Fundamentals of management. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Fundamentals of management. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Management and its specifics
Management Features
A. Fayol Administrative School
The empirical school and the school of "social systems"
F. Taylor School of Scientific Management
School of "human relations" and its main representatives
Russian management concepts
Operational planning systems
Situational approach to management
System approach in management
Management methods
Economic management methods
Environmental Factors Influencing Economic Management Methods
Organizational and administrative methods of management
Administrative Management Methods
Sociological methods of management
Features of psychological management methods
Psychological impact on workers
Control functions
Activity coordination
Scheduling function
Organization concept
Organizational management structures
The relationship of the organizational structure with the external environment
Centralization and decentralization
Definition of authority
Motivation process
Tasks and methods of motivation
D. McGregor's Theory of Motivation
The theory of two factors by F. Herzberg
A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory
D. McClelland's theory of motivational needs
Moral stimulation of employees
Control function
Main stages of control
Management accounting system "direct costing"
Strategy and its features
Strategic planning
Positive and negative points of the strategy
Disadvantages of strategic management
Implementation of the strategy
Comparison of strategic and operational management
Strategic alternatives and their features
Mission of the organization
Internal environment of the organization
External environment of the organization
Management decision and its features
Systematization of management decisions
Factors influencing managerial decision-making
Main properties of management decisions
Management decision methodology
Methods for optimizing and modeling solutions
The role of the marketing service in the enterprise
Marketing Management Concepts
Relationship between marketing and management
Quality and competitiveness of goods
The concept of pricing
Basic pricing methods
Certification and its features
Psychology of management
Quality management
Chronology of the development of quality systems
Characterization of reliability as an indicator of quality
Personnel management and its features
Creation of a personnel service at the enterprise
Overcoming resistance to change
The tasks of personnel management during the formation of the organization
The tasks of the personnel service during the period of intensive growth of the organization
Tasks of personnel management during the period of stabilization
Human resources management in the process of mergers and acquisitions
Basic Leadership Styles
Creating a Leadership Style
Theories of style applied to management practice
The main types of leaders
Leadership and its features
Additional Control Styles
Managerial roles in the management system
HR tasks during a crisis
Typology of crisis situations
Highlights of the personnel crisis
crisis management
Overcoming the crisis in the organization with the help of personnel
Japanese workforce management system
Anti-crisis management and its features
Principles of anti-crisis personnel management
Essence of the conflict
Types of conflicts in the organization
Causes of conflicts in the enterprise
Interpersonal Styles of Conflict Resolution
Conflict management

1. MANAGEMENT AND ITS SPECIFICITY

The English term "management" is not translated into Russian literally. It is customary to translate it as "management", and the term "manager" in translation means "leader".

Management - Mandatory management of economic activity, which in turn is an independent type of professional activity.

Sphere of management - this is the activity of enterprises that act in the market mechanism as independent economic entities. Management object - economic activity, the enterprise as a whole or its separate division.

Manager - a specially trained professional manager who is a specialist in this field. This is a person who holds a permanent managerial position and is empowered to make decisions on specific activities of an organization operating in a market economy.

The manager performs the function of leadership.

He carries out activities to integrate the management system into a single whole, to coordinate the actions of its constituent components. Manager's Duty - ensuring the consistency and unity of the management system as a whole. Qualities necessary for a modern manager: communication skills, responsibility, diligence, strategic and operational thinking, professional training.

Management stages.

1. Strategic management - development of management objectives, forecasting and long-term planning of management actions.

2. Operational management - timely decision-making in connection with the changing conditions of the external and internal environment of the organization.

3. Control - comparing the results achieved with the plan and developing corrective measures to eliminate undesirable errors and consequences of activities.

Scope of management:

- economic;

- socio-psychological;

- legal;

- organizational and technical. Economic field of activity - production process management. The activity of the manager is to coordinate material and labor resources to achieve the goals at the lowest cost.

Socio-psychological field of activity is the prerogative of managers at all levels. The actions of managers are aimed at creating friendly industrial relations between the team and individual workers.

The socio-psychological sphere is based on the level of development of social relations in society (level of education, culture, traditions, customs).

Legal sphere of management is reflected in legislation and legal acts, state regulation of entrepreneurship and in the right to create firms and enterprises.

Organizational and technical work the manager is to set goals and objectives, provide resources, organize work and contacts with performers and control their activities, stimulate the work of employees.

The main task of management - ensuring the profitable, efficient operation of all departments of the enterprise as a whole, the achievement of the tasks set for the activity.

2. CONTROL FEATURES

The concept of "management" has the following basic formulations:

1) the function of organized systems of a diverse nature, ensuring the preservation of their structure, maintaining the process of activity, the implementation of their programs and goals of activity;

2) establishing the goal and the result of its achievement using the necessary methods and means;

3) execution of measures that ensure the desired functioning of the object, leading to a specific goal;

4) the process of forming goals and ways to achieve them;

5) the application of cause-and-effect relationships, as a result of which the behavior of the system leads to the desired result (the system achieves the goal or solves the problem);

6) impact on an object that improves the functioning or development of this object;

7) the process of purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object of management in order to achieve certain results of activity. Subject of management - a natural or legal person who exercises power influence.

Control object - what the object of control is directed to. The object of management can be individuals and legal entities, social, socio-economic systems and processes.

Features of the management process.

1. The management process is based on the authority of the subject of management, its organizational, administrative, economic, moral and ethical levers of influence.

2. Management is a process that is carried out continuously in time and space.

3. Management is a purposeful process that requires deep analysis, development and setting of specific goals. The more accurately the result corresponds to the set goal, the higher the quality of management.

Control mechanism It is the environment in which management activities are carried out. Such a control environment is the control system and control technology.

Two interpretations of the concept of "management":

1) as a process of managing an organization - management activities;

2) as a control mechanism.

The management process and the management mechanism must correspond to each other and the goals of management as a type of activity.

Management process cannot be executed by any control engine, and the control engine cannot implement any control process.

In practice, this is a single and inseparable activity - management.

In the study and study of management, it is permissible to divide into a process and a process implementation mechanism.

Management is carried out only by objectively existing processes (objects) that are stable in the sense of predictability for the manager object.

The concept of "management" is accompanied by the concept of "management quality". The characteristics of real control always differ from the ideal ones prescribed by the vector of control goals.

Evaluation of the quality of management is always subjective, since the choice of a set of frequent management goals is subjective.

In the case of conflict management of the same object by different subjects, the question of the quality of management becomes ambiguous, since it is difficult to evaluate all the management criteria.

3. A. FAYOL ADMINISTRATIVE SCHOOL

Ancestor administrative school of management is Henri Fayol (1826-1926). The main task of the administrative school - creation of universal management principles, following which the organization will successfully carry out its activities.

Management principles formulated by A. Fayol.

1. Division of labor, i.e., the specialization necessary for the effective use of the labor force, in relation to managerial and executive work.

2. Discipline. An effective means of instilling discipline is a personal example of leadership. It is necessary to establish general rules for team members and monitor their implementation.

3. One-man management. Unity of command ensures unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of command.

4. Unity of leadership. Activities that have the same goal should have one leader and follow a single plan.

5. Power and responsibility. Power and responsibility are interconnected.

6. Subordination of private interests to the general. The interests of an employee or a group of employees should not be placed above the interests of the enterprise; the interests of the state must be higher than the interests of a citizen or a group of citizens.

7. Reward. Incentives for the work of employees must be fair, and each employee must know for what he receives remuneration and in what amount.

8. Workplace stability for staff. According to A. Fayol, too much staff turnover is both a cause and a consequence of poor management.

9. Initiative, i.e., by Fayol's definition, thinking about and carrying out a plan. Fayol believed that subordinates should be given the opportunity to take personal initiative, as this stimulates them to work more effectively.

10. Order, i.e. "everything (each) has its place, and everything (each) in its place." The employee must know his duties, measure of responsibility and comply with job descriptions.

11. Justice. Loyalty and fidelity of the staff should be ensured by the respectful and fair attitude of the administration towards subordinates. It is necessary to resolve conflict situations in time, try to prevent the conflict from brewing.

12. Centralization. Fayol talks about the degree of concentration or dispersal of power, depending on the circumstances.

13. scalar chain, i.e., a "chain of superiors" from the highest to the lowest rank, which should not be abandoned, but which should be shortened if too scrupulous adherence to it could interfere with effective management.

14. corporate spirit, i.e. the principle "in unity is strength." A. Fayol believed that the organization should have a well-developed corporate culture, each employee should understand the purpose of the organization, its mission and its role to achieve its goals.

The peculiarity of using the principles: their application should be flexible and take into account the situation in which the management process is carried out. In this regard, the number of control principles is unlimited.

4. EMPIRICAL SCHOOL AND SCHOOL OF "SOCIAL SYSTEMS"

The main representatives of the empirical school of management are P. R. Devns, A. Sloan, Jr., A. Chandler, and others.

Feature of the empirical school: the desire to bring theoretical research closer to practice by defining the principles of organizational management, which are formed in the form of instructions, instructions, instructions, an exemplary charter of managerial activity.

The works of representatives of this school reflect the desire to synthesize the main ideas of the main schools along with the development of recommendations on the organizational structure of companies, the motivation of people's behavior, communication problems, etc., based on the principles created by the "classical" school of scientific management. Representatives of this school also analyze the sociometric and psychological aspects of management.

The most famous representatives of the school of "social systems" are Ch. Barnard, G. Simon, F. Selznick and others who develop a systematic approach to the organization of management, paying primary attention to the correlation of parts of the system with the system as a whole and to the interdependence of a significant number of variable factors. The central methodological concept is the concept of connection or connecting processes. Three main bridging processes are established: communication, balance and decision making, the main integrating factor of the organization is the goal. Representatives of this school seek to identify the permanent elements of any organization:

"organizational universals" inherent in various systems. This desire is based on the use of cybernetics, mathematical methods, etc., in the analysis of social processes.

Key Goal representatives of the school of "social systems" is to create a universal and normative theory of organizational management.

However, there are differences in the views of some of its representatives. So, G. Simon, analyzing the set of variables subject to system research, attaches primary importance to the study of their influence on decision-making, reaching the identification of the concepts of decision-making and management.

F. Selanik attaches paramount importance to the influence of variables on the goals and objectives of organizational systems, pays significant attention to the mechanisms that connect organizations and groups with different goals together, pays much attention to the problems of the relationship between conflict and organization.

Englishman A. Rice engaged in research in the field of industrial sociology. The issues of competitiveness, efficiency, efficiency of a production organization are becoming very relevant, which predetermines a detailed analysis of its position in an external, rapidly changing environment.

The production organization is considered as a system immersed in a more general organizational environment, the balance of which is predetermining for the survival of this organization.

For a production organization, an important role is played by the study of the role of its technical and technological basis in interpersonal relations.

5. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT F. TAYLOR

Founder of the School of Scientific Management counts Frederick Taylor. Initially, Taylor himself called his system "management by tasks." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss.

Frederick Taylor believed that management as a specific function consists of a set of principles that can be applied to all types of social activity.

Fundamentals of Frederick Taylor.

1. Scientific study of each individual type of labor activity.

2. Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria.

3. Cooperation between the administration and the workers.

4. Uniform and fair distribution of responsibilities.

Taylor claims that in charge of management involves selecting people who can meet the job requirements, and then preparing and training these people to work in a particular direction. Preparation is the defining moment for increase of efficiency of work.

Taylor believes that the specialization of labor is equally important at both the managerial and executive levels. He believes that planning should be carried out in the planning department by officials who are comprehensively trained and can perform all planning functions.

Frederick Taylor created differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their production, i.e., he attached the main importance to the system of piecework wage rates. This means that workers who produce more than the daily standard quota should receive a higher piece rate than those who do not produce the norm. The main motivating factor of working people is the opportunity to earn money by increasing labor productivity.

The role of differential payment.

1. The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages.

2. The use of Taylor's ideas provides a significant increase in labor productivity.

Taylor and his followers analyzed the relationship between the physical nature of work and the psychological nature of workers to establish job definitions. And, therefore, it could not solve the problem of division of the organization into departments, ranges of control and assignments of authority.

Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles; should be carried out by specially developed methods and measures. It is necessary to normalize and standardize not only the technique of production, but also labor, its organization and management. In his concept, Taylor pays considerable attention to the "human factor".

Scientific management, according to Taylor, focused on the work performed at the lowest level of the organization.

Taylorism interprets man as a factor of production and presents the worker as a mechanical executor of prescribed "scientifically sound instructions" to achieve the goals of the organization.

6. THE SCHOOL OF "HUMAN RELATIONS" AND ITS KEY REPRESENTATIVES

Prerequisites for occurrence: underestimation of the human factor, simplification of ideas about the motives of human behavior, inherent in the classical school, served as a prerequisite for the emergence at the turn of the 30s. XNUMXth century schools of "human relations", or "human behavior".

It is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology (the sciences of human behavior).

Founders of the school of "human relations": Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger.

main representatives.

1. Douglas McGregor is a professor at the School of Industrial Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

2. Chris Argyris is a professor at Yale University.

3. Rensis Likert - Director of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan.

4. A group of sociologists at Harvard University, regularly dealing with the problems of "human relations".

main idea schools of "human relations" - to focus on the worker, and not on his task.

Subject of study The schools of "human relations" are:

- communication barriers;

- psychological motives of people's behavior in the production process;

- group norms;

- group relations;

- problems of "conflict and cooperation";

is an informal organization.

The creation of this school is associated with the "Hawthorne experiments". An important role in the creation of this direction was also played by research Mary Parker Folliet, who was one of the first theorists who substantiated the need for a scientific study of the psychological aspects of management.

Folliet argued that management theory should be based not on intuitive ideas about the nature of man and the motives of his behavior, but on the achievements of scientific psychology. She was one of the first to put forward the idea of "workers' participation in management" and fought for the creation of an atmosphere of "genuine community of interests."

E. Mayo and F. Roethlisberger argued that the work itself and the "purely physical requirements" to the production process are relatively less important than the social and psychological position and well-being of the worker in the production process.

The main provisions of the school of "human relations".

1. Man is a "social being".

2. Strict hierarchy of subordination, formalization of organizational processes are incompatible with "human nature".

3. The solution of the "problem of man" is the business of entrepreneurs.

In place of the formalization of organizational processes, a strict hierarchy of subordination, characteristic of the "classical" theory, the concept of "human relations" puts the need for careful consideration of the informal aspects of the organization, the creation of new means of increasing labor productivity. According to the theorists of this school, these include "education of employees", "group decisions", "parity management" and "humanization of work".

Representatives of the "human relations" school believe that group values are the most important condition for the scientific organization of management. They criticize Taylorism, which limits the tasks of management by stimulating the individual efforts of workers, and justify the need to stimulate not individuals, but groups.

7. RUSSIAN MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Transition to a market economy became a prerequisite for the formation of Russian management. Prerequisites for occurrence:

1) the development of commodity production, management as a form of management is inherent in commodity production;

2) the formation of Russian management depends on the level of technical and technological development of society.

Basic concepts of Russian management.

1. The concept of copying Western management theory.

This concept does not take into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality. To master the theory, it will only be necessary to translate Western textbooks and monographs into Russian. Then use these provisions in practice without changing them. The implementation of this concept is quite simple, but can lead to irreversible consequences due to differences in the economic processes of different countries.

2. The concept of adaptation of Western management theory. It is characterized by a partial consideration of the peculiarities of the Russian mentality, it does not imply blind copying, but the adaptation of Western theory to modern Russian conditions. It is necessary to determine which of the Western theories will be used, since the management systems of Japan, the USA, and Western Europe differ from each other. It is necessary to take into account the specific features, conditions for the functioning of the economy, the level of socio-economic development of the country, the mentality of the inhabitants.

Adapted theories that poorly take into account the specifics of Russian reality will not be able to give the Russian economy the maximum positive effect.

3. The concept of creating the Russian theory of management. It is based on taking into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality using aspects of world management experience. At the same time, it is impossible to completely copy the Western and Eastern experience or completely deny the achievements of the Western and Eastern schools of management. Russian management must have its own characteristic content, form and methods of management, which must correspond to the specifics of the Russian mentality and national characteristics.

