case is used in the sense of "a specific person." The concept of "personality" is defined by subsuming it under the broader concept of a person, and then its differences are indicated, the signs that distinguish a person from a person in general are listed. Most often, these signs include positive characteristics. With this approach, not all people are recognized as a person. According to scientists, it is more convincing to define personality through the dialectic of the individual and the general - as special, taken in a social context. All people have common features, but at the same time, each person has only his inherent characteristics. If we consider the general characteristics of a person related to the social sphere of his life and correlate them with his individual characteristics, this will be special - personality. From this point of view, the concept of personality applies to all people. In relation to the personality, mainly social characteristics are used. Personality, therefore, is a person taken in a social capacity. Being the highest level of hierarchical consideration of a person, the concept of personality is more meaningful than the concept of a person in general. 74. Biosocial nature of man An important point in understanding the concept of personality is the understanding of what people - this biosocial creature. He is inseparable from his nature, corporality. But at the same time he is the owner of consciousness, soul. The biological principle in a person is expressed in anatomical and physiological, genetic phenomena, as well as in the neuro-cerebral, electrochemical and other processes of the body. All these biophysiological patterns develop in a person within the framework of his social existence. A person with all his anatomical and biological wealth, but who has not absorbed social culture, turns out to be unsuitable for life in society. The concept of sociality, in turn, does not negate its biological origin. Social and biological exist in man in an inseparable unity. By his organismic level, a person is included in the natural connection of phenomena and is subject to natural necessity, and by his personal level he is turned to social life, human history and culture. Consideration of a person within the framework of his biological nature (genetics, physiology, medicine) leads to simplified interpretations of the biosocial nature of a person. So, in the modern theory of social biology, genes take the leading place. At the same time, the biological fate of mankind is drawn ambiguously. Some scientists optimistically believe that the possibilities of the hereditary system of mankind are so great that it can serve indefinitely. Others argue that man, as a biological species, is on the verge of extinction. The reason for this is seen in the evasion of the action of natural selection, leading to unwanted mutations. Still others believe that man is a biologically young species in which animal genes predominate. The last two doctrines proceed from the fact that the genetic nature of man requires correction. In the wake of these ideas, eugenics emerges, suggesting the improvement of human nature through selection. Hypertrophy of genetic factors diminishes the social principles in a person. But ignoring the biological factor is also not productive. History knows many examples of how, with the help of only social levers, educational measures, attempts were made to change the nature of man. But always these processes were short-lived and, most importantly, reversible. Man is born as a biosocial unity. Anatomical and physiological systems develop in the conditions of society, i.e. they are genetically laid down as human. But a born person still needs to learn how to become a person. It is introduced into the world by society. It is this that fills and regulates his behavior with social content. 75. Personal socialization Socialization (from lat. socialis - general) - the process of assimilation by a person of social experience, patterns of behavior, attitudes of society, social groups, a system of connections and relationships in which a person is included throughout life. The fate of a person is largely determined by the level of his socialization. The sources of socialization are: - primary experience associated with the period of early childhood; - transmission of culture through social institutions (family, educational institutions, labor collectives, other organizations); - communication and mutual influence of people in the process of joint activities; self-regulation processes. A distinction should be made between primary and secondary socialization. Primary socialization is associated with the impact on a person of his immediate environment. Secondary socialization is carried out indirectly. The agents of secondary socialization are the state, educational institutions, radio, television, and the press. Each agent of socialization provides for the formation of the personality what it can teach and educate. The agents of primary socialization are universal. Their impact covers almost all spheres of an individual's life, and their functions are interchangeable. In other words, both parents with relatives and friends, contributing to the process of personality