LECTURE No. 3. Development of natural science

1. The heyday of natural science in the Arab East

The reorientation of philosophical thinking in the direction of rapprochement with empiricism, with positive knowledge of nature, took place during this period in the depths of the Arabic-speaking culture that flourished in the East in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries.

After unification in the XNUMXth century. Arab tribes arose a state that had as its ideological stronghold a new religion - Islam. Under the auspices of this religion, the aggressive movement of the Arabs began, which led to the formation of the caliphate, in the territories of which lived peoples who had an ancient culture. Arabic became the state language of the caliphate, but the culture that developed in the vast state included the achievements of many peoples inhabiting it, as well as the Hellenes, the peoples of India. The cultural centers of the Caliphate were visited by caravans of camels laden with books in almost all languages ​​known at that time. In the Arab East, intellectual life began to boil. The writings of Plato and Aristotle have disappeared in the West. In the East, their works are translated into Arabic, copied and distributed throughout the vast Arab state. This stimulated the development of science, primarily physical, mathematical and medical. There are many astronomers, mathematicians, chemists, geographers, botanists, doctors. They created a powerful cultural and scientific layer in which the greatest minds were born. They enriched the achievements of their ancient predecessors and created the prerequisites for the subsequent rise of philosophical and scientific thought in the West, including psychological thought. Among them, one should single out the Central Asian scientist of the XNUMXth century. Abu Ali ibn Sinu (in Latin transcription - Avicenna). The "Canon of Medical Science" created by him provided "autocratic power in all medical schools of the Middle Ages."

From the point of view of the development of natural science knowledge about the soul, medical psychology is of particular interest. In it, an important place was given to the doctrine of the role of affects in the regulation of the behavior of the organism and even the development of this behavior. Avicenna was one of the first researchers in the field of developmental psychology. He studied the relationship between the physical development of the body and its psychological characteristics in different age periods. Education was of great importance.

It is through education that the mental impact on the stable structure of the body is carried out. Causing in the child these or those affects, adults form his nature.

The physiological psychology of Avicenna included assumptions about the possibility of controlling the processes in the body and further giving the body a certain stable warehouse by influencing its sensual, affective life, which depends on the behavior of other people. The idea of ​​the relationship between the mental and the physiological - not only the dependence of the psyche on bodily states, but also its ability (with affects, mental trauma, imagination) to deeply influence them - was developed by Avicenna based on his extensive medical experience. He made an attempt to study this question experimentally. This gives reason to see in the teachings of Avicenna the beginnings of an experimental psychophysiology of emotional states.

Avicenna, like Galen, attributed plant abilities to the liver, linking them with the movement of venous blood. Emotional states that enliven the activity of the soul were localized in the region of the heart, and they were associated with the movement of purer arterial blood. Mental processes: sensations, perceptions, memory, imagination and reason, are localized in the brain. Their material carriers are vaporous elements formed from arterial blood as a result of its purification and evaporation. Almost all functions of the soul, including the mind of the sensory level, or imaginative thinking, have an anatomical and physiological basis and bodily dependence. But in addition to figurative thinking, a person is characterized by pure rational acts that have independence and independence from the body. The following facts that drew Avicenna's attention served as the reason for the selection of the supra-individual mind.

The first of them is connected with the presence of some incompatibility of sensual and rational manifestations of the soul. The second argument in favor of the independence of thinking from the body was the position that the body, after prolonged work and the sense organs, after prolonged perception, get tired and weary, and when thinking, we do not notice such fatigue and fatigue.

The third proposition is that those mental functions that are closely connected with the body, as the body ages, are gradually destroyed and by the age of 40 noticeably decrease and weaken.

The mind at this age is not only preserved, but more than that - it unfolds in its entirety and is in the prime of life. Based on the above facts, Avicenna came to an idealistic interpretation of conceptual thinking.

Pure or generic reason deals with universals, that is, with the most general concepts that can be revealed if their tripartite nature is comprehended. The pure mind has no bodily admixture. He is not localized anywhere and exists before man in God.

Universals are not only the mind of God, but they are the true deep fundamental principle and essence of all visible things and natural phenomena. Universals can become ideas of the individual mind. Illuminating the individual mind with its divine part, pure reason, or universals, allow a person to see the world as a whole, to understand its fundamental principle.

The core of Avicenna's teachings is his psychophysiology. It has two features.