In recent years, there has been a trend in the development of special types of management: municipal management, risk management, financial management, investment management, innovation management, anti-crisis management, etc.

The formation of an independent type of special management involves the development of special techniques, methods and technologies of management specific to this type of activity.

Distinguishing feature: all special types of management are applied in nature, and their development is based on generalizations of management practices in the relevant special areas.

In recent years, much attention has been paid to the formation of the culture of the organization. Her constituent components are: rules, norms, principles, values, ideals, organizational history, symbols, ceremonies, rituals, forms of rewards and rewards, accommodation, building, environment. The culture of the organization is a constituent factor in the success, performance and survival of the organization in market conditions.

8. SYSTEMS OF OPERATIONAL PLANNING

operational planning material flows - one of the main areas of management. Most popular systems:

- MRP (Manufacturing Resource Planning); MAP system (Material Availability Planning), created in the USA,

- Kanban (kanban) and "just in time" (just-in-time) systems, created in Japan.

The main task of the MRP system - reduction of production costs by reducing stocks and reducing the time of production.

The success factor of this system is detailed market research. This system allows for large stock sizes, which are planned on average based on the provision of production within 3 months.

System feature: MRP does not take into account the multitude of requirements coming from outside, therefore, it does not allow for a truly objective determination of the optimal batch sizes of finished products.

The process of determining the size of batches and the product structure of output becomes dynamic and occurs under the influence of an assessment of the amount of costs for material resources coming from external sources. This takes into account the timing of the supply of material resources and the impact of many factors.

The main idea of the kanban system: produce and deliver products exactly when they need to be delivered to the customer, produce parts directly for assembly and supply raw materials exactly when they are needed to make parts.

Kanban system rule: interoperational delivery of only high-quality, defect-free parts and semi-finished products.

Application feature: this system can be effectively used only under the condition of a relative stabilization of production activities, as well as rationalization of production.

Kanban is a demand-driven or pull planning system as opposed to a push planning system such as MRP and MAP.

Distinctive features of the systems: If with MRP and MAP systems the planning of the requirements for materials at each stage of production is carried out from the first to the last stage, then with Kanban the reverse order takes place.

The MRP system does not require a reorganization of production, it accepts it as it is (in terms of inventory lead times, lot sizes, rejection rates), while the kanban system is aimed at improving production.

Kanban pays much attention to the use of the creative potential of employees within the framework of quality circles, stimulates rationalization proposals and the formation of self-managed teams.

Features of the "just in time" system.

1. Raw materials and components are supplied in small batches directly to the right points in the production process.

2. Finished products are shipped as production is completed.

The main task: produce and deliver products on time. In this regard, a necessary condition for ensuring the production and delivery of products "just in time" is the implementation of the kanban system. At the same time, kanban is an information system in relation to the "just in time" system, which allows you to quickly regulate the release of the required quantity of products.

Means to implement just-in-time system: reduction of inventory and distances, which is obtained by reducing the lot size of parts and reducing safety stocks.

9. SITUATIONAL APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT

The founder of the situational approach is Fiedler. He believed that since the leader is not capable of changing himself and his management style, therefore, he must be placed in those conditions where he can best express himself.

In conditions where management tasks are clearly formulated, the official powers are significant, and relations with subordinates become favorable. If the conditions are less favorable, the leader, according to Fiedler, is better off using an instrumental style.

The instrumental style of leadership is aimed at maintaining human relations and is suitable in moderately favorable situations where there is not enough power to ensure the necessary level of cooperation with subordinates. In such a situation, the use of this style will empower the leader and make him more influential.

Variant of the situational approach - the "path - goal" model created by Mitchell and House.

Model feature: the leader can encourage subordinates to achieve the goals of the organization, influence the ways of achieving these goals, therefore, the main task of management is to explain what benefits the subordinates will receive if they work well.

Another example of a situational approach is the life cycle theory developed by Hursley and Blanchard. It is based on the use of one-way communication by the leader when explaining what and how the subordinate is obliged to do, and anthropocentric behavior (to what extent the leader uses two-way communication when providing socio-emotional support).

Accordingly, allocate four main leadership styles.

1. Ordering - one-way communication based on instructions to employees what and how they need to do.

2. Selling - seeks through two-way communication and socio-emotional support to force subordinates to psychologically "buy" those decisions that they must make.

3. Participating - the leader and subordinates participate in the decision-making process through two-way communication.

4. Delegating - the leader delegates his powers, since the level of preparation of subordinates is quite high.

Vroom and Itton identify five leadership styles.

1. The leader himself makes decisions.

2. The leader expresses the essence of the problem to subordinates, listens to their opinions and makes decisions.

3. The leader identifies the problem to subordinates, summarizes their opinions and, taking them into account, makes his own decision.

4. The leader, together with subordinates, discusses the problem, and as a result, a common opinion is developed on this issue.

5. The leader is constantly collaborating with the group, which either develops a collective decision or accepts the best, regardless of who its author is.

The main criteria for choosing a leadership style:

- the probability that the sole decision of the head will receive support;

- structured problem;

- availability of information and experience of subordinates;

- the level of requirements for the solution;

- involvement of subordinates in the affairs of the organization;

- interest of performers;

- the likelihood of conflicts arising as a result of decision-making.

10. SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT

Systems theory created by Bertalanffy in the 1930s. XNUMXth century It is associated with the analysis, design and operation of independent units.

Organizational systems are divided into closed and open.

Closed organizational system - a system that has no connection with its external environment, it does not exchange products, services, goods with the external environment.

Open organizational system has connections with the external environment.

Any organization is an open system because it interacts with the external environment. It receives from the environment resources in the form of information, people, capital, raw materials, energy, equipment, which become elements of its internal environment.

Part of the resources is converted into products and services, which are then transferred to the external environment.

Any organization operates within a larger system: a foreign policy, economic, social and technical environment in which it constantly enters into complex interactions. It includes subsystems that are also interconnected and interact.

Disruption of functioning in one part of the system leads to difficulties in other parts of it.

Basic concepts and characteristics of the general theory of systems.

1. System boundaries - these are various material and non-material constraints that separate the system from the external environment. Each system is part of a larger system called a supersystem. In turn, each system consists of two or more subsystems.

2. Elements. Any system, regardless of openness, is defined through its composition. Components and connections between them determine the properties of the system.

3. Input - transformation - output. The organizational system in dynamics is presented as three processes. With a systematic approach, the “output” parameters are first studied, i.e. what needs to be produced, with what quality indicators, at what costs, who will be the buyer, in what time frame to sell and at what price. As a result, the "output" should be competitive products or services. After that, the parameters of the "input" are determined, i.e., the need for resources is analyzed, which is determined after a detailed study of the organizational and technical level of the system under consideration (the level of technology, technology, features of the organization of production, labor and management) and the parameters of the external environment (social, economic , geopolitical, ecological). And the study of the characteristics of the "process" that transforms resources into finished products. At this stage, the production technology or management technology and ways to improve it are considered.

4. Synergy (translated from Greek - "acting together"). This concept is used to describe phenomena in which the whole is always greater or less than the sum of the parts that make up this whole.

5. system element, on which the functioning of all other elements and the viability of the system as a whole depend to a decisive extent.

6. Life Cycle: emergence, formation, functioning, crisis, collapse.

11. MANAGEMENT METHODS

The word "method" in Greek means a way to achieve the goal. Management methods - a set of techniques and methods of influencing a controlled object to achieve the goals set by the organization.

With the help of management methods, the main content of management activities is implemented.

In management practice, as a rule, various methods and their combinations are used simultaneously.

Management methods are aimed at people carrying out various types of labor activity - at the personnel of organizations.

Human Resource Management is a set of interrelated actions to ensure control. This is not only a formal organization of work with personnel (selection, placement, control factors, etc.), but also a combination of factors of a socio-psychological, informal nature.

Personnel management in an organization - a type of activity with the help of which the issues of adapting an individual to external conditions are solved, taking into account the personal factor in creating an organization's personnel management system. The main factors influencing the personnel of the enterprise.

1. Hierarchical structure of the enterprise. The main means of influence are relations of power and subordination, pressure on a person from above with the help of coercion, control over the distribution of material wealth.

2. Culture - shared values, social norms, behavioral patterns developed by a society, an organization, a group of people that regulate the actions of an individual.

3. Market - a set of equal relations based on the sale and purchase of products and services, property relations, the balance of interests of the seller and buyer.

All factors of influence have their own specifics and in practice are rarely implemented separately. Most often they are used in combination with the predominance of one of them.

The most popular trend is the transition from hierarchical management, a strict system of administrative influence to market relations based on economic methods.

In recent years, the main ones inside the enterprise are employees, and outside it - consumers. It is necessary to take into account the requirements and wishes of consumers of products, to base behavior on social norms based on common economic sense, and to take into account social aspects.

Modern personnel management services are created on the basis of traditional services: the personnel department, the labor organization and wages department, the labor protection and safety department, etc.

Tasks of the new services: implementation of personnel policy and coordination of activities for the management of labor resources at the enterprise. They are increasingly expanding the range of their functions, developing systems for stimulating labor activity, managing professional advancement, preventing conflicts between employees in a team, studying the labor market and their most promising opportunities, etc.

Varieties of personnel management methods:

- economic methods;

- administrative methods;

- socio-psychological methods.

12. ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT METHODS

Economic management methods - methods and techniques of influencing the population, which are based on the economic relations of people and the use of their economic interests.

Economic methods influence the economic interests of the individual, the team, the state to achieve optimal results of their functioning with minimal requirements and material costs.

Content of economic methods: represent an interconnected system of stimulation and economic impact on all aspects of the life of the state, the collective and the individual and their governing bodies.

Two groups of economic management methods.

1. Direct economic calculation is based on planned, centralized, directive distribution and redistribution of labor, material and financial resources to ensure macro proportions of expanded reproduction.

Direct economic calculation is planned and directive (mandatory).

Direct economic calculation is important for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations and in other cases, taking the form of subsidies, subventions and subsidies.

2. Economic calculation is based on the use of cost categories as regulatory instruments and levers for correlating results and costs in the production and sale of products.

Basic principles of economic management methods: 1) consistency; 2) complexity.

Economic methods of management are based on all the levers of management:

- profit;

- finance;

- loans;

- profitability;

- return on assets;

- wages, etc.

Economic interests can be viewed in terms of their levels of predominant influence.

Purpose of economic methods: by influencing the economic interests of employees and economic counterparties with the help of taxes, prices, credit, wages, profits and other economic levers, create an effective mechanism for work.

Economic methods are based on the use of economic incentives that provide for the interest and responsibility of managerial employees for the consequences of decisions made and encourage employees to achieve the implementation of established tasks without special instructions.

Specific features of economic methods:

- Managed processes become more flexible and adaptive;

- there is a possibility of more effective control;

- administrative control becomes optional;

- the spread of economic methods is combined with the relative isolation of individual units and an increase in the level of self-regulation. Display examples economic methods of personnel management.

1. Subsidizing personnel. Many organizations have subsidized canteens and restaurants for their staff.

2. Products with a discount. In many organizations, employees have the opportunity to purchase goods and services of the organization at a discount.

3. Loans. Possibility of obtaining low-interest loans for various consumer purposes.

4. Private health insurance. Some organizations carry out private health insurance for their employees, have the possibility of corporate services in private clinics.

13. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT METHODS

1. Labor market predetermines the distribution of labor in proportion to the structure of social needs and the level of material production. It maintains a balance between the demand for labor and the supply of labor, creates reserves in the sphere of circulation and allows you to regulate the economic interests of the subjects of labor relations.

An important part of the labor market is labor price. The owner is trying to give priority to eliminating downtime, loss of working time, ensuring an appropriate level of production, labor and management, dealing with the working and living conditions of workers, constantly developing their ability to work through the implementation of a system of training and retraining of personnel, improving their skills. The cost of labor is a monetary measure of wages.

2. Market pricing - an economic instrument in comparing income and expenses. The value of a commodity is an indicator of the socially necessary outlay of labor. Income includes wages, payroll taxes, most overheads, and profits.

3. Stocks and bods market. The head of the enterprise has the right to use the mechanism of securities to achieve economic interests, increase the welfare of employees and create corporate relations.

4. Tax system is a mechanism for replenishing the treasury of the state. It is controlled by the state, exists outside the enterprise, and has a direct impact on the staff.

5. Forms of ownership - an economic category that determines the nature of relationships within the organization. Under state and municipal ownership, the state body acts as the owner of the property of the enterprise, and all employees are hired personnel.

6. Phases of social reproduction are the basis of commodity-money relations between people in the process of production, exchange, distribution and consumption of goods.

In the case of simple reproduction the produced goods are exchanged for money, which are used to purchase raw materials and materials, tools and means of labor, labor power for the production of a new product.

In the case of expanded reproduction the money received is used to expand production.

The exchange of goods in a market economy implements a scheme for changing the form of a commodity from material to monetary and confirms its monetary value in the market.

Distribution is a phase of social production, when the means of production and labor force are sent to specific sectors of the economy, and a certain part of the national income is distributed among the social groups of society and non-material spheres of the economy. Distribution value: has a great influence on production and exchange, speeding up or slowing down the processes within these phases of reproduction.

The role of consumption is aimed at using the social product in the process of meeting material and spiritual needs and is the final phase of reproduction.

Types of consumption:

- material;

- intangible;

- collective;

- individual.

14. ORGANIZATIONAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT METHODS

Organizational Management Practices are based on the preparation and approval of internal regulatory documents regulating the activities of the personnel of a particular enterprise.

These documents include:

- the charter of the enterprise or organization;

- staffing of the enterprise;

- a collective agreement between the administration and the labor collective;

- organizational structure of management;

- regulations on structural subdivisions;

- internal labor regulations;

- job descriptions of employees and organization of workplaces.

Feature: documents (with the exception of the charter) can be drawn up in the form of enterprise standards and must be put into effect by order of the head of the enterprise. Documents are mandatory for all employees, and non-compliance with them entails the application of disciplinary sanctions.

In organizations where a high level of organizational influences, brought to the standard of the enterprise and management regulations, and high labor and performance discipline, the need for the use of administrative influences is significantly reduced.

Administrative methods of management aimed at achieving the goals of management, compliance with internal regulations or maintaining the enterprise management system in the specified parameters through direct administrative regulation.

Forms of administrative influence:

a) order. He obliges subordinates to accurately execute the decision made on time, and its failure to comply entails the appropriate sanction (punishment);

b) order. It is mandatory for execution within a specific management function and structural unit. The order, unlike the order, does not cover all the functions of the enterprise and, as a rule, is signed by the deputies of the head of the enterprise;

at) directions and instructions are a local type of organizational impact and most often aimed at the operational regulation of the management process in a short time and for a limited number of employees. Each enterprise must have written job descriptions for each employee, with which he must be familiarized without fail. Feature: if instructions or instructions are given orally, then they need to be strictly controlled for execution or should be the basis of high trust in the "head-subordinate" relationship scheme;

d) instruction and coordination - These are management methods based on the transfer to the subordinate of the rules for performing labor operations. Most often, instruction is carried out when applying for a job, it is carried out either by the head of the personnel department, or by the immediate supervisor;

d) admonition - a method of single application by the manager, when he reasonably explains the expediency of the work task for the subordinate. In case of failure, a second attempt is inappropriate, because it will lead to the loss of the authority of the leader in front of the subordinate.

15. ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT METHODS

Administrative Methods - a way to implement managerial impacts on staff. They are based on power, discipline and punishment.

Administrative methods are aimed at such motives of behavior as the conscious need for labor discipline, a sense of duty, etc.

Feature of administrative methods:

- the direct nature of the impact - any regulatory or administrative act is subject to mandatory execution;

- compliance of administrative methods with the norms of the governing bodies.

Ways of administrative influence.