formation, often overlap in their functions. Agents of secondary socialization act in a narrowly specialized way. Each institution is aimed at solving its problems in accordance with its functions. Socialization goes through stages that coincide with life cycles - the most important milestones in a person's life, which can be considered as qualitative stages in the formation of the social "I" - the preschool period, studying at school, university, working in a work team, retirement. Life cycles are associated with a change in social roles, the acquisition of a new social status, environment, a change in lifestyle, etc. Each stage of the life cycle is accompanied by either desocialization or resocialization. Desociaization is the process of weaning from old values, norms, roles and rules of behavior. Resocialization - the process of learning new values, norms, roles and rules of behavior to replace the old ones. Many experts emphasize that the process of socialization continues throughout a person's life. True, the socialization of adults differs from the socialization of children. The socialization of adults rather changes the external behavior of a person, is designed to help a person acquire certain skills, while the socialization of children forms value orientations. Socialization in childhood deals with the motivation of behavior. 76. Deviant behavior There are no societies in which all its members would behave in accordance with general regulatory requirements. The behavior of a person or group that does not correspond to generally accepted norms is called deviant (deviant) behavior. Deviant behavior is evaluated from the point of view of the culture accepted in this society. Some deviations are condemned, others are approved. For example, people who fall under the definition of genius are culturally acceptable deviations. Socially approved deviations can lead either to increased intelligence or special inclinations that allow one to show unique qualities in certain areas of activity. The rise of a person above other people is facilitated by the influence of external circumstances or personal qualities. Great achievements are not only a pronounced talent and desire, but also their manifestation in a certain place and at a certain time. Social deviations, manifested in the form of high achievements, activities aimed at the development of generally accepted achievements, are supported and rewarded. As for the violation of moral norms and laws, it is always condemned and punished in society. Among the reasons that cause antisocial behavior, scientists identify physical or mental defects in a person that make him incapable of normal behavior. Deviations in behavior can also appear as a result of unsuccessful socialization (in a dysfunctional family, an unfavorable social environment). Social deviations play a dual, contradictory role in society. On the one hand, they pose a threat to the stability of society, on the other hand, they support this stability. If there are numerous cases of social deviations in a society or a social group, people lose a sense of security, predictable behavior, culture is disorganized and the social order is destroyed. Social norms cease to control the behavior of members of society. But deviant behavior is one of the ways a culture adapts to social change. The deviant behavior of some people may be the beginning of the creation of new normative models. (This is how the norms of the patriarchal family, the position of women in society, gradually changed). But the questions of the extent to which deviant behavior should be widespread and what types of it are socially useful have not yet been resolved. Not all forms of deviant behavior lead to beneficial phenomena. Criminal behavior, sexual deviations, alcoholism, drug addiction play a destructive role in the development of society. 77. Social control The progress of society is impossible without development. But no less, it is impossible without the preservation of moral norms, customs, knowledge, which constitute the content of culture and without which the life of society is impossible. It helps to preserve the living fabric of social relations social control - a special mechanism of social regulation of people's behavior and maintenance of public order. The main types of social control (and, more broadly, social regulation) are customs and traditions, morality, religion, and law. There are two sides to them: normative and institutional. On the normative side, social control is embodied in a system of norms that reflect the requirements of the subjects of control to the behavior of the individual. Normal value - this is a sample, standard, model of the required (proper) behavior, i.e. a rule of conduct. The normative side outlines the boundaries of social control within which the subjects of control operate. On the institutional side, social control is embodied in the system of subjects of control, which exercise it through the application of sanctions. Sanction is a means (reward or punishment) of stimulating people to proper behavior, determined by the norm. The subjects of control are divided into formal or official (police, school) and informal (family, company). Accordingly, the applied sanctions