The first is that almost all vital acts, from vegetative to imaginative thinking, are made dependent on bodily changes occurring in various systems of the body.

The peculiarity of another important feature, arising from the first, lies in the fact that Avicenna tried to consider as inherent in the body itself not only the plant functions of the body, but also animal-like ones, which included sensations, perceptions, affects, impulses and movements. This means that the area of ​​sensuality got out of dependence of a special spiritual principle or form, and the general laws of nature extended to these mental phenomena. Since the named mental phenomena acted as partial modifications of natural forces, then, like other natural phenomena, they can be studied by objective methods similar to those used in the natural sciences, that is, by experience. It is with Avicenna that we first meet with the beginning of an experimental, experimental penetration into the world of mental phenomena.

In the most developed form, Avicenna presents the psychophysiology of sensitivity and emotions. There were five main types of sensations: sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch.

All sensations are characterized by three main features: sensual tone, intensity and duration.

The duration of mental acts was first determined experimentally. Avicenna's experiments were connected with the study of the effect of mixing colors, for which he specially created a disc painted in different colors.

From sensations as "forces that comprehend outside," Avicenna proceeds to an analysis of forces that "comprehend within," which he called inner feeling. These internal forces included generalized feelings, or ideas, and imagination, memory as a preserving and reproducing force, and sensual reason, or imaginative thinking. Memory, imagination, representations and sensual reason - all of them are mental acts of the animal level. This level also includes motivating and affective states, which are in close connection with sensory images.

Avicenna attached special importance to affects, considering them as forces that enliven the spiritual life of a person and determine his real actions and deeds. Avicenna considered it possible, through the impact on the affective sphere, to control the actions and activities of a person as a whole, to form his "nature".

A special role in the development of a person's "nature" belongs to the social environment, since the nature of a person's relationship with other people leaves an imprint on the content and general structure of his feelings. A set of feelings and their correlation ultimately determine the behavior of a person, his general mental and physical condition.

The significance of the psychophysiological teachings of Avicenna was the most significant teaching after Galen, which, on the one hand, reflected the successes in the development of natural science of that period, on the other hand, a decisive influence on the development of psychological and natural science thought in Europe of the New Age.

A characterization of Arab medieval psychology would be far from complete without mentioning two other prominent Arab scientists of the Middle Ages - Ibn al-Haytham, or Alhazen (965-1038), and Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes (1126-1198). Alhazen is credited with putting forward a new point of view on the mechanism of sensations and perceptions, the mechanism of constructing a visual image. Alhazen for the first time, relying on experiment, showed that the eye is the most accurate optical device and that the cause of the appearance of a sensual image is the laws of reflection and refraction of light. Alhazen studied such important phenomena as binocular vision, color mixing, contrast, etc.

Alhazen's scheme destroyed the previous imperfect theories of vision and introduced a new explanatory principle. The initial sensory structure of visual perception was considered as derived from the laws of optics, which have an experimental and mathematical basis, and from the properties of the nervous system.

Another scientist of that era, Averroes, also studied the functions of the eye. He established that the sensory part of the organ of vision is not the lens, but the retina.

Behind the work on the study of the optical functions of the eye were decisive shifts of a theoretical and methodological nature. The consideration of the eye as an optical instrument brought with it a new understanding of the nature of mental processes in general. The explanation of the process of constructing a mental image in terms of optics meant the extension of physical laws to mental phenomena, which contributed to overcoming the teleological interpretation of the psyche.

Experiments carried out by Arab scientists showed that there is no need to explain the work of the eye with the participation of the soul as a force or ability that controls it. Vision is a natural process of refraction of light in the physical environment. This was the first turning point in order to subordinate the physical laws of nature and other mental phenomena.

2. Psychological ideas of medieval Europe

During the Middle Ages, scholasticism reigned in the intellectual life of Europe. This special type of philosophizing from the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries. was reduced to a rational substantiation of Christian dogma. There were various currents in scholasticism. But what they had in common was the attitude toward commenting on texts. Positive study of the subject and discussion of real problems were replaced by verbal tricks.