1. Liability and penalties.

The material liability of employees is expressed in their obligation to compensate for the damage caused by a guilty action or inaction. Liability is imposed on employees for damage caused to the organization with which they have labor relations, as well as for damage incurred in connection with compensation for damage caused by their employees to third parties, if this damage is compensated by the enterprise.

2. Disciplinary responsibility and penalties are used in case of violation of labor legislation, when a disciplinary offense occurs, which is understood as illegal non-performance or improper performance of labor duties by an employee.

Non-fulfillment by an employee of labor duties exists in the case when his personal guilt is proved and he acted intentionally and carelessly. If the employee violated his labor duties due to a reason beyond his control, then he cannot be held disciplinary liable.

Conditions necessary to bring an employee to disciplinary responsibility:

- failure to perform or improper performance of labor (service) duties;

- illegal actions or inaction of the employee;

- violation of legal norms due to the fault of the employee. Disciplinary sanctions are imposed by the head of the enterprise and other officials who have been delegated the relevant rights in accordance with the procedure established by law. The right to impose disciplinary sanctions may have the heads of shops, heads of departments, etc. Dismissal can only be carried out by the heads of the enterprise, while the heads of structural divisions can apply for the application of these penalties.

For offenses in the field of labor relations, penalties may be applied that, by their status, are not disciplinary sanctions and which can be applied simultaneously with disciplinary sanctions. These include: depriving the guilty employee of bonuses, remuneration at the end of the year, etc. In some cases, the simultaneous imposition of administrative and disciplinary sanctions is allowed.

3. Administrative responsibility and penalties used in cases of administrative offenses.

Types of administrative penalty:

- fines;

- warnings;

- administrative arrest;

- correctional work;

- confiscation or confiscation of items for compensation.

The role of administrative management methods: are a powerful lever for achieving the set goals in cases where it is necessary to subordinate the team and direct it to solving specific management problems.

16. SOCIOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT METHODS

The role of sociological methods of management: allow the team leader to carry out social planning, regulate the socio-psychological climate, ensure effective communications and maintain the corporate culture of the organization at a high level.

Social planning ensures the setting of social goals and criteria, the development of social standards, the achievement of final social results.

Sociological methods of management are scientific tools in working with personnel and help to make effective personnel decisions in an organization. Observation allows you to detect the qualities of employees that manifest themselves in an informal setting or in various life situations.

Questionnaires allows you to collect the necessary information using a mass survey in the form of questionnaires.

Interviewing - obtaining the necessary information during the conversation.

sociometric method is used in the analysis of business and friendly relationships in a team, when a matrix of preferred contacts between people is built on the basis of a survey of employees, which also shows informal leaders in the team.

Interview - a method in which small personnel tasks are solved in an informal conversation.

Personal qualities characterize the external image of the employee, which is quite stable in the team and is an integral part of the sociology of personality.

Varieties of personal qualities:

- business (organizational), they are necessary to perform specific functions and tasks,

- moral (moral) - reflect the manifestation of a person's personal morality.

Sponsors is the establishment of various forms of relationships on the basis of which people communicate. In partnership, people act as equal members in the relationship.

The main stages of managerial communication:

- issuance of administrative information;

- receiving feedback;

- issuance of evaluation information. Talks - a form of human communication in which two or more parties, having different goals and objectives, try to compare different interests based on a well-thought-out conversation scheme and reach an agreement on resolving the issue.

Competition - a specific form of social relations and based on the desire of people for success, achievements and self-affirmation.

Communication - a specific form of interaction between people based on the continuous exchange of information obtained in the course of the implementation of any actions performed by them.

Conflict - a form of confrontation between the opposing sides, which has its own plot, composition, direction, which in the course of action are transformed into a culmination and denouement and end with a positive or negative solution to the problem.

Types of conflicts:

- personal conflict between the external environment and internal morality;

- interpersonal conflicts;

- conflicts over the distribution of roles at work;

- business conflicts due to conflicts of interest;

- family conflicts on various issues, etc.

17. FEATURES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT METHODS

The role of psychological methods: are of great importance in working with personnel, because they are aimed at a specific personality of a worker or employee, they are strictly personalized and individual.

Feature: aimed at the inner world of a person, his personality, intellect, feelings, image and behavior in order to direct the inner potential of a person to solve specific problems of the organization.

Psychological planning is a new direction in work with personnel on the formation of an effective psychological state of the organization's team.

Psychological planning is based on the need for the comprehensive development of a person's personality, the elimination of negative trends in the degradation of the backward part of the labor collective.

Possibilities of psychological planning: involves setting development goals and performance criteria, developing psychological standards and methods for planning the psychological climate and achieving final results.

Results of psychological planning:

- development of a service career based on the psychological orientation of the employees of the organization;

- Creation of divisions on the basis of psychological conformity of employees;

- positive psychological climate in the team;

- creation of personal motivation of people, based on the philosophy of the organization;

- increasing the intellectual abilities of team members and the level of their professional education;

- reduction of psychological conflicts (dissatisfaction, scandals, resentment, stress, irritation);

- organization of corporate culture based on the norms of behavior and images of the ideal employees of the organization.

It is desirable that psychological planning and regulation be carried out by a professional psychological service of the enterprise.

Possibilities of psychological methods: allow you to make a correct analysis of the state of mind of people, build their psychological portraits, create ways to eliminate psychological discomfort and form a good team climate.

Areas of study of labor psychology: psychological aspects of professional selection, career guidance, professional fatigue, tension and intensity of work, accidents, etc.

Areas of study of management psychology: analyzes aspects of people's behavior in the work team, the relationship between the leader and the subordinate, the problems of motivating the work of workers and the psychological climate in the team.

Socio-psychological methods - this is the most subtle tool for influencing social groups of people and a person's personality.

An example of socio-psychological methods of management is the satisfaction and stimulation of the organization's personnel.

To maintain a favorable climate in the team and work effectively in the organization, it is necessary to stimulate employees so that they are happy and satisfied with the conditions and wages.

All this will lead to high labor productivity, susceptibility to innovations and innovations and, as a result, to high competitiveness of the created products.

18. PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT ON EMPLOYEES

Psychological impact on workers is carried out using various psychological methods of management.

Varieties of psychological influence.

1. Motivation - a form of moral influence on a person, when the positive qualities of an employee, his qualifications and experience, confidence in the successful completion of the assigned work are emphasized. All this helps to increase the moral significance of the employee in the organization.

2. Conviction is based on the logical impact on the human psyche to achieve established goals.

3. Condemnation - reception of psychological influence on a person who allows deviations from moral norms in the team or the results of labor and the quality of work of which are very unsatisfactory.

4. Involvement - a psychological technique by which employees become accomplices in the labor or social process.

5. Suggestion - psychologically targeted influence of the leader on the subordinate by appealing to group expectations and motives for inducing work.

6. Coercion - a form of moral influence when an employee is forced to carry out certain work.

7. Imitation - a way of influencing an individual employee or social group with the help of a personal example.

8. Placebo - an example of the behavior of an authoritative person, when employees are easily shown any actions, overcoming fear, pain, fatigue, etc.

9. Prohibition is an intermediate method of influence between coercion and persuasion.

10. Demand is a form of command. It is effective when the leader has great power or enjoys undeniable authority.

11. censure has a persuasive effect only in conditions where the employee identifies himself with the leader: "he is one of us."

12. Deceived expectation effective in a tense situation. Previous events should form a strictly directed train of thought in the employee. If the inconsistency of this orientation is revealed, then the employee is at a loss and perceives the idea proposed to him without objection.

13. Command used in cases where fast and accurate execution of the order is required.

14. "Explosion" - a technique known as instant personality restructuring under the influence of strong emotional experiences.

15. Council - a psychological method based on a combination of request and persuasion. The advice is used in the relationship of colleagues, mentors of young workers and experienced managers.

16. Request leader is an effective method of leadership, as it is perceived by employees as a benevolent order and shows respect for his personality.

17. Praise - a positive psychological method of influencing a person, which has a stronger effect than condemnation.

18. Compliment - a method of influence, which consists in emphasizing the merits of the interlocutor.

19. Hint - reception of indirect persuasion through jokes, irony or analogy. The peculiarity of the hint is that it affects not the consciousness, but the emotions.

19. CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Control functions - type of management activity (performed by special techniques and methods), as well as the corresponding organization of work.

Each management function is the scope of a specific management process, and the management system for a specific object or type of activity is a set of functions associated with a whole management cycle.

Basic control functions various schools of management.

1. Control functions of A. Fayol: foresight, planning, organization, coordination, control.

2. American School Management Functions: planning, organization, stimulation, control.

3. Functions of the Russian School of Management: goal setting, analysis, forecasting, planning, organization, coordination, motivation, accounting and control, communication, decision making.

The management process can be considered as a process of interaction between the subject and the object of management, where the ideas of the subject, i.e., the manager, are realized. Management functions are combined by the process of developing and implementing a management decision, which has universal stages in a certain sequence.

Control Feature determines the presence of a manager - a subject of management, a professional manager who has undergone special training, giving him the right to perform the functions of managing people.

An important feature of management functions, determined by the specifics of the Russian economy, is the need for a high degree of adaptability to changes in the external and internal environment.

Management functions ensure the adaptation of production and economic systems to new and frequently changing state regulators, as well as adaptation to new market conditions in all areas of economic and social activity.

Responsiveness - the ability to maintain the qualitative certainty of the management function in the face of changes in the socio-economic environment.

The composition of the adaptive elements of the management system: target, regulatory, coordinating, activating, motivating, controlling, self-organizing means of influence.

Feature: the system of means of influence and interaction for each function should be flexible and provide less loss of resources when socio-economic and organizational and technical factors change.

Contents of control functions: have a specific character, special content and can be carried out independently, be both unrelated and inextricably linked. In the management system, all management functions are combined into a single, holistic process.

Control functions are due controlled (object of control) and control (subject of control) subsystems, the laws of control science in force, the principles of control used and the relations that have developed in the control system.

Using the control functions: organization of management and division of managerial labor, selection and improvement of the organizational structure of management, use of methods and means of management, information technology, training and placement of personnel, etc., takes into account the composition and content of management functions.

20. COORDINATION OF ACTIVITIES

Organizational coordination is:

1) synchronization of the applied efforts, their integration into a single whole;

2) the process of distributing activities in time, bringing its individual elements into such a combination that would allow the most effective and efficient achievement of the established goal;

3) distribution of duties (responsibility). Coordination - management activities to ensure the relationship and coherence of subjects, objects and labor processes in time and space.

Coordination options: creates the prerequisites for the proportional and continuous functioning of the management system by establishing strong links between the organization's departments and performers.

Features of coordination: in large organizations with a high degree of specialization and distribution of responsibilities, achieving the required level of coordination requires some effort from management.

Problems in coordination department level activities:

1) the possibility of contradictions in the performance of various production functions, in particular with regard to the volume of stocks required for production. The task of control bodies is to optimize the amount of stocks;

2) the long-term interests of the organization are infringed at the expense of receiving short-term benefits by the department;

3) problems arise as a result of having too many supply departments or sales departments for finished products;

4) there are problems of internal prices, when each division determines its own production price in order to evaluate the effectiveness of its activities;

5) there is a danger of delineating certain types of activities that should be closely interconnected.

The most effective coordination in cases where the employee sees the contribution of his own work to achieve the goals of the organization. Therefore, it is very important that each employee of the enterprise be aware of the general line of development of the organization, its tasks and goals.

Coordination of activities with the help of commissions. Commissions are often the only means of coordinating the various functions of an organization. Here, opinions are exchanged, problems are better understood, decisions are made concerning several departments. Each employee can express his opinion on the decision being made, but no one can make it on his own without taking into account the opinions of his colleagues.

Coordination of activities and means of communication. The problems of developing a sufficiently effective coordination of the activities of all departments of the organization are directly related to the level of communication development, the need to maintain a constant information exchange.

When a manager transmits information through the means of communication, he must be sure that his message will be correctly understood and received in a timely manner. Significant is the reverse process of transferring information - from a subordinate to a leader. Failures may occur at this stage, the lower level does not always know what information management needs to make certain decisions.

21. PLANNING FUNCTION

Planning - the process of developing a system of measures aimed at achieving certain goals.

Planning provides answers to the questions: what needs to be done? For what period of time? What resources are needed? What should be the result?

Planning at the micro level includes a set of business plans, short-term programs, which should contain the proposed targets and the necessary measures to achieve them.

Planning at the macro level - the main form of state regulation of objects of management.

The history of the development of the planning function in modern society.

В pre-reform period in Russia, the main management element was planning. During this period, systems of national economic plans were developed: annual, five-year, comprehensive, and others.

В 90s programming, development of programs became a priority. Programs were developed at various levels: national, regional and municipal. According to the period of time, the programs were divided into long-term, medium-term and short-term.

Components of the planning cycle:

- analysis of the external environment;

- identification of strengths and weaknesses of development;

- use of existing advantages;

- development of a plan to achieve the goal;

- adjustment of goals and deviations;

- definition of goals.

Feature: planning is implemented in conjunction and interaction with other management functions.

Planning principles.

1. The larger the organization, the more versatile and clearer the planning of its activities should be.

2. It is necessary to anticipate the course of developments in the organization, in the industry, in departments, and among competitors.

3. A backup "emergency" plan is being developed that can be carried out even under the most unfavorable circumstances.

4. All levels of management should be involved in the planning process.

5. Planning should be done by professionals.

6. Particular attention should be paid to the preparation of firm budgets.

Planning levels:

- strategic plans;

- tactical plans;

- operational calendar plans; Types of time plans:

- short-term (up to a year);

- medium-term (from 1 to 2 years);

- long-term (5-10 years);

- perspective (more than 10 years).

By goals: strategic and tactical.

Strategy - a plan for a long period of time (five to ten years), always associated with the solution of the most important problems. These are the basic goals and indicators: sales volume, growth rates, profit, market share, capital structure, dividends, product quality level, company stability, social goals.

Strategic plan features: allows you to plan from the perspective of tomorrow, this is a process that results in constant adjustment of the adopted management decisions, constant monitoring of their implementation.

tactical planning associated with the solution of tasks for the near future (2-3 years).

Components of planning: the mission of the organization, the principles of the organization's work that determine its culture, goals and objectives of long-term activity, performance parameters, strategies or ways to achieve the planned parameters, tactics or means of implementing the planned strategies.

22. CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION

Organization - management activities aimed at ensuring the streamlining of the management process as a whole.

The organization represents both the distribution of functions for the execution of management decisions and management functions. The organization makes it possible to provide the basis for the expedient construction of a certain governing body, finding the competence of its structural divisions.

Organization as a process of structure formation includes:

1) distribution of tasks between employees;

2) distribution of responsibility. Organize - means to plan and define the functions and activities necessary to carry out the work, and to combine them within the framework of a working group or unit.

Organizational interaction - formal relationships between elements of management.

Organization - a group of people who have a goal to achieve which they jointly direct their efforts.

Organizational Structure - a holistic system, specially designed in such a way that people working within its framework can most effectively achieve their goal. An organization is also called a separate company.

Stages of building an organization.

1. Determining the nature of the work to be performed. It is rational to divide all the work into sub-items:

- the activities to be carried out and the means of interaction;

- decisions to be made;

- relationships with people with whom you need to interact;

- the influence exerted on the manager by other decision makers.

2. The distribution of work between individual elements of management. This stage includes the establishment of norms, standards, techniques within the framework of scientific management methods; establishing the full cooperation of all persons working within the organization.

3. Building logical control groups. You want the controls to be grouped according to the type of work they do, that is, according to the "principle of orientation". The distribution of production duties and the formation of logical groups must inevitably lead to the creation of departments (subdivisions), that is, teams of people performing some similar work under a single leadership.

Responsibility methods on departments depend on the signs put in a basis.

First, according to the principle of division into groups of equal size. This method is used in cases where professional workers have the same professional level, and a certain number of people are needed to achieve any goal.

Secondly, on a functional basis. This is the most common way to create departments for production, marketing, etc.

Thirdly, on a territorial basis, when the organization operates on the territory of different regions.

Fourth, based on the output. This method is now becoming more and more popular in large enterprises expanding the range of products, where another method would only lead to the complication of the structure of the organization.