are formal, provided for by regulations (reprimand, fine) and informal (boycott). Historically, custom has been the first form of social control in society. Then, as society developed, religion began to play a dominant role. Currently, in the field of social control, law occupies a special place as the most efficient and effective means, and among the subjects of control, respectively, are state-legal institutions. It is with their help that a single normative regime is established in society - law and order. But the forms of social control are not isolated from each other, but are interconnected. This creates a significant margin of safety for the regulatory system of society as a whole. Social control performs regulatory, protective, stabilizing functions. Social control plays a conservative role in the development of society. The purpose of social control is to ensure conformal or normative behavior of individuals, that is, behavior in accordance with the established norm. Conformism is defined as opportunism, the acceptance of the existing order of things, the prevailing opinions. Conformism is true and expedient. But within the framework of socialization, attention is also paid to the development of the ability to critically evaluate norms. 78. Freedom and responsibility of the individual A person lives and develops within the framework of the free choice of his path. Freedom - this is a person's ability to active creative activity in accordance with their desires, intentions, ideals and values. In free activity, he achieves goals and realizes himself. In the history of social thought, the problem of freedom has always been filled with different meanings. More often, it boiled down to the question of whether a person has free will or whether all his actions are due to external necessity. The extremes in resolving this issue were reduced to voluntarism and fatalism. According to the first approach, a person is free, free to do as he pleases. This is his generic quality. From the standpoint of fatalism, everything in the world is predetermined, and every human action is only an unconscious link in the chain of cause and effect. But in everyday life, a person is faced with the pressure of external circumstances for him. People are not free to choose the time and place of birth, the objective conditions of life, the existence of their concrete existence. But on the other hand, human existence is not a one-dimensional line from the past to the future. These are always alternatives that involve a choice that is characterized by both different means of achieving the goals set and different results of achieving the goals. Accordingly, a person is also free in what consequences are coming from his choice and to what extent he is responsible for them. The concept of freedom is often reduced to a perceived need. But freedom is always a choice in specific conditions or the possibility of such a choice. Absolute freedom does not exist, it is always relative. This is determined at least in the fact that society determines the range of choice with its norms and restrictions. In real life, freedom exists in the form of the need to choose. No less important role in human life is played by such a social and personal factor as responsibility. Responsibility is a social concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them. Responsibility is formed in the individual as a dialectical unity of internal and external requirements. The formation of personality involves the development of a sense of responsibility in it. Responsible behavior can come in different forms: discipline and self-discipline, organization, the ability to foresee the results of one's own actions, the ability to be critical of oneself. List of used literature 1. Borisov E.F. Economic theory. Textbook. - M, 2002. 2. Gribenichenko S.F., Davydov V.P. The separation of power is the foundation of parliamentary activity. / / Social and humanitarian knowledge, 2003, No. 5. 3. West and East. Tradition and modernity. - M., 1993. 4. Meshcheryakov B., Meshcheryakova I. Introduction to human studies. - M., 1994. 5. Kozyrev G.I. Conflictology. Social conflict in public life.//Social and humanitarian knowledge, 1999, No. 1. 6. Krapivensky S.e. Social Philosophy. - Volgograd, 1996. 7. Cultural studies. Uch. settlement ed. A.A. Radugina. - M., 2000. 8. Kurskova G.Yu. The political phenomenon of power.//Social and humanitarian knowledge, 2000, No. 1. 9. Political science. Uch. settlement ed. prof. Dolgova V.M. - Saratov, 2002. 10. Jurisprudence. Textbook, ed. Z.G. Krylova. - M., 2002. 11. Problems of the theory of state and law. Uch. settlement ed. Marchenko M.N. - M., 2003 12. Radugin A.A., Radugin K.A. sociology. Lecture course. - M, 2003 13. Sociology. Textbook for higher educational institutions (Osipov G.V. and others) - M., 1995 14. Sociology. Textbook for technical universities, ed. Yaremenko S.N. - R n / D, 2001 15. Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. Textbook. - M., 2002. 16. Frolov S.S. Sociology. Textbook. - M., 1994. 17. Man and society. Textbook for students 10-11 cells. In 2 hours. Ed. Bogolyubova L.N., Labeznikova A.Yu. - M., 2003. Author: Barysheva A.D.
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