In fear of Aristotle, who appeared on the intellectual horizon of Europe, the Catholic Church at first forbade his teaching, but then, changing tactics, began to "master", adapt it according to their needs.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) most subtly coped with this task, whose teaching, according to the papal encyclical of 1879, was canonized as a truly Catholic philosophy (and psychology), called Thomism. In order to eliminate the contradiction between the natural scientific views of Aristotle and the religious worldview, Aquinas turns to the idea of ​​the dual nature of truth. The essence of this theory is that there are two kinds of truths related to two non-intersecting worlds - material and supernatural (divine). The first truths are comprehended by reason on the basis of experience. Truths of the second kind are not accessible to reason and can only be comprehended through faith and revelation. The truths of reason should become the subject of philosophy, and the truths of the second kind (truths of revelation) - theology.

Averroists also believed that incompatibility with the official dogma of ideas about the eternity (and not creation) of the world, about the annihilation (and not immortality) of the individual soul leads to the conclusion that each of the truths has its own area. True for one area may be false for another, and vice versa. It followed from this that philosophy should be concerned with the study of the laws of nature and deduce its truths, without caring whether or not they are in agreement with the truths of revelation. Aquinas, defending one truth - religious, "descending from above", believed that the mind should serve it as earnestly as the religious feeling. Aquinas and his supporters succeeded in cracking down on the Averroists at the University of Paris. But in England, at Oxford University, the Averroist concept subsequently triumphed, becoming the ideological prerequisite for the success of philosophy and the natural sciences.

Aquinas extended the hierarchical pattern to the description of mental life, the various forms of which were placed in the form of a kind of ladder in a stepped row - from the lowest to the highest. Every phenomenon has its place. Boundaries are laid between everything that exists and it is unambiguously determined what where to be. Souls (plant, animal, human) are located in a stepped row. Within the soul itself, abilities and their products (sensation, representation, concept) are hierarchically arranged.

The concept of introspection acted as a pillar of modernized and theological psychology.

The work of the soul is drawn by Aquinas in the form of the following scheme: first, it performs an act of cognition - it is the image of an object (sensation or concept), then it realizes that this act itself has been performed by it, and, finally, having done both operations, it "returns" to itself cognizing no longer an image or an act, but itself as a unique entity.

Before us is a closed consciousness, from which there is no way out either to the body or to the outside world.

It is easy to see how little Aquinas' initial positions coincided with the fundamental principles of Aristotle's teaching about the soul.

Thomism turned the great ancient Greek philosopher into a pillar of theology, into "Aristotle with tonsure."

The teaching of Aquinas accepted by the church as the last word of theology began to gradually provoke criticism from the theologians themselves. The first to advocate the removal of "tonsura" from Aristotle was the English scholastic D. Scott (1270-1308). Scott pointed out that there is no basis for harmonizing the truths of reason and revelation. On the contrary, they should be separated, since the truths of faith are associated with the search for paradise and asceticism, while the truths of reason are turned to the real world and reality. Matter is not just an amorphous, inert mass, it is a condition for all creation, both the physical world and the mental one. The form cannot be recognized as the beginning of everything that exists. It gives reality to matter, but this does not mean that matter cannot exist independently of form, the possibility is not ruled out, Scott suggested that the ability to think is in the foundation of matter itself.

This means that the psychic is inherent in matter itself and there is no need to resort to the idea of ​​the existence of a special spiritual substance, which the theologians and pillars of the church planted. Evaluating Scott's views, we can say that the English scholastic forced theology itself to preach materialism.

Another English thinker of the Middle Ages, R. Bacon (1214-1292), also spoke out for the liberation of Aristotle's ideas from theology, with criticism of scholasticism and Thomism.

R. Bacon called for the release of science from religious prejudices and the transition from speculative constructions to a truthful and experimental study of nature and man. Only by eliminating ignorance, he believed, can the true development of the sciences and the general well-being of the world be ensured. Bacon assigned the first place not to theology, but to the natural sciences, which would be based on experiment and mathematics.

In "Opus mayus" he wrote that above all speculative knowledge and arts, is the ability to make experiments and this science is the queen of sciences. In a number of natural sciences, the leading place was given to physics, or rather physical optics. The leading role that R. Bacon attributed to optics, he explained by the fact that only through vision does a person establish the difference between objects, and the ability to see the difference in things underlies all our knowledge of the world.

The structure and function of the eye were for Bacon the central question to be studied. Visual sensations and perceptions are not products of intentional acts of spiritual substance, but they are only the result of the action, refraction and reflection of light.