Fifth, based on the interests of the consumer, when his interests have a decisive influence on the structure of the organization. This is especially true for the service department.

23. ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES

1. Features of the linear organization of management:

a) the distribution of duties maximally aims at the fulfillment of the production tasks of the organization;

b) leads to the formation of a stable and durable organization;

3) all powers go from the highest level of management to the lowest.

Advantages of a line organization:

- clear distribution of duties and powers;

- ease of understanding and use;

- a responsibility;

- established obligations;

- operational decision-making process;

- the ability to maintain the necessary discipline. Disadvantages linear construction of the organization:

- inflexibility;

- rigidity;

- inability to further growth of the organization.

The management method can be bureaucratic, dictatorial, which reduces the potential and suppresses the initiative of young leaders.

A leader can be overwhelmed with responsibilities and responsibilities, which can lead to stress and poor management.

2. Combination of linear and functional control.

This is the most popular approach. Line management is supported by dedicated support services. The functional construction of an organization in its purest form is a rare phenomenon.

Disadvantages: disagreements between line and functional employees. Line employees often oppose the work of functional experts; emerging differences of opinion may be expressed in the incorrect interpretation of information received from experts, which is transmitted by line employees to direct executors.

3. Matrix control system. This scheme of distribution of powers is designed to work on a special project.

4. Management using committees (commissions). Managers are supported by standing committees. Most often, the commission has a lower linear organization through which management is carried out.

Types of relationships within the organization.

1. Linear Relationships - The relationship between the leader and his subordinates.

2. functional relationship - the relationship of an employee who is authorized to perform a certain function within the entire organization, with other members of the team. As a rule, such a production mission is advisory in nature, and the functional manager is within the framework of his linear organization.

3. Relationships of the administrative apparatus exist in the case of representation of someone's rights and powers. Job responsibilities at the same time consist in providing recommendations, advice.

Advantages: the method is effective for the education and training of future leaders. It saves working time for top managers, frees them from daily purely administrative work.

Disadvantages: executive assistants often overstep their bounds by acquiring additional power and influence unofficially.

4. lateral relationships. Two types of lateral relations:

- collegial - relations between employees (employees) of one department, subordinate to one boss;

- parallel - relationships that are caused by the need to exchange information, ideas and opinions between employees occupying the same position in the organization, but working in different departments and divisions.

24. RELATIONSHIP OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE WITH THE EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Organizations exist in an environment consisting of many elements, including:

- changing technologies, equipment, requirements for product quality, educational level of employees;

- shareholders with their interests in receiving dividends,

- government with tax and legal requirements;

- partners in relation to which the organization has its obligations;

- the market with its supply and demand;

- actions of competitors;

- consequences of economic crises, etc.

Actions of managers when changing the external environment of the organization:

- constant monitoring of the situation in the external environment;

- downsizing of the organization;

- immediate response to changes in the external environment;

- reorganization;

- introduction of "just in time" production system.

Just-in-time manufacturing features: parts are made at exactly the right time so that defects are detected and their causes eliminated immediately as the workpiece moves from position to position, ideally without entering the warehouse at all.

The external environment includes:

1) macro factors - political, legal, macroeconomic, scientific and technical, socio-cultural, etc.;

2) microenvironment factors - types of materials and technologies, consumers, competitors, suppliers and intermediaries, sources of capital, labor resources.

Political situation. In recent years, the political situation has been characterized by relative stability.

legal factors. The main legal achievements include legislative acts regulating property relations, taxation, consumer protection, advertising, trademarks, etc.

macroeconomic factors. They are characterized by the following indicators: gross domestic product, retail trade turnover, real disposable money income of the population, export and import of goods.

demographic factors. These include: the number, structure, dynamics and employment of the population.

Competitors. The most important tool in the struggle of foreign competitors with Russian exporters is anti-dumping legislation.

system boundary. If there is a separate organization, there is an environment around it, therefore, there must be a boundary separating the organization from the non-organization.

Managers must manage this boundary in order to create conditions for influencing processes within the organization and its interaction with the environment.

Border types:

- physical component (limits the scope of the building);

- organizational component (differences in wage levels, social conditions);

- the boundary in the minds of people (the image of the organization, pride in belonging to the organization). The boundary is manageable, so it will be transparent to the organization's entrances and exits. Inside the boundaries, inputs are transformed into outputs.

entrance organizations can be materials, people, information, or any combination of these.

Organization outputs are its products (goods, services). The organization's outputs are exported to the environment by the organization. The value of the organization's income from the sale of its outputs lies in the fact that they provide access to new batches of resources (inputs) necessary for its further functioning - life.

Management manages the transformation process, manipulates inputs and adjusts outputs in accordance with the demands of the market (external environment).

25. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION

The degree of centralization and decentralization depends on the scope of authority. In the absence of delegation of authority, the management of the organization becomes too centralized.

The degree of centralization decreases if more decisions are made directly at the workplace.

Distinctive features of centralization: lack of transfer of authority and limits of competence, which leads to a decrease in efficiency in decision-making.

The main purpose of delegation of authority - make it possible to decentralize the management of the organization. Only powers are transferred, all responsibility continues to be borne by the senior leader.

Basic principles of delegation of authority:

- the employee must have sufficient authority to achieve the required result;

- the employee must know to whom he is responsible;

- everything that exceeds the competence of the position is transferred to the highest levels of management;

- the senior official remains responsible for the actions of the subordinate. Factors affecting the level of decentralization:

1) the amount of costs;

2) degree of unification;

3) the size of the organization;

4) management philosophy;

5) the presence of a suitable leader;

6) the use of control techniques. The greater the ability to control, the greater the degree of decentralization that can be achieved;

7) the geography of the organization's activities;

8) the influence of the external environment.

Benefits of centralized management:

- more effective control over the activities of the organization;

- elimination of repetition of certain efforts;

- the possibility of uniform standards for all actions;

- more efficient use of various resources.

Disadvantages of centralized management:

- delays in decision-making;

- growth of bureaucracy;

- Decisions are made by those who do not have a complete understanding of the situation at work.

Scope of management. When setting the scope of management, in addition to the degree of complexity, the nature of the work performed, it is necessary to take into account the subjective capabilities of the manager, his ability to cooperate with colleagues.

The manager has the right to carry out the following actions for management and control:

- drawing up a clear and concise plan;

- delegation of authority;

- use of control and verification standards.

The need to establish the scope of management. In the case of an unreasonably increased scale of management, personal contact between the leader and subordinates is lost, therefore, the leader may lose influence on the team, subgroups with an unofficial leader may appear, difficulties arise in verifying the results of the group’s activities, the quality of professional training of employees decreases, and control over the implementation of tasks assigned to them, which negatively affects the results of work.

Consequences of unreasonably reduced scope of management:

- there are too many levels of management;

- administrative costs increase;

- more time is spent on decision-making;

- the degree of control increases, which can lead to a decrease in initiative and creative activity, adversely affect morale.

26. DEFINITION OF POWERS

Importance of defining authority: for the effective operation of the organization, it is important to clearly and clearly define the functional responsibilities and authorities, as well as their relationship. Each employee of the organization must understand what is expected of him, what powers he has, what his relationship with other employees should be. This is facilitated by appropriate reference literature and instructions for the distribution of duties.

Organizational charts and tables. When drawing up diagrams, it should be borne in mind that the diagram gives only the general boundaries of the structure of the organization. The scheme should reflect the real structure of the company.

If it is difficult to chart the structure of an organization, then this may be the reason that over time the structure of the organization has become inefficient, cumbersome, and the lines of relationships have become distorted.

Advantages of building an organization chart: at the preparatory stage of the scheme construction, the organization should be subjected to a thorough analysis. The analysis will reveal "weak spots", duplication of authority, insufficiently managed parts of the production process, etc.

Building a diagram allows you to highlight the lines of interdependence and relationships within the organization.

Application of the scheme.

1. It can be used in the framework of familiarization with the activities and management structure of the organization.

2. As an additional visual material when studying job descriptions.

3. The diagram is used as a reference and allows employees of the organization to quickly familiarize themselves with the changes that have occurred within the organization.

Disadvantages of using schematic diagrams.

1. Organizational structure quickly becomes obsolete. It reflects the organization at a particular point in time, in that sense it is permanent. Despite the fact that the basic structure of the organization remains unchanged for a long time, many changes occur within this structure, which require replacements and additions.

2. The scheme does not reflect informal relations, which reduces its practical significance.

3. Schemes are inherently inflexible and reflect stable channels of relationships, but do not indicate the most rational short links that often arise in the course of an organization's activities.

4. The wrong impression may arise as a result of reading the diagram, where several managers are shown on the same horizontal line, which may imply their same status, therefore, it is sometimes quite difficult to indicate real relationships, different significance of positions and positions with the required accuracy.

The manual (handbook) on the organizational structure of the organization contains a list of positions with their detailed description.

Distribution of duties - this is the process of determining the scope of authority and the measure of responsibility for each position indicated in the diagram.

Document "Distribution of duties" includes the following provisions: position level; job title; the department in which this position exists; relationships with management, colleagues and subordinates; description of the functions performed; special powers (duties); duties and rights; number of subordinates; authority restrictions.

27. PROCESS OF MOTIVATION

The main stages of motivation.

1. The emergence of needs. The need manifests itself in the form that a person begins to feel that he is missing something. It manifests itself at a specific time and begins to "demand" from a person to find an opportunity and take some steps to eliminate it.

The main groups of needs:

- physiological;

- psychological;

- social.

2. Finding ways to eliminate the need. A person begins to look for opportunities to eliminate dissatisfaction.

3. Determining the direction of action. A person determines what and by what means he should do to eliminate the need:

- "what should I get to eliminate the need";

- "what should I do to get what I want";

- "to what extent I can achieve what I want";

- "as far as what I can get can eliminate the need."

4. Implementation of an action. A person makes efforts in order to carry out actions that ultimately should help in obtaining something to eliminate the need.

5. Receiving a reward. Having carried out certain actions, a person either directly receives what he uses to eliminate the need, or what he can exchange for the object he desires.

6. Eliminate need. Depending on the degree of stress relief and on whether the elimination of the need causes a weakening or strengthening of the motivation for activity, a person either stops the activity until a new need appears, or continues to carry out actions to eliminate the need.

The nature of the motivational process depends on what needs initiate it. However, the needs themselves are in complex interaction with each other, often contradict each other or, on the contrary, reinforce the actions of individual needs. Consequently, even with the most complete knowledge of the motivational structure of a person, the motives of his action, unforeseen changes in a person’s behavior and an unforeseen reaction on his part to motivating influences can occur.

An important factor that makes the motivational process unpredictable is the difference in the motivational structures of individual people, the different degree of influence of the same motives on different people, and the different degree of dependence of the action of some motives on others. In some people, the desire to achieve a result can be very strong, while in others it can be relatively weak. Therefore, a particular motive will have a different effect on people's behavior. Another situation is also possible: two people have an equally strong motive to achieve a result. But for one, this motive dominates over all others, and he will achieve results by any means. For another, this motive is commensurate in strength of action with the motive for complicity in joint actions. In this case, their behavior will be different.

Consideration of the process of motivation is rather conditional, since in real life there is no clear distinction between the stages of motivation. In each specific situation, everything is strictly individual and depends on the prevailing circumstances.

28. TASKS AND WAYS OF MOTIVATION

The role of motivation: is the direct cause of employee behavior.

Motivation - this is the process of inducing a person to a certain activity with the help of intrapersonal and external factors.

Key tasks of motivation:

- promotion of quality work of employees;

- recognition of the work of employees who have achieved significant results;

- the use of various forms of recognition of merit;

- raising the morale of the employee through the recognition of his merits;

- Demonstration of the company's attitude to high results;

- ensuring the process of increasing labor activity.

Types of motivation.

Normative motivation - inducing a person to a certain behavior with the help of ideological and psychological influence: persuasion, suggestion, information, psychological infection, etc.

forced motivation, based on the use of power and the threat of deterioration in the satisfaction of the needs of the employee if he fails to comply with the relevant requirements;

Stimulation - impact on external circumstances with the help of blat, incentives that encourage the employee to a certain behavior.

Normative and coercive motivation are direct methods of motivation, because they imply a direct impact on a person, coercive motivation - stimulation - an indirect way, because it is based on the influence of external factors - incentives.

Prerequisites for the emergence of motives.

1. At the disposal of society there is a set of benefits that correspond to the socially determined needs of a person.

2. To obtain these benefits, labor efforts of a person are necessary, labor activity allows an employee to receive these benefits with less material and moral costs than any other types of activity.

Motive - a predominantly conscious internal motivation of a person to a certain behavior aimed at satisfying certain needs. The actualization of a motive means its transformation into the main impulse of psychological activity, which determines behavior.

The motive characterizes the volitional side of behavior, that is, it is closely connected with the will of a person, it is a predominantly conscious impulse.

The emergence of a motive: is generated by a certain need, which is the ultimate cause of human actions.

Motivation - the process of creating a system of conditions or motives that affect human behavior, directing it in the direction necessary for the organization, regulating its intensity, boundaries, encouraging conscientiousness, perseverance, diligence in achieving goals.

Feature of motives: motives, being a personal motivation for activity, are closely related to the environment of life, since it contains the entire set of potentially possible stimuli. The individuality of a person is reflected in the choice of stimuli.

Types of motives:

1) internal;

2) external.

External motives are determined by a person's desire to possess some objects that do not belong to him or, conversely, to avoid such possession. internal motives are associated with obtaining satisfaction from an object that a person already has that he wants to keep, or the inconvenience that its possession brings, and therefore the desire to get rid of it.

29. D. MACGREGOR'S THEORY OF MOTIVATION

D. McGregor's theory of motivation combines two opposite concepts: theory "X" and theory "Y". The main provisions of the theory "X":

- strict leadership and control are the main methods of management;

- a person tends to avoid work;

- in order to achieve the goals of the organization, it is necessary to force employees to work under the threat of sanctions, while not forgetting about remuneration;

- employees are not very ambitious, afraid of responsibility and want to be led;

- the desire for safety prevails in the behavior of employees.

Negative motivation based on the fear of punishment should prevail in the activities of the leader.

Theory "Y" is complementary to Theory "X" and is based on opposite principles.

The main provisions of the theory "Y":

- with a favorable, successful past experience, employees want to take responsibility;

- in the presence of appropriate conditions, employees form self-discipline and self-control;

- the best means of achieving the goals of the organization - remuneration and personal development;

- unwillingness to work is not an innate quality of an employee, but a consequence of poor working conditions that hinder an innate love for work;

- the labor potential of workers is higher than is usually considered.

The main idea of the theory "Y": it is necessary to provide employees with more freedom to exercise independence and creativity.

"XY-theory" must be applied, taking into account the specific state of the level of consciousness and motivation of workers. The leader should strive to develop the group, if it is not sufficiently motivated, from the state of "X" to the state of "Y" or from the state of "economic man" to "social man".

Modern interpretation of the "Y" theory of Siegert and Lang.

1. Most employees get satisfaction, joy from work, feel responsible for their work, expressing their need for personal involvement in the results of their activities.

2. Any organizational actions must be meaningful.

3. Any employee seeks to express himself in work, to know himself better in business, to show others his capabilities.

4. Each employee has his own point of view on how to improve the results of his activities.

5. Each person strives for success, for the achievement of which the employee makes efforts.

6. The employee wants to prove his worth, as well as the importance of his workplace.

7. Each employee must feel their importance.

8. Employees are very worried if they are punished for showing initiative. The reason for the initiative is often not the pursuit of reward, but the desire for self-expression.

9. Employees evaluate their importance to management in terms of the timeliness and completeness of the information received.

10. A good employee counts on recognition and encouragement, not only material, but also moral.

11. Employees experience dissatisfaction if decisions to change their work are made without their knowledge.

12. Any employee wants to know the criteria for evaluating his work.

13. Control from the outside is unpleasant for any person, in this regard, self-control is important.

14. Most people want to get new knowledge.

15. If an employee has the freedom to choose actions, then he works with full dedication.

30. THE THEORY OF TWO FACTORS F. HERZBERG

F. Herzberg studied two hundred engineers and accountants to identify motivational factors and their strength.

Employees were asked two questions: "Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally good at work?" and "Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work?"

As a result of the study, two groups of factors influencing labor motivation were revealed. Herzberg called the first group of factors hygienic factors, the second - motivators.

By themselves, hygiene factors do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration causes dissatisfaction with work.

When hygiene factors are improved, there is no dissatisfaction, but when such an improvement is perceived by employees as natural, for granted, then there is no satisfaction.

Varieties of hygiene factors: relationships with colleagues, superiors and subordinates; remuneration; leadership abilities; physical working conditions.

Motivators cause satisfaction with work, contribute to a high level of motivation and labor achievements.

Varieties of motivators: achievement of goals, recognition, interesting content of work, independence and responsibility, professional and official growth, opportunities for self-realization.

The boundaries between individual hygiene factors and motivators are relative. So, money in the form of a fixed salary is a hygiene factor, while at the same time, such a motivator as promotion also implies a salary increase.

In order to avoid dissatisfaction with work, the presence of hygienic factors in the usual volume is sufficient, while an increase in labor productivity is achieved with the help of motivators.

The main ideas of F. Herzberg.

1. The existence of motivators can only partially compensate for the absence of hygiene factors.

2. Lack of hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction.

3. Positive maximum motivational impact is achieved with the help of motivators in the presence of hygiene factors.

4. Under normal conditions, the presence of hygiene factors is taken for granted and does not have a motivational effect.

The difference between the model of F. Herzberg: denies simple alternativeness in the impact of various motivational factors on job satisfaction.

The main conclusion from the theory of F. Herzberg: Managers should be very careful about the use of various incentives and, when the lower level needs are sufficiently satisfied, not to emphasize hygiene factors. And they should not waste time and money on using motivators until the hygiene needs of employees are satisfied.

Basic practical recommendations.

1. It is desirable for employees to be given the opportunity to independently schedule their work.

2. They should create conditions for the growth of their own self-esteem and respect.

3. Employees must bear certain liability.

4. Employees must constantly learn about the positive and negative results of their work.

5. Employees should be able to communicate openly and pleasantly with leaders at all levels of management.

6. They must be accountable for their work in the area assigned to them.

31. THE THEORY OF THE HIERARCHY OF NEEDS A. MASLOW

A. Maslow believes that a person is influenced by a whole range of needs that can be combined into several groups, arranging them according to the principle of hierarchy.

Practical application of the theory of A. Mas-low: a leader who knows well the level of needs of his employee can foresee what type of needs will dominate him in the foreseeable future and use the appropriate motivator to increase the efficiency of his work.

Physiological needs - These are the needs for food, clothing, shelter, sleep, rest, sex, etc. Their satisfaction is necessary to maintain life, survival. In an organization, these are the needs for wages, vacations, pensions, work breaks, favorable working conditions, lighting, heating, ventilation, etc. Employees whose behavior is driven by these needs have little interest in the meaning and content of work, they are mainly concerned its payment and terms.

Security Needs - physical and economic security. Security needs reflect the desire to maintain the achieved position, including the level of salary and various benefits, to protect oneself from danger or deprivation. In organizations, these needs are expressed in stable employment, job security, the formation and (or) preservation of trade unions, social insurance, severance pay, etc.

Social needs aimed at communication and emotional connections with others: friendship, love, belonging to a group. In the organization, this is expressed in the fact that they are part of formal and informal groups, one way or another cooperate with fellow workers. A person motivated by social needs considers his work as a part of the activity of the whole team.

Esteem Needs (personal needs). These include needs for both self-respect and respect from others, including the need for prestige, authority, power, promotion. The need for respect from other people directs a person to win and receive social recognition, reputation, status within the group.

Needs for self-realization (self-expression) - the need for creativity, for the implementation of one's own ideas, the realization of individual abilities, the development of personality, including cognitive, aesthetic needs. Needs for self-realization characterize the highest level of manifestation of human activity.

Needs for self-realization are the needs of growth, which can be limitless.

Between all groups of needs there is a hierarchy, a certain relationship, which can be depicted as a pyramid. In the motivation of human behavior, higher needs are actualized, become the main ones and determine the behavior of the employee only after the lower needs are satisfied. Employee satisfaction is achieved when the degree of satisfaction of the need meets his expectations. Otherwise, a feeling of dissatisfaction sets in, which blocks the actualization of higher needs.

32. THE THEORY OF MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS D. MCKLELAND

Douglas McClelland tried to find the most important among the "secondary needs", which become relevant subject to sufficient material security. He believed that any organization gives an employee the opportunity to embody 3 top-level needs: power, success and belonging.

All employees to some extent experience the need for success, power and belonging. But for different people, these needs are expressed in different ways or exist in certain combinations. How they are combined depends on innate qualities, on personal experience, situation and culture of a person. Their needs for power, success and belonging are manifested in the corresponding motives of behavior.

The main motives constant and change only over a long period of time. The main motives are subject to short-term fluctuations.

The main ideas of Douglas McCleland.

1. The need for success not equally expressed in different workers. A person who directs his actions towards achieving success desires autonomy and is ready to bear responsibility for the results of his work. Such employees strive to set realistically achievable goals, to avoid unreasonable risks. They get more satisfaction not from the reward for the work done, but from the process of work itself, especially from its successful completion. Success-oriented employees are more likely than others to achieve it. In the process of motivating employees, the leader must take into account the characteristics of people with a strong need for success, giving them appropriate tasks.

2. Need for power manifests itself in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as in the willingness to be responsible for others. The need for power has a positive effect on the effectiveness of leadership. Therefore, it is reasonable to select people with a pronounced need for power for leadership positions, since such people have high self-control and are more responsible in their work.

3. The need for belonging. It is expressed in the desire to communicate and have friendly relations with other people. Employees with a high need for affiliation excel primarily in tasks that require a high level of social interaction and good interpersonal relationships.

McClelland identified 3 types of managers.

1. Institutional managers - have a high level of self-control. They have a stronger need for power than for group affiliation.

2. Managers in whom the need for power dominates over the need for belonging, but in general people of this type are more open and socially active than institutional managers.

3. Managers in whom the need for belonging dominates the need for power; they are also open and socially active.

Managers of the first two types manage their departments more effectively mainly due to their need for power.

33. MORAL INCENTIVES OF EMPLOYEES

World Health Organization (WHO) in defining health, considered the physical and mental state of a person.

According to the WHO health is a "state of good physical, mental and social well-being" and not merely the absence of disease or injury.

The responsibility for creating good health lies primarily with the individual. Health care reflects the ability and desire of the individual to be responsible for himself.

The head of the organization should try not to endanger the health of employees. He is responsible for ensuring that the safety regulations are known to everyone in their area of activity and that they comply with them. The manager should not trust his employees with work that does not correspond to their state of health.

Physical condition control.

Maintaining physical fitness has a strengthening effect on human health. Physical activity is a form of relieving mental pressure. Physical fatigue makes mental activity brighter and clearer, the mental mood intensifies, and a new angle of view of difficult questions is found. But it is necessary to create conditions so that sports do not become a new reason for stress.

In recent years, the human body and brain wear out ahead of time, because they are not trained and not given sufficient load.

Mental state control. Taking care of your mental health also means taking care of your mental health. The deterioration of the mental state is manifested in mental discomfort. A tired person withdraws into himself and has little interest in work. If this situation continues for a long time, then it is possible that the mental balance will be completely lost. In this regard, it is necessary that mental disorders be detected at an early stage.

Balance is central to mental health. A mentally healthy person has the ability to transmit and perceive feelings and experiences. He can do the work and enjoy what he has achieved. In addition, mental health includes the ability to bear losses.

In general, mental health means the ability to maintain balance regardless of change. No person can be balanced in all life situations.

Human relationships have a great influence on mental well-being. Frank and close human relationships create a sense of security and make it possible to start any, even problematic, plans and implement them.

Rest and sleep have an impact not only on mood, but also on mental health. A calm and uninterrupted night's sleep is one of the main prerequisites for spiritual cheerfulness. Do not work at night, as this will adversely affect the results.

Hobbies and leisure provide an opportunity to increase mental alertness. Finding time for yourself and for your hobbies, a person makes his life richer and more interesting. Free time helps to relax, unwind and get a charge of vivacity and strength for work.

34. CONTROL FUNCTION

Control It is a process of comparing the actual results achieved with the planned ones.

Control - management activities aimed at identifying, correcting and preventing deviations of the achieved results from the intended settings, parameters, goals.

Control options: allows to carry out a corrective impact on the control object, ensures the effective implementation of the goal.

Control Feature: serves as a means of implementing feedback, timely taking measures to influence the managed object, changing plans or goals.

Control tasks: provides feedback between the expectations set by the original plans and the true performance of the company.

Feature of control systems: they correlate actual achievements with predicted performance, after which deviations are determined in order to either correct the negative consequences or increase the effect if the results are positive.

Main stages of control:

- measurement of actually obtained results;

- setting standards, benchmarks to be achieved;

- comparison of the achieved indicators with the planned ones.

Types of control.

1. Preliminary control. Completed prior to actual commencement of work. The main means of performing preliminary control is the implementation of established rules, procedures and lines of conduct. When exercising preliminary control, it is possible to detect and anticipate deviations from the standards at various points.

Varieties of preliminary control:

- diagnostic control includes concepts such as meters, standards, warning signals, etc., indicating that something is not right in the organization;

- therapeutic control allows not only to detect deviations from the standards, but also to take corrective measures.

2. current control implemented in the process of work, allows you to exclude deviations from the plans and instructions. Managers need feedback to exercise ongoing control. All feedback systems have goals, use external resources for internal use, monitor deviations to achieve these goals.

3. Final control. The purpose of the final control is to help prevent errors in the future. In the process of final control, feedback is used after the work is done.

Possibilities for final control: provides management with information for planning in case similar work is proposed to be carried out in the future and contributes to motivation.

The control function is not the last stage of the entire process of managing an organization. In practice, such a final destination does not exist at all, since any managerial function is driven by another. High-level managers spend most of their working time on planning and control functions, while lower-level managers devote more time to recruiting and organizing their work. But at all levels of management, they use and perform all 4 management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control.

35. MAIN STAGES OF CONTROL

The first stage of the control process - definition of standards, i.e. specific, measurable goals. For management, standards should be created in the form of indicators of the effectiveness of the management object for all its main areas.

The second stage - measuring the actual results achieved by the organization and personnel.

The third stage - comparison of performance indicators with established standards, determination of the scope of permissible deviations from established norms.

Only significant deviations from established standards should lead to corrective action. Such actions include: changing the internal variables of the system, modifying standards, or non-interference in the operation of the system.

When implementing the control procedure, the manager must take into account the behavior of people. Monitoring the actions of employees can have both positive and negative effects on them. In some cases, control can lead to the issuance of incorrect information.

As a result of control highlight three main points:

- formation of standards and criteria;

- measurement of real performance results;

- comparison of real results and planned ones. The main characteristics of effective control.

1. The strategic direction of control is the display and maintenance of the overall priorities of the organization.

2. Compliance with the process. Control should impartially measure and evaluate what is important for the organization at a particular stage of its development.

3. Focus on results. The ultimate goal of control is to gather information, define standards, and discover problems in order to solve the problems facing the organization. Effective control contributes to the achievement of goals.

4. Simplicity. Effective control must be appropriate to the needs and capabilities of the personnel interacting with and implementing the control system.

5. Control must be sufficiently flexible and adapt to changes in the environment and within the organization.

6. Timeliness of measurements or assessments.

7. Profitability. It is necessary to clearly monitor the costs of control in the organization.

8. Control should be carried out not only by the head, but also by the staff of the organization, i.e. The best control is self-control. To increase the reliability of control, it is necessary to expand the boundaries of the authority of personnel.

Implementation of control in organizations engaged in international activities. Control in such organizations is a rather complicated procedure and has its own specific features. First of all, because of the large number of different areas of activity and communication barriers. The effectiveness of control is greatly enhanced if meetings of responsible managers are periodically organized at the headquarters of the organization and abroad. It is necessary to take into account the fact that foreign managers should not be held responsible for solving those problems that they do not deal with and do not know their specifics and features.

36. MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING SYSTEM "DIRECT-COSTING"

The main idea of the management accounting system "direct costing" is the division of all costs into fixed and variable. Moreover, only variable costs are included in production costs.

The production cost of manufactured and sold products consists of variable production costs, directly dependent on the technological process and organization of production. In addition, according to variable costs, the balances of finished products in the warehouse at the beginning and end of the reporting period, as well as work in progress are estimated.

Fixed costs are not directly related to the production process and therefore are not included in the production cost of production. Fixed costs are compiled on a separate account and after the expiration of the reporting period are fully written off to reduce the profit from the sale of products received in this reporting period.

Margin profit is the difference between sales revenue and variable costs.

Margin profit is the portion of revenue remaining to cover fixed costs and generate profits.

Advantages of the management accounting system "direct costing".

1. The "direct costing" accounting system allows you to analyze in detail and qualitatively the dependencies between production costs (cost), production volume, marginal income (the sum of fixed costs and profits) and profit.

2. The system pays great attention to the forms of dependence of costs on the volume of production or capacity utilization, allows you to find products with higher or lower profitability compared to the average level, provides information that allows you to quickly reorient production in accordance with changes in the market.

3. The system "direct-costing" allows you to solve the strategic tasks of managing the organization.

4. The system provides data for:

- development of an investment and innovation program (reduction or diversification of production capacities, purchase of new equipment, etc.);

- resolving issues of establishing and regulating prices for products, both just produced and already sold on the market;

- optimization of the production program according to the criterion of maximum marginal income;

- making decisions about receiving an additional order, etc.

5. An essential advantage of the "direct costing" system is the possibility of using it to organize reliable and high-quality cost control.

Advantages of the management accounting system "direct costing" are associated with a small number of costing elements and items, which allows you to strengthen control over the expenditure of variable costs.

Disadvantages of the management accounting system "direct costing":

- discrepancy between the size of the real cost of manufactured products and the indicators of the "reduced" cost, calculated according to the items of variable costs, which significantly reduces the reliability of accounting;

- material misstatement of the total profit for the current period;

- difficulty in determining the nomenclature of calculation elements or dividing costs into variable and fixed;

- discrepancy between the results of financial accounting and the results of production accounting.

37. STRATEGY AND ITS FEATURES

The history of the term. Initially, the term "strategy" referred to the role of a person (army commander). Later, the concept acquired a new meaning - "the art of military command", that is, it characterized the psychological and behavioral skills necessary to fulfill the role of a commander. Subsequently, this term began to denote any management skills and the creation of a unified system of comprehensive management.

The most popular is the following definition Strategy are management plans to achieve long-term results consistent with the goals and objectives of the organization.

The main components of an effective organization strategy.

1. The main goals of the organization and possible ways to achieve them.

2. The most significant policy elements that direct or limit the scope of activities.

3. The sequence of main actions aimed at achieving the set goals and not going beyond the chosen policy.

Features of strategic planning.

1. Effective strategies are formed around several basic concepts and directions, which gives them coherence, balance and a certain focus. Some directions are temporary, others remain until the end of the strategy implementation. The activities of all departments of the organization must be coordinated in such a way that the organization adheres to a common, predetermined course of action for its further development and achievement of a stable position in the market and the implementation of efficient and profitable activities.

2. The essence of the strategy is to build a position strong enough (and potentially flexible) for the organization to achieve its goals despite the obstacles of the internal and external environment of the organization. Actions should be identified to eliminate or minimize the effects of these interferences.

3. In any large organization, there must be a hierarchy of interrelated and mutually supporting strategies. Each of these strategies should be more or less complete and correspond to the established level of decentralization. However, each of these strategies must be aligned with higher-level strategies. It is essential that every well-thought-out strategy includes a systematic review of all its constituent components. This is necessary in order to monitor progress in the early stages of activities and to correct and eliminate shortcomings in a timely manner.