In this regard, Bacon contributed to the further strengthening and dissemination of a new physical-optical view of the nature of sensory images, which paved the way for a materialistic explanation of the psyche as a whole.

In England, nominalism opposed the Thomist conception of the soul. It arose in connection with a dispute about the nature of general concepts (universals). Proponents of the first trend, called realism, believed that concepts are the only realities of being.

They have an original nature and exist independently of specific things and phenomena.

The nominalists, on the contrary, argued that things and phenomena themselves are real, and general concepts in relation to them are only names, signs, labels.

Professor of Oxford University W. Ockham (1300-1350) preached nominalism most vigorously. Rejecting Thomism and defending the doctrine of "dual truth", he called for relying on sensory experience, for orientation in which there are only terms, names, signs.

It is not difficult to see that already in the depths of scholasticism itself, materialistic tendencies gradually made their way, which paved the way for the subsequent replacement of scholastic psychology by experimental and natural science psychology.

3. The development of psychology in the Renaissance

The transitional period from feudal to bourgeois culture was called the Renaissance.

Renaissance thinkers believed that they were clearing the ancient picture of the world from "medieval barbarians".

The Renaissance is often called the period of humanism, since it is associated with the awakening of a comprehensive interest in man. The essential aspects of psychological knowledge during this period are the desire to return a person from divine heights to earthly soil, the rejection of religious scholastic ideas about the soul, the call for a truthful and experimental description of the spiritual world of people.

In the main center of the Renaissance - Italy - disputes flared up between the supporters of Averroes (Averroists) who had escaped the Inquisition there and even more radical Alexandrians.

The fundamental difference concerned the question of the immortality of the soul, on which the Church's doctrine rested. Averroes, dividing the mind (mind) and the soul, considered it, as the highest part of the soul, immortal. Alexander insisted that all the abilities of the soul completely disappear with the body.

Both directions played an important role in creating a new ideological atmosphere, paving the way for the natural scientific study of the human body and its mental functions. Many philosophers, naturalists, doctors, who were distinguished by an interest in the study of nature, suppressed by theology, went along this path. Their work was permeated by belief in the omnipotence of experience, in the advantage of observations, direct contacts with reality, in the independence of genuine knowledge from scholastic wisdom.

Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) occupies a prominent place among the first major thinkers who tried to oppose the traditions of medieval scholasticism. Walla outlined his main views in the treatise "On pleasure as a true good." He argued that nature is the basis of everything, and man is part of it. Since man is a part of nature, then his soul is not an otherworldly, supranatural entity, but only a manifestation of nature. Valla considered needs and aspirations to be the leading feature that distinguishes all living nature.

Another major representative of Italian thought of the 1462th century, P. Pomponazzi (1524-XNUMX), spoke with the statement of the natural determination of the human soul. In the book On the Immortality of the Soul, Pomponazzi, criticizing scholasticism, pointed out that God does not take part in the affairs of nature. The immortality of God and the eternity of the soul cannot be established experimentally. The soul is an earthly, natural property associated with the vital activity of the organism.

Psychic phenomena are the product of the work of the nervous system and the brain. With the destruction and death of the body, all the abilities of the soul also disappear. The same applies to thinking. It is a function of the brain, it arises and dies along with the death and death of a person. The mental develops from sensations through memory and ideas to thinking. Thinking is intended for the cognition of general truths, established on the basis of particular ones, which, in turn, are given in sensory forms of cognition, sensations, perceptions and ideas.

The opposition to the church and theology manifested itself not only in critical treatises, but also in the institutions of scientific and educational centers, or academies, which were called upon to radically change the approach to the study of man. The first such center was created in Naples by the famous Italian thinker B. Telesio (1508-1588). He developed his own system of views, focusing on the teachings of the Stoics. In his opinion, the basis of the world is matter. Matter itself is passive. In order for it to manifest itself in the diversity of its qualities, it is necessary to interact with it heat and cold, dryness and humidity. Man is the result of the development of nature, and in him, like in all living things, a mental, spiritual, called the Lucretian term "spirit" appears. The spirit is the most perfect, discharged, not visible material substance captured from the environment, which is in the brain, pulsating and moving from the brain to the periphery and back. In the transition from sensation to thought, great importance, according to Telesio, belongs to memory and associations by similarity.