Varieties of strategic planning.

1. Strategic planning from the bottom up the company's management puts forward strategic ideas and develops a general development forecast, and the planning department establishes a single form of planning documents, methods of calculations and economic justifications, and also coordinates the work of structural units. This procedure is most often used in large joint-stock companies.

2. Top-down strategic planning the planning department informs the workshops and industries of the initial information for the development of plans and sets tasks for the most important indicators (sales volume, spending limit, profit).

38. STRATEGIC PLANNING

Strategic planning - this is the basis of the strategic management of an enterprise, the establishment of directions for the organization's activities for certain periods of time (most often from a year to 10 years).

In the 70-90s. XNUMXth century many organizations have chosen the path of decentralization of management and on-farm planning. The planning of scientific and technical (research, development of new generations of equipment and basic technologies) and financial policy (investments, loans, issue of shares, purchase and sale of property and securities in significant amounts) remained in the responsibility of the management of companies.

Strategic planning at the macro level engages in forecasting structural shifts and basic proportions in the economy of the country as a whole or its large region.

Strategic planning at the micro level - development of the scientific and technical level of production and competitiveness of the company as a whole, assessment of investments, their payback, profit and its distribution, as well as assessment of the production process of specific goods from the purchase of raw materials to the sale of finished products and services.

The main purpose of planning - coordination of various directions of development of the company in predetermined periods of time.

Implementation of a plan - a means of effective organization of the organization. The plan should be adjusted to reflect market conditions. The performance of departments is assessed not by the percentage of fulfillment, let alone overfulfillment of plans, but by the fulfillment of delivery schedules, product quality (the number of defects per 100 products), the use of production capacity, the level and dynamics of production costs and profits (at intracompany settlement prices for parts, semi-finished products , services, etc.).

Composition of the strategic plan:

1) a long-term forecast for 6-15 years (a reasonable probabilistic assumption about changes in the structure and demands of the market, equipment and technology, production and their socio-economic consequences);

2) development plan for 3-5 years, broken down by years;

3) targeted programs for solving the most important problems.

The structure of the strategic 5-year plan.

1. Development goals of the organization.

2. Investments and renewal of production.

3. Directions for improving the use of resources.

4. Improving management.

5. Problems of increasing the competitiveness of the organization and ways to solve them.

6. Distribution of resources between the structural units of the company and the strategic projects of the organization.

7. Perspective landmarks of the company and tasks for its structural units in terms of production efficiency.

Stages of strategic planning at the enterprise.

1. Forecast of the development of the organization based on marketing research and assessment of its competitiveness.

2. Disclosure of the main problems that hold the improvement of market positions, substantiation of options for their resolution, assessment of the likely consequences of a particular choice.

3. Development of a long-term plan that sets development goals and related regulatory indicators.

4. Target programs for strategic areas of management.

39. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POINTS OF THE STRATEGY

Key features of the strategy.

1. "Strategy characterizes the organization."

Positive moment: strategy outlines the nature of the organization and shows its distinctive features. The strategy allows you to consider how the organization conducts business.

Negative point: the characterization of an organization through its strategy may be too simplistic, leaving the scope and complexity of the system unnoticed.

2. "Strategy sets the direction."

Positive moment: the main meaning of the strategy is to direct the organization on the right course of development in the existing conditions of the external and internal environment of the organization.

Negative point: a strategic course can hide potential dangers by assessing the situation as a whole and not taking into account some features associated with detailed consideration of some particularly important points.

3. "The strategy coordinates the efforts of the organization."

Positive moment: the strategy contributes to the coordination of the activities of the organization as a whole and the coordination of the activities of its individual divisions.

Negative point: too much coordination of efforts can lead to overlooking the new opportunities of the organization.

4. "The strategy provides the logic."

Positive moment: strategy contributes to the elimination of uncertainty and provides order in the management of the organization.

Negative point: any strategy, as well as any theory, is a simplification that distorts reality, because it does not consider in detail the main points in the management of the organization, but highlights only the general direction of the organization's actions.

The role of strategy for the organization. With the adoption of the strategy, the main problems are removed, and people, having decided on the main thing, pay attention to the details. The leader should use all means available to him as the head of the organization to strengthen the existing prospect of developing contacts in order to obtain important information, negotiate and conclude contracts in order to strengthen the won positions, etc.

Features of the application of strategy in the organization. The constant change in the external environment entails changes in market niches, contributes to the development of new opportunities. Thanks to this, everything that was constructive and effective in the adopted strategy can eventually turn into almost its opposite.

Support in the implementation of the strategy implies the ability to respond in a timely manner to changes in the external environment. Any change is very costly for an organization, especially when it comes to not just upgrading outdated equipment, but also changes in the usual way of thinking. The intellectual features of the strategy very often make it difficult for the management of the organization to realize the fact that its views and plans have lost relevance. All of the above convinces of the vital role of strategy and strategic management for the organization, since it forms the long-term course of the enterprise for a long period of time.

40. DEFECTS OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

The main disadvantages of strategic management.

1. Strategic management cannot give an accurate and detailed picture of the future. The description of the predicted future of the organization created in strategic management is not a detailed description of its internal state and position in the external environment, but a set of requirements for the state in which the organization should be in the future.

2. Strategic management cannot be reduced to a system of general rules, procedures and schemes. There is no concept that shows what and how to do when solving certain problems or in certain situations.

Strategic management - this is a certain ideology of business and management, which is understood by each manager in his own way.

There are a number of guidelines, rules, and logic diagrams for problem analysis and strategy selection, as well as the implementation of strategic planning and the practical execution of the strategy.

Strategic management in practice - this:

- high professionalism and creativity of employees;

- combination of intuition and art of top managers to lead the organization to strategic goals;

- the inclusion of all employees in the implementation of the tasks of the organization and the search for optimal ways to achieve its goals.

3. Great efforts and expenditures of time and resources are needed for the strategic management process to work in the organization.

It is necessary to introduce and execute strategic planning, as well as the creation of services that analyze the environment and include the organization in the marketing environment, public relations, etc.

4. The negative consequences of errors in strategic forecasts are greatly increasing. In the case when absolutely new products are created in the shortest possible time, the directions of investments change dramatically, when new business opportunities suddenly appear and opportunities that have existed for many years disappear, the price of retribution for an incorrect forecast and, accordingly, for mistakes in strategic choice is very often fatal for organizations. It can also happen if the organization has chosen a non-alternative and unchangeable path of its development.

5. When implementing strategic management, very often the main emphasis is placed on strategic planning. But this is not enough, since the strategic plan does not ensure its mandatory successful implementation. The central component of strategic management is the implementation of the strategic plan. This involves the creation of an organizational culture that allows you to implement a strategy, think over systems for motivating employees and organizing working conditions, etc.

In strategic management, the implementation process has an active feedback effect on planning, which further increases the importance of the execution phase. In this regard, the organization will not be able to move to strategic management, even if it has a very good strategic planning subsystem, but does not have the ability to implement the strategy.

41. IMPLEMENTING THE STRATEGY

After developing the organization's strategy and its consolidation in the strategic plan (and sometimes in parallel with this stage), the implementation of specific measures aimed at achieving the strategic goals of the company begins.

Feature of the strategy implementation process in that it is not a process of its implementation, but only organizes the basis for the implementation of the strategy and the achievement of the company's goals.

Sometimes there are situations when organizations are unable to implement the chosen strategy.

Reasons for not implementing the strategy:

- incorrect analysis and, accordingly, incorrect conclusions;

- unforeseen changes in the external environment of the organization;

- management is unable to use the organization's existing capacity to implement the strategy. This is especially true for the use of human potential.

Implementation of the strategy - this is the implementation of strategic changes in the organization, transferring it to a position in which the organization will be ready to implement the strategy in life. Effectively organized implementation of strategies is of higher importance than the quality of the strategies themselves.

The separate use of any of the methods of strategic management provides certain benefits, but does not allow using the full potential of each specific method, which can only be implemented together with other strategic management tools.

The use of one or two methods separately brings only a local effect and most often causes disappointment in strategic management in general.

For the successful operation of the organization in modern conditions, it is necessary not to separate, but to use the elements of strategic management in a complex way.

In the process of implementing strategies, each level of management solves its assigned tasks and performs the functions assigned to it. The process of implementing strategies should be considered as a component of strategic management.

For the effective implementation of the strategy, it is necessary to perform the following basic management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control.

Implementation of the chosen strategy may require a significant restructuring of the company's management system in the following areas:

- business processes (management procedures);

- organizational structures (distribution of powers);

- the way of thinking and behavior of managers and employees (reorientation from the formal execution of instructions to the achievement of strategic goals).

When creating a strategic management system, changes should be made in the organization, which at first may be negatively perceived. The transition to strategic behavior requires a rethinking of the activities of the organization by everyone who works in it. Consequently, the lack of awareness by the management and employees of the company of the need for effective management of the organization and the lack of appropriate measures for organizational change can make any intentions to improve the management of the organization ineffective.

42. COMPARISON OF STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT

The main features by which strategic and operational management differ.

1. The nature of the problems to be solved. Strategic problems are most often unstructured. Operational problems tend to be structured and often have analogues.

2. The degree of risk. The risk in making strategic decisions is much higher compared to the possible losses from incorrect operational decisions, which is explained by the difficulty in the current assessment of the results of the implementation of the strategy, which become apparent when the negative consequences cannot be eliminated without great damage.

3. Regularity. The creation of a strategy is an ongoing and irregular process. The need to refine the strategy arises mainly in cases of crisis situations, fresh ideas, and opportunities. Operational decisions are made more regularly and under certain conditions. The process of making tactical decisions is most often a cyclical process with a predetermined time schedule.

4. Uncertainty. The level of uncertainty in the creation and implementation of a strategy is much higher than in the approval of operational decisions.

5. Time frame. Strategies are created for a relatively long period of time. Faster solutions cover shorter time periods.

6. Alternative solutions. The number of possible alternatives that must be taken into account when making strategic decisions is much greater than in the process of operational management.

7. development level. The strategy is created at the highest level of company management, at the headquarters and main offices of companies. Operational decisions are developed at lower levels of company management.

8. Information component. A large amount of information is required to create a strategy. It is necessary to take into account a large number of different data containing information about the environment of the organization. Information for operational decisions is mainly internal information of the company and describes events that have already occurred.

9. Subordination. Strategic decisions are the basis for making operational decisions. Tactics are created within the framework of adopted strategies and are carried out to achieve strategic goals.

10. Involvement of personnel in decision making. Operational decisions are created and implemented by middle management personnel. Strategic decisions are made by the top management of the company.

11. Detail. The strategy is formulated globally and is much less detailed than operational decisions.

12. Evaluation of the effectiveness of decisions. The effectiveness of the adopted strategies is more difficult to evaluate than the results of the implementation of operational decisions. Often the consequences of strategic decisions appear only after a certain amount of time. The consequences of operational decisions are most often close to the moment the decision is made and therefore predictable.

13. Interests prevailing in decision making. Strategic decisions are subordinated to corporate interests. When creating operational solutions, the functional aspects of the problem are taken into account first of all.

43. STRATEGIC ALTERNATIVES AND THEIR FEATURES

Any organization faces 4 main strategic alternatives, although there are a large number of variations of each of these alternatives.

1. Limited growth. The strategic alternative followed by most companies is associated with limited growth. For a limited growth strategy, it is common to set goals from the achieved position, modified to take into account inflation.

2. Growth. The growth strategy is implemented by annually significantly increasing short-term and long-term goals and indicators above the level of indicators of the previous year. The growth strategy is the second most frequently chosen alternative. It is used in dynamically developing industries with rapidly changing technologies and a high level of scientific and technological progress.

Varieties of growth: internal and external.

Internal growth can be driven by expanding the range of products. External growth can occur in related industries in the form of vertical or horizontal growth. Growth can lead to amalgamation of firms in unrelated industries. In recent years, the most popular form of growth has been corporate mergers.

3. Reduction. The alternative that executives are least likely to choose, and sometimes referred to as the strategy of last resort, is the reduction strategy.

Feature of the strategy: the level of accepted goals is set lower than that achieved in the past. For a large number of companies, downsizing can mean the best way to streamline and refocus operations.

Factors influencing the strategic choice:

is the time factor. It can contribute to the success or failure of the organization, because the implementation of a good idea at the wrong time will not give the expected results;

- risk. It is necessary to establish an acceptable level of risk in the organization and strictly adhere to this acceptable norm and monitor its deviations;

- reaction to the owner. There are cases when the owner of the company influences the decisions of the hired management when choosing a certain strategic alternative;

- Evaluation of the strategies used by the company in the past. Very often there are situations when the management of the company is consciously or unconsciously influenced by the strategies chosen by the organization in the past.

Reduction alternatives.

1. Liquidation.

2. Cutting off the excess.

3. Reduction and reorientation. The reduction is used mainly when the performance of the company is constantly deteriorating, in the event of an economic downturn.

4. Combination. Strategies for combining all alternatives are used most often by large firms that are active in several industries. A combination strategy is a combination of any of the three strategies: limited growth, growth, and contraction.

Strategy selection: For effective strategy selection, the leader needs to have a vision of the organization's future. The decision must be carefully weighed and assessed all the advantages and disadvantages.

44. MISSION OF THE ORGANIZATION

Mission - this is the meaning of the existence of the organization, which expresses the difference between this organization and others, its social role.

Key elements that make up the mission of the organization.

1. Definition of all areas of activity in which the organization plans to work.

2. Strategic goals that the organization sets, the definition of key indicators that the organization seeks to achieve in the future.

3. Competence of personnel and competitive advantages. The mission establishes the essence of corporate values. These values include special knowledge and skills.

4. Circle of influence. The mission identifies groups of individuals and organizations, cooperation with which contributes to the development of the organization.

5. The main activities of the organization.

6. The main competitive advantages that the organization plans to achieve in the future. It is also necessary to identify the main shortcomings that are planned to be eliminated in the first place.

Tasks that the organization's mission contributes to.

1. Express what the organization is for.

2. Determine how the organization differs from other organizations operating in the same market.

3. Determine the criterion for evaluating the actions carried out in the organization.

4. Coordinate the interests of all persons associated with the organization.

5. Contribute to the creation of a favorable corporate atmosphere.

Creating a mission allows you to establish what a particular organization exists for. As a rule, the mission remains the same throughout the entire life cycle of the organization.

Mission Statement Form: the mission can be formulated both in the form of a single phrase, and in the form of a policy statement by the top management of the organization.

The mission can be used as a representative document for inclusion in the company's annual report to shareholders and as an intra-company founding document.

Feature: the main condition for formulating the mission is understanding and acceptance by the company's personnel. In this regard, it is desirable to involve company employees in the mission development process.

Factors to consider when creating a mission:

- the state of the external and internal environment of the organization;

- history of the organization;

- the resources that the organization uses to achieve its goals;

- existing style of activity;

- distinctive features of the organization.

Preliminary mission statement An idea expressed in one sentence about what an organization does or wants to do.

Very often there are situations when it is impossible to formulate the mission of the organization. This suggests that the enterprise is not balanced, it does not have common goals within the organization, the interests of various groups are not interconnected, the organization has not identified priority areas for development. This situation is most often encountered if there are several divisions of the company working in different directions and not having clearly defined goals and objectives, as well as inconsistency in the work of the organization's personnel.

45. INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

Internal environment - a set of characteristics of the organization and its internal subjects (strengths, weaknesses of its elements and connections between them) that affect the position and prospects of the company.

Components of the internal environment: tasks and structure of the organization, mission, strategy, goals, distribution of functions, resources, intellectual capital, management style, values, culture of the organization.

Analysis of the internal environment is a methodological assessment of an organization designed to identify its strategic strengths and weaknesses, including five main elements.

1. Marketing. When considering marketing activities, attention should be paid to the following main points:

- market demographic statistics;

- the market share occupied by the organization;

- variety and quality of product range;

- effective sales of products;

- market research and development;

- competitiveness of the organization;

- pre-sales and after-sales customer service;

- advertising and promotion of goods.

2. Finance / Accounting. An analysis of the financial condition includes a financial audit of the company, considers the process of exercising the financial control of the organization. Attention should be paid to whether the organization uses its own or borrowed funds, what is its balance sheet profit, whether there are arrears in remuneration of employees. A detailed analysis of the financial condition helps to identify existing and potential internal weaknesses in the organization, as well as the position of the organization in comparison with competing firms.

3. Operations. A necessary component for the sustainable functioning of the company in the market is the constant analysis of the management of operations taking place in the company. It is necessary to consider the technological and organizational features of this process.

4. Human resources. The staff of the organization is one of the important components of the internal environment. When analyzing it, it is necessary to take into account the level of competence and professional qualifications of both management and ordinary employees, as well as consider the leadership style present in the organization. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the assessment of the activities of the organization's personnel, as well as their participation in management and decision-making. Weaknesses must then be identified and appropriate corrective actions taken.

5. Culture and image of the company. The culture of an organization includes the customs, mores, expectations in the organization, and the atmosphere that reigns in it. The image of the company, both inside and outside the organization, is the impression that it creates with the help of employees, customers and public opinion in general. This impression encourages customers to buy products from companies with a positive image. The task of employees is to constantly maintain this image. To do this, the company's management must convey to the employees the mission and goals of the company's activities and explain their importance and significance, as well as determine a set of actions to achieve the tasks assigned to employees.

46. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ORGANIZATION

Any organization is located and operates in the external environment, which is the source of resources for the organization. In turn, the organization itself directs the results of its activities to the external environment. The organization and the external environment are in constant relationship and interaction.

External factors influence all elements and processes within organizations. They can be divided into two groups: factors of the general external environment (macro-environment factors) and factors of the direct (business) environment of organizations.

Macro-environment factors that create the conditions for the environment where the organization is located:

1) economic, characterizing the state of the country's economy (GDP value, inflation rate, unemployment rate, natural resources, climate, labor force education level, wages);

2) legal, a set of laws and other regulations that establish legal norms and the framework of relations, as well as their practical implementation (allows you to determine the permissible boundaries of actions and relationships with other subjects);

3) political, determining the direction and methods of development of society (the dominant political ideology, the stability of the government, the strength of the opposition);

4) social phenomena and processes (people's attitude to work and quality of life, values, traditions and national characteristics, the demographic structure of society, the level of education);

5) technological, determined by the development of scientific and technological progress (scientific and technical developments, innovations, modernization of production).

The degree of influence of individual factors on different organizations is not equivalent (due to the size of organizations, geographical location, industry affiliation), so it is necessary to rank the factors according to the degree of their influence on the organization and conduct appropriate monitoring of them.

Factors in the immediate environment of the organization:

1) buyers. The study of buyers allows the organization to find out which product, in what volume, will be most in demand, how wide the circle of buyers is and whether it is possible to expand production and marketing of products, the competitiveness of products;

2) suppliers. Studying the activities and potential of suppliers allows the organization to ensure the efficiency of its work, reduce the likelihood of dependence on unscrupulous suppliers, ensure the required level of cost and product quality;

3) competitors. With them, the organization is fighting for resources, markets. It is important to take into account the success of both intra-industry competitors and competitors that produce replacement products. The organization can ensure the growth of its own competitiveness by deepening specialization, reducing costs, using the features of products and production, etc.;

4) labor market provides the organization with personnel of the necessary specialty and qualification, level of education, etc.

Environmental factors are characterized by complexity and dynamism.

The complexity of the external environment is determined by how many factors affect the functioning of the organization and how similar these factors are to each other.

The dynamism of the external environment is characterized by how quickly the factors influencing the functioning of the organization change.

47. MANAGEMENT DECISION AND ITS FEATURES

Management decision is a conscious choice among the available options and alternatives of a course of action that bridges the gap between the present and future desired state of the organization. This is a type of managerial work, a set of interrelated, purposeful and logically consistent managerial actions that ensure the implementation of managerial tasks.

Making managerial decisions organization is characterized as:

- conscious and purposeful activity carried out by a person;

- behavior based on facts and value orientations;

- the process of interaction between members of the organization;

- choice of alternatives within the framework of the social and political state of the organizational environment;

- part of the overall management process;

- an inevitable part of a manager's daily work;

- essential for the performance of all other management functions.

When making any decision, there are three points: intuition, judgment and rationality.

Organizational decision is a choice that a leader must make in order to fulfill the responsibilities of the position. The purpose of an organizational decision is to ensure movement towards the tasks set for the organization. Organizational decisions can be divided into two groups: programmed and non-programmed.

В programmed solution the number of possible alternatives is limited, the choice must be made within the directions given by the organization.

Unprogrammed decisions - these are decisions that require new situations to a certain extent; they are not internally structured or are associated with unknown factors.

Intuitive Solutions is a choice made only on the basis of the feeling that it is correct. As a rule, intuition is aggravated along with the acquisition of experience. Judgment-based decisions are similar in many ways to intuitive ones, but they are based not only on intuition, but also on knowledge and accumulated experience.

Rational Decisions based on the study of the economic laws of the functioning of market relations, the laws of organization; on the application of scientific approaches in the analysis, forecasting and economic justification of management decisions.

Since decisions are made by people, their character reflects the personality of the manager. In this regard, balanced, impulsive, inert, risky and cautious decisions are distinguished.

Authors impulsive decisions they easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly verify, evaluate, refine them.

Inert solutions are the result of a careful search. In them, control and refinement activities prevail over the generation of ideas, so they are not original.

risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need a thorough substantiation of their hypotheses.

Cautious Decisions are characterized by the thoroughness of the manager's assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business.

48. SYSTEMATIZATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

The defining moment of the systematization of management decisions are the conditions in which the decision is made, in this regard, all decisions are divided into:

- decisions taken under conditions of certainty when the manager is confident in the results of each of the alternatives;

- decisions taken in an environment of risk (uncertainty), here the manager can determine the probability of success for each alternative.

Depending on the field of activity, there are:

- economic decisions answering the questions: what to produce, in what quantities, what level of production costs will be optimal, what benefits the production will bring to the investor and society as a whole;

- organizational answer the questions: where to geographically locate production, what premises will be required for this, what will be the need for personnel;

- technical solve the problem of choosing a production technology, technical equipment of production units and their improvement;

- communicative involve measures to establish, maintain and improve the organization's relations with the subjects of the external environment. By expiration date The consequences of the decision are long-term, medium-term and short-term.

Based on the impact on development prospects distinguish: operational, tactical and strategic management decisions.

By frequency of acceptance one-time (random) and recurring ones are distinguished.

By breadth of coverage - General (concerning all employees) and highly specialized management decisions.

By functional purpose allocate organizational, coordinating, regulating, activating and controlling.

According to the form of preparation, individual, group and collective decisions are distinguished. When making individual decisions, most of the decisions in the organization are made at the highest level of management.

With a group and collective approach, management decisions are made jointly with employees and delegated to management levels.

By difficulty level: simple and complex solutions.

According to the severity of the regulation:

- contour, which only approximately indicate the scheme of action of subordinates and give them a wide scope for choosing techniques and methods for their implementation;

- structured ones imply strict regulation of the actions of subordinates, and the initiative can manifest itself only when solving secondary issues;

- algorithmic extremely rigidly regulate the activities of subordinates and practically exclude the initiative.

By direction of management decisions objects, they are divided into external and internal solutions. However, the managerial decision cannot change the factors of the external environment. An external management decision is designed to correct the organization's connections with the outside world in the interests of fulfilling the mission or achieving the goals of the organization.

According to the degree of uniqueness All management decisions are divided into routine (non-creative) and unique (creative) decisions.

According to the method of formalization and presentation management decisions can be in the form of a text document, graphical or mathematical model.

The developed management decisions are communicated to the performers and stakeholders by way of transmission verbal, written and electronic management decisions.

49. FACTORS INFLUENCING MANAGEMENT DECISION-MAKING

To make managerial decisions influenced by the following groups of factors.

1. Category problem being solved:

- standard issues, the solution of which requires strict adherence to certain standards. The main role should be played by skills and abilities;

- typical problems are solved on the basis of a set of specific, predetermined rules, in the course of solving it is necessary to choose a specific, often the only set of rules from the existing set that allows you to succeed;

- heuristic problems when solving which you need to either find somewhere, or formulate the rules for solving them yourself with their subsequent use.

2. Terms of Use:

- quasi-stable, or favorable conditions - no unforeseen situations arise before the specialist, he stays in a normal calm environment;

- extreme, i.e. conditions when a specialist is required to show all his qualities, and they will be used to judge his professional suitability;

- crisis conditions, i.e. when unforeseen situations arise that lead or may lead to disruption of normal performance indicators (leading to accidents, catastrophes and similar phenomena).

3. Sufficiency of initial information:

- if the initial information is insufficient, it is necessary to find or synthesize the initial information that will achieve the desired goal;

- sufficient amount of initial information;

- with an excessive amount of initial information, a specialist should be able to identify only the necessary information and use only it.

4. Reliability of initial information:

- clearly unreliable, not corresponding to the conditions of the task, to identify the unreliability of which is not difficult;

- pseudo-reliable, corresponding to the conditions of the problem, but containing such information that does not allow obtaining the correct solution of the original problem;

- completely reliable corresponding to the conditions of the problem and allowing to obtain the correct solution of the original problem.

5. Scale of the problem:

- global problems - the vital activity of entire regions, the entire planet as a whole depends on their solution;

- local problems - the life activity of a small group of people, an individual person depends on their decision;

- micro-local problems - the specific act of an individual depends on their decision.

6. Technical equipment:

- absent when there are no necessary technical means to solve the problem;

- available in insufficient volume for sustainable and high-quality decision-making;

- is available in abundance.

Universal factors can be supplemented by others depending on the goal, emerging problems, conditions for their solution. These include:

- consequences of the problem (capital intensity, efficiency, impact on something);

- impact on the organization (consequences of the decision);

- urgency of the problem and time constraints;

- the degree of use of the manager's abilities and time;

- attention to the problem (motivation and ability of the participants);

- the degree of support for solving the problem from the outside;

- the life cycle of the problem (can the problem be solved by itself or in the course of solving other problems).

50. MAIN PROPERTIES OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

Under the quality of management decisions is understood as a set of decision parameters that ensure their successful implementation. As part of the properties of management decisions, the following are distinguished:

1) validity as the need to take into account the totality of factors and conditions associated with the development of a solution. This is its comprehensive balance in terms of time, resources and goals: if the wrong goals are chosen, the error will show up quickly, and adjustments are easy to make. Implementers must be convinced that the decision is justified;

2) timeliness as the need to overcome, eliminate, mitigate the emerging contradiction. The timeliness of the decision is determined by the stage at which it is taken: at the very beginning, when the conflict is just emerging and it can be eliminated without great expense; at a time when it has matured and acquired sharp, open forms and large losses and costs are already inevitable, or at a stage when nothing can be changed and it remains only to calculate the losses and punish the "switchmen";

3) economical solution - these are high end results at the lowest cost, the materialization of an advanced management concept in the choice of strategic directions, driving forces and timing;

4) efficiency, i.e. decision-making should most fully ensure the achievement of the goal set by the organization;

5) feasibility, i.e., the decision must be realistically feasible, and unrealistic abstract decisions cannot be made. The decision made must correspond to the forces and means of the team that implements it. Additional parameters-requirements can be the following: consistency, specificity, eligibility, etc.

These properties of managerial decisions make it possible to objectively answer the following questions:

- what to do (what new needs of consumers need to be satisfied or at what qualitative level it is necessary to satisfy old needs)?

- how to do (what technology)?

- with what production costs to do?

- in what quantity and in what time frame?

- where (location, production facility, staff)?

- to whom to deliver and at what price?

- what will it give the investor and society as a whole? Objective economic conditions development of high-quality management decisions are the following:

- knowledge by the leader, manager of objective trends in the development of the management object and the ability to use them for the benefit of the organization;

- orientation in the general goals of the development of the economy of the country, region, city and, based on this, the definition of the specific tasks of their organization;

- the ability to respond in a timely manner to a changing situation and to new tasks put forward by the market, the economic policy of the state, region, etc. to the quality level Management decisions are influenced by two groups of factors:

- situational factors, associated with the awareness of the problem: they act before making a decision and consist in the ability to formulate a problem, predict the consequences;

- behavioral factors: management style of the head, political and socio-economic environment, social and legal norms, motives and interests, qualifications and personal characteristics of the head.

In achieving the effectiveness of decisions, a special role is played by the methods of bringing the decisions made to the executor.

51. MANAGEMENT DECISION METHODOLOGY

Decision making process is one of the central points of management activity. Rational problem solving is possible when leaders follow generally accepted working methods. They include scientific Method, consisting in the fact that by observing, collecting and analyzing information, a hypothesis is formulated about the problem itself and approaches to its solution. The scientific method gives a systemic orientation, i.e., reveals the relationship of a given problem with the external environment and internal variables of the organization itself, which makes it possible to identify the causes of the problem and find out its basis, and it also uses mathematical modeling.

In practice, it is applied many scientific approaches to the development and adoption of managerial decisions:

- systems approach involves the study of objects as a system consisting of an external environment and an internal structure. The organizational and economic system is considered as the unity of the object of management and its relations with the external environment;

- logical approach to the performance of any work on the basis of the principles of dialectical (objectivity, comprehensiveness and historicism) and formal (identity, non-contradiction, sufficient justification, exclusion of the third) logic;

- reproductive-evolutionary approach focused on the constant resumption of production of the facility to meet the needs at a lower cost. Each new model should be better than the one it replaces;

- innovative approach focused on development based on the activation of innovation;

- A complex approach provides for the simultaneous development of technical, environmental, economic, organizational, psychological and other aspects of management in their interconnection;

- integration approach is aimed at studying and strengthening the relationships between subsystems, between the stages of the life cycle of the control object, between the levels of control, between the subjects of control horizontally;

- standardization approach consists in establishing standard norms, rules and characteristics common for any system for the purpose of management;

- marketing approach provides for the orientation of the control subsystem to the consumer in solving any problems;

- functional approach lies in the fact that the need is considered as the result of the functions that need to be performed to satisfy consumers;

- structural approach - this is the determination of the significance, priorities among factors, methods, principles in their totality in order to establish a rational ratio and increase the validity of decision-making;

- situational approach focuses on the fact that the suitability of various parameters and control methods is determined by the specific situation in a specific place and at a specific time;

- normative approach is to establish management standards for all subsystems of the management system;

- optimization approach consists in the transition from qualitative to quantitative assessments using the methods of operations research, engineering calculations, statistical methods, expert assessments, etc.;

- behavioral approach is to assist the employee in creating their own opportunities to manage the organization;

- business approach is the most complex and complex, because everyone has their own understanding of this approach, individual upbringing and education.

52. METHODS OF OPTIMIZATION AND MODELING OF SOLUTIONS

Optimization of management decisions is carried out on the basis of analysis, which is the decomposition of the whole into elements and the establishment of relationships between them. Methods for optimizing management decisions:

- comparison method allows you to evaluate the work of the organization, determine deviations from planned indicators, establish their causes and identify reserves. Comparison requires ensuring comparability of compared indicators;

- factor analysis - the procedure for establishing the strength of the influence of factors on a function or an effective feature in order to rank the factors in order to develop a plan of organizational and technical measures to improve the function;

- index method it is used in the study of complex phenomena, the individual elements of which are immeasurable, and allows for the decomposition by factors of deviations of the generalizing indicator, the number of factors should be equal to two, and the analyzed indicator is presented as their product;

- balance method involves a comparison of interrelated indicators of economic activity in order to clarify and measure their mutual influence, calculate the reserves for increasing production efficiency;

- chain substitution method consists in obtaining a number of adjusted values of the generalizing indicator by successively replacing the basic values of factor factors with actual ones;

- elimination method allows you to show the effect of one factor on the general indicators of production and economic activity, excludes the effect of other factors;

- functional cost analysis - this is a method of systematic research applied according to the purpose of the object, in order to increase the beneficial effect per unit of total costs for the life cycle of the object;

- economic and mathematical methods are used to select the best options that determine economic decisions in the current or planned economic conditions. Economic and mathematical modeling is the process of expressing economic phenomena by mathematical models. An economic model is a schematic representation of an economic phenomenon or process using scientific abstraction, a reflection of its characteristic features. Mathematical models are the main tool for solving optimization problems of any activity. Mathematical modeling of phenomena and processes makes it possible to get a clear idea of the object under study.