Carrying out generally advanced views for that time and asserting a natural-scientific and experimental approach to the study of man and his psyche, Telesio, nevertheless, made some concessions to idealism and theology. They formally recognized the existence of God and a higher immortal soul.

One of the titans of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). He represented a new science that did not exist in universities, but in the workshops of artists and builders, engineers and inventors. Their experience radically changed the culture and way of thinking.

In their industrial practice, they were the transformers of the world. The highest value was attached not to the divine mind, but to the "divine science of painting." Painting was understood not only as the art of depicting the world in artistic images.

However, Leonardo is known not only as a brilliant painter, but also as a brilliant anatomist. In anatomical studies, he saw a way to penetrate the secrets of human passions, feelings and behavior. A large place in the anatomical experiments of Leonardo was occupied by questions of biomechanics, that is, the structure and operation of the body's motor systems. The movements of all bodies, including living ones, he believed, are carried out according to the laws of mechanics, therefore, in principle there should be no obstacles to reproducing the work of a living body in a mechanical structure. Thus, he acted as a forerunner of modern bionics.

He discovered that muscle responses are determined by the nervous system and that different parts of it are responsible for different functions.

Leonardo's ideas about the work of the eye are of great interest. Leonardo showed that the work of the eye is not controlled by a special ability of the soul, but is a response to light exposure. In his description of the mechanism of vision, a diagram of the pupillary reflex was given. Leonardo came pretty close to discovering the reflex principle.

The revival of new humanistic views on individual mental life has reached a high level in other countries, where the foundations of the old socio-economic relations were undermined. In Spain, doctrines arose directed against scholasticism, striving to search for real knowledge about the psyche. So, L. Vives (1492-1540) in his book "On the Soul and Life" argued that human nature is known not from books, but through observation and experience. The main way in which individual manifestations of his soul are revealed to a person is internal experience, or self-observation. He deduced some basic characteristics of urges and emotional states:

1) different degrees of intensity: light, medium and strong;

2) the duration of emotional states;

3) the qualitative content of emotional reactions (their division into pleasant and unpleasant, positive and negative).

Vives's views paved the way for the emergence in Europe of empirical introspective associative psychology.

Another doctor, X. Huarte (XVI century), also rejecting speculation and scholasticism, demanded the use of the inductive method in cognition, which he outlined in the book "Investigations of the abilities for the sciences." This was the first work in the history of psychology in which the task was to study the individual differences between people in order to determine their suitability for various professions.

Another Spanish doctor, Pereira (1500-1560), anticipating Descartes by a century, showed that animal behavior is controlled not by the soul, but by environmental influences and intra-corporeal changes, and proposed that the animal organism be considered a kind of machine that does not need to work in participation of the soul.

Somewhat aside from the general trend in the development of psychology in the Renaissance are the works of the German thinkers Melanchthon and Goklenius.

Melanchthon is best known for his book Commentaries on the Soul.

In it, the German neo-scholastic tries to modernize the teachings of Aristotle based on the level of contemporary knowledge.

Melanchthon distinguished three types of abilities in the soul:

1) vegetable;

2) animals;

3) reasonable.

The activities of the soul in understanding perceptions and establishing similarities and differences in them were referred by Melanchthon to the level of rational abilities, or the rational soul, which is introduced into the body by God and which is only temporarily associated with animal abilities.

The rational soul is eternal and immortal.

Another German scientist, Goklenius, also commented on the ideas of Aristotle. The appearance of the term "psychology" is associated with his name, which was the name of his main work "Psychology", published in 1590.

Almost none of the Renaissance thinkers managed to completely overcome the traditions of medieval scholasticism and theology.

But most scientists have a need to turn to nature itself, to the real world, to experimental study.

This requirement extended to the realm of the psychic as well. Opposing scholasticism and theology, the thinkers of the era of humanism tried to find out the real bodily foundations of various manifestations of the soul.

Author: Luchinin A.S.

<< Back: Philosophical doctrine of consciousness (Plotinus: psychology as a science of consciousness. Augustine: Christian early medieval worldview)

>> Forward: Psychology of modern times in the 17th century (The main trends in the development of philosophy and psychology in the 17th century. Materialism and idealism. The philosophical and psychological system of R. Descartes. The materialist theory of T. Hobbes. The doctrine of B. Spinoza about the psyche. The sensationalism of D. Locke. G. Leibniz: the idealistic tradition in German philosophy and psychology)

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