Decision Models:

- a rational model involves the choice of such an alternative that will bring maximum benefit to the organization;

- the model of bounded rationality assumes that the manager in his desire to be rational depends on the possibilities of cognition, habits and prejudices (personal limitation) and on the goals of the organization (organizational limitation);

- the political model usually reflects the desire of the members of the organization to maximize their individual interests in the first place. The modeling process is divided into three stages:

1) analysis of the patterns inherent in the object, phenomenon or process under study, and empirical data on its structure and features;

2) determination of methods by which the problem can be solved;

3) analysis of the obtained results.

The choice of an alternative completes the decision-making process.

53. THE ROLE OF THE MARKETING SERVICE IN THE ENTERPRISE

Marketing is - this, on the one hand, is the development and implementation of measures to influence the market of goods or services produced by this organization, and on the other hand, the reorientation of production activities to it, determining the scale and nature of production and sales.

Marketing facilitates the creation and sale of a product or service that best meets the needs of the market, as well as the impact on the consumer, demand and market in order to optimize the amount of profit.

The role of the marketing service in the enterprise is manifested in its functions:

- analytical, consisting in the study of the market, its structure, which is formed by contractors, competitors, intermediaries, as well as the general (internal and external) situation of the company;

- production, involving the development of new products, quality management and competitiveness of finished products;

- marketing, "leading" organization of the system of product distribution, service, price policy;

- management related to planning, organization, control of marketing activities, designed to establish, strengthen and maintain mutually beneficial relationships with intermediaries and buyers.

The structure and number of the marketing service at the enterprise are determined by such factors as the size of the net income of the enterprise, the volume and complexity of the goods produced, the number of markets.

Tasks of the marketing service of the enterprise: 1) when forming the market strategy of the enterprise:

- analysis and forecasting of market conditions, factors of competitive advantage of the organization; quality and resource intensity of similar products of competitors, their organizational and technical level;

- analysis of the organization's links with the external environment;

- forecasting the reproduction cycles of the company's goods, prices and competitiveness of future goods, etc.;

2) in the process of implementing the marketing concept:

- coordination of the structure and content of the organization's management system;

- participation in the design and development of the organizational and production structure, regulations and job descriptions of the organization;

- output marketing control;

- analysis of non-economic activity;

- coordination of prices, contracts and agreements, etc.;

3) when organizing product advertising and sales promotion:

- definition of goals, methods, rules and means of advertising;

- organization of work of advertising agencies and services; promotion of sales of goods and profit growth, etc.

4) in the process of providing marketing research:

- development and improvement of the structure of the organization's marketing service;

- information support and creation of a regulatory framework for marketing research;

- research staffing;

- provision of technical means;

- ensuring internal and external communications of the organization's marketing service.

Marketing is a condition that ensures the realization of the goals and mission of the organization. Marketing goals are dynamic and subject to adjustment depending on the stages of management, including anti-crisis management, on the changing market demand, prices, inflationary and other processes.

Marketing information and marketing recommendations are considered as basic information for making managerial decisions aimed at developing, stabilizing or overcoming an organization from a crisis.

54. MARKETING MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

American researcher F. Kotler identifies five concepts marketing management.

1. Production improvement concept: consumers will be more sympathetic to goods that are widely available and affordable. This requires efforts to improve the technique, technology and organization of their production and distribution, to reduce costs. This approach is appropriate if demand exceeds supply and there are real opportunities to reduce costs.

2. Product development concept: consumers will favor products of the highest quality with better performance and characteristics.

The concept of a product is a system of basic ideas of the manufacturer about the product being created and its market opportunities. Such a product may be an innovation that the consumer considers significant, or a modification of an existing one.

The product management process involves making a decision about its concept, brand name, packaging, service level, assortment, company actions at each stage of its life cycle.

3. The concept of intensifying commercial efforts, the essence of which is that consumers will not purchase goods in sufficient quantities without active advertising and additional incentives from sellers.

Advertising - a form of communication that serves the market and stimulates demand and promotion of products to the consumer by informing about consumer properties and product quality. The main function of advertising is to create and maintain a flexible and reliable communication link between the producer and the consumer. Advertising can be viewed as a means of management that ensures the development of production and market relations.

Sales promotion is a set of measures to influence the consumer in order to “push” him to buy, and the manufacturer in order to stimulate sales (price reduction; credit on preferential terms; bonuses, free goods in addition to purchase; sample gifts; samples, tastings, contests, lotteries).

4. marketing concept, according to which the key to achieving the goals of the organization is to correctly identify the needs and requirements of target markets and ensure that they are met in a more efficient and productive way than competitors. This concept comes from the needs of consumers and their sovereignty.

The determination of the needs and requirements of consumers is carried out on the basis of the principles:

- taking into account the social factors of consumers (nationality, gender, age, marital status, culture, belonging to a particular social group);

- taking into account economic factors (level of income, the possibility and conditions for obtaining a loan, the level of consumption, benefits);

- taking into account geographical factors (location, climate features);

- psychological, the effect of which largely depends on age and gender (attitude to the new, advertising, health, etc.);

- accounting for consumer motives (price, quality, service, brand).

5. The concept of social and ethical marketing, which supplements the provisions of the previous concept with such conditions as the simultaneous preservation and strengthening of the well-being of each consumer and society as a whole.

55. RELATIONSHIP OF MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT

The main principle of marketing - Orientation to the consumer and his needs, their formation and maximum satisfaction. The implementation of this principle in all areas of production and economic activity is carried out through management, the main functions of which are: goal-setting, planning, organization, motivation and control. The main goal of marketing - determine the amount of demand for a particular product, expressed in terms of sales volume and its market share, and promote its achievement by means of marketing.

The main goal of management - to ensure the sustainable development of the organization in achieving its mission and goals by using the means of influencing people inherent in management for their interaction in joint production and economic activities.

In the study of the organization as an integral socio-economic system relationship between marketing and management considered as part of the whole. At the same time, marketing can be a management system for an independent functional organization - a marketing center, an agency, a consultative organization.

Marketing Functions consist in the study and formation by its means of organizational and economic conditions for the implementation of reproductive processes, ensuring their continuity, cost reduction and a level of efficiency sufficient for the development of the organization.

All this allows us to consider marketing as an important condition and a significant reserve of anti-crisis management. In anti-crisis management at the stage of finding ways out of the economic crisis, the complex nature of the means and methods used in the marketing process to identify the organization's market opportunities, its strengths and weaknesses, as well as a comprehensive analysis of extensive information about the dynamics of socio-economic processes, is essential. The use of the marketing mix in relation to a specific product and market, as well as the development of options for their interaction, make it possible to find out the organization's marketing opportunities and market dangers as basic information for developing goals and strategies for the organization's behavior in the market.

Developing an anti-crisis policy, the marketing manager relies on the internal factors of the organization: production and technological features; resource potential; the nature of the internal atmosphere; level of development of management components; forecasting; planning; Information Support; staff motivation; processes of centralization and decentralization, etc. Marketing and management have international character, at the same time, the role of marketing increases with the widespread introduction of information technology. Competition involves not only goods and their technologies, but also types of management and their elements: planning systems, advertising, information technology, communication systems, motivation, stimulation, professionalism of personnel.

Currently, the marketing concept is more used by large companies, as well as manufacturers of consumer goods. Organizations form marketing departments or introduce the position of marketing manager; draw up marketing plans and perform certain types of research.

56. QUALITY AND COMPETITIVENESS OF GOODS

Competitive is a product, the complex of consumer and cost properties of which ensures its commercial success.

Product quality level - the most important characteristic of its competitiveness. Often an equal sign is put between the competitiveness of a product and its quality.

There is a close relationship between the concepts of "quality" and "competitiveness". They serve to evaluate the results of specific labor and its social utility. What they have in common is that they are defined through a set of product properties and represent dynamic characteristics that change with the development of social needs and technological progress. However, despite the close relationship, it is impossible to completely equate the concepts of "competitiveness" and "quality".

Quality - a set of properties and characteristics of a product or other object that give it the ability to satisfy conditional or implied needs.

Product - is a set of useful properties of the product of labor, which makes this product an object of consumption. In the presence of a strictly defined competitive need, each consumer item is characterized not only by the ability to satisfy it, but also by the degree of utility.

The competitiveness of a product, in contrast to its quality, is determined by the totality of only those specific properties that are of undoubted interest (utility) for a given buyer and ensure the satisfaction of each need, and other characteristics are not taken into account. All characteristics of the product that go beyond these interests are considered in the assessment of competitiveness as having no relation to it in these competitive conditions.

From a quality standpoint only homogeneous goods are compared, which significantly narrows the scope of the classification of goods from the standpoint of assessing competitiveness, where a specific need is taken as the basis for comparison. At the same time, comparison of heterogeneous goods is also possible, since they are only different ways of satisfying the same need.

The next difference between the quality and competitiveness of a product is their categorical difference. Product competitiveness is an important market category. Quality is a category inherent not only in a market economy. Therefore, the competitiveness of the goods is more dynamic and changeable. With the invariance of the qualitative characteristics of the product, its competitiveness can vary over a fairly wide range under the influence of market changes, the actions of competitors-manufacturers and competing products, price fluctuations, the impact of advertising and other external factors.

In contrast to quality, the level of competitiveness of products, along with the parameters that reveal the direct consumer value of the product in comparison with analogue competitors, is also determined by characteristics external to the product that are not determined by its properties: delivery time; quality of service, advertising; an increase (decrease) in the level of competitiveness of competing goods, a change in the ratio of supply and demand, financial conditions, etc.

57. THE CONCEPT OF PRICING

Prices determine the structure of production, have a decisive influence on the movement of material flows, the distribution of the mass of commodities, and the level of well-being of the population.

The objects of management activity in the field of pricing are:

1) the formation of a pricing policy, which can have three guidelines:

- expansion of sales and market share;

- profit maximization and fast cash flow;

- maintaining the existing position in the market;

2) determining or changing the price level for manufactured goods and novelties;

3) the procedure for applying allowances and discounts, etc. Orientation of pricing policy to "sales" through a penetration strategy based on low prices. It allows you to attract additional customers and capture a significant market share. This approach is justified if demand is elastic; significant economies of scale are possible; large market capacity; low prices do not attract new competitors.

Profit oriented pricing policy suggests two options.

1. The desire to maximize the income from the sale of a unit of product.

2. Profit from the sale of all products. The high profitability of selling a unit of a product is due to the sale of expensive prestigious goods to consumers who are interested in their novelty and quality. Thus, the strategy of "skimming the cream" is implemented.

If the pricing policy is focused on maintaining the position of the company, then it becomes necessary to use a strategy of reduced prices. It can be used as long as the costs of production are covered, and even a little longer. Low prices allow you to form a reliable sale in the early stages of product development, provide a stable long-term profit and limit the ability of competitors.

Price management can be implemented through the establishment of surcharges and discounts.

Types of discounts: for cash sales; for the purchase of large consignments of goods; for its resale by intermediaries; for seasonality; at fairs; for the delivery of old goods; as an advertisement.

Prices are rarely stable. A rise in prices is appropriate if the product is in great demand and it has no serious competitors.

To increase the firm's profits may use price discrimination, i.e., the sale of goods at different prices depending on the place, time and categories of buyers.

Price types.

1. Marginal price for a product as the maximum allowable.

2. A price set under a "skimming" strategy for a popular brand of new product.

3. Price set in accordance with the strategy of a solid introduction to the market. Often this price is below the price of competitors, regardless of the quality level of the new product.

4. Step prices for goods of one parametric series within a given assortment of a given seller.

5. Market leader price.

6. Prestigious, very high price for very high quality goods.

7. Psychological cost.

8. Prices for complementary components.

9. Adjusted prices taking into account: transport costs; geographical and zonal features of consumption conditions; the basis point of the initial delivery of the goods; discounts; changes in demand and prices of competitors.

Strategic pricing issues are usually decided at the marketing research stage.

58. BASIC PRICING METHODS

Price determination methods.

1. Based on the costs (C) and profitability (R) of the product:

2. Based on the establishment of a profit margin (Pn), which ensures the break-even of the enterprise, provided that the production costs are optimal:

C \uXNUMXd C + Mon.

3. Based on the assessment by experts of the quality of the product and the demand for it (taking into account the operation of the law of supply and demand):

where n is the number of experts - specialists in this field (at least 7); - the price of the goods set by the i-th expert.

4. Based on the analysis of competitors' price dynamics in accordance with the law of competition and preliminary advertising sale of their goods.

5. Based on closed auctions.

6. Mathematical and statistical methods: C = f (Xi), where Xi is the i-th parameter of the product.

When applying any method, it is obligatory to study the market, forecast the development of products from competitors, forecast the organizational and technical level of the company's production at least 5 years in advance.

Stages of pricing:

- marketing research;

- forecasting the organizational and technical development of the enterprise;

- calculation of own costs and limit price;

- forecasting prices of competitors;

- setting the price for your product based on the recommendations described above.

Factors affecting the methods of determination: technical (quality or beneficial effect of the product); economic (cost, inflation, taxes); social (GDP per capita, poverty rate); psychological (value, awareness, etc.); organizational (form, conditions, sales volume); political (dumping in order to conquer the market).

According to the sphere of manifestation, the factors are divided into:

- external: competitive advantages in terms of market parameters, factors of production;

- internal: competitive advantages of the manufacturing organization within the system.

According to the form of manifestation of factors:

- innovations (introduction of a patent for a new product or a new technology, know-how for new management methods);

- unification and standardization of the object (increasing the production program).

Depending on the stage of the life cycle:

- strategic marketing (optimization of resource saving, setting standards);

- R&D (improvement of manufacturability);

- OTPP (improvement of manufacturing technology);

- production (introduction of statistical methods of product quality control to reduce rejects);

- circulation (improving the quality of product service, reducing the product sales cycle);

- operation (consumption).

Depending on the structure (form) of the market: monopoly (creation of original patented goods); oligopoly (improving the quality of product information); monopolistic competition (forecasting the prices of the main competitors); pure (perfect) competition (study of supply and demand, their monitoring, operational management).

The duration of the factors determines their types: strategic (innovations, production automation); tactical (improving the quality of work on tactical marketing); operational (implementation of measures to reduce unit prices, accounting, control and motivation).

59. CERTIFICATION AND ITS FEATURES

Certification of products - conformity assessment procedure, by means of which an organization independent of the manufacturer (seller) and the consumer certifies in writing that the products comply with the established requirements.

Goals of certification:

- creation of conditions for the activities of enterprises, entrepreneurs, as well as for participation in international scientific and technical cooperation and international trade;

- assistance to consumers in the competent choice of products;

- protection of the consumer from the manufacturer's dishonesty;

- control of product safety for the environment, life and health;

- confirmation of product quality indicators declared by the manufacturer, etc.

Certification is associated with the action of a third party, which is a person or body recognized as independent of the parties involved in the issue under consideration.

The conformity assessment activity is carried out properly, which indicates the existence of a strict certification system with certain rules, procedures and management.

Significantly expands the scope of conformity certification. Currently, products, processes and services are subject to it, including quality management processes in enterprises and personnel.

Certification can be mandatory or voluntary. Mandatory certification is a means of controlling product safety.

Voluntary certification helps to increase the competitiveness of products.

International Organization for Standardization defines eight certification schemes third party:

1) product sample testing (in an independent testing laboratory or center);

2) testing of a product sample with subsequent control based on the supervision of enterprise product samples purchased on the open market (long-term control, selective testing of products in the process of sale);

3) testing of a product sample with subsequent control based on the supervision of enterprise samples, control at the production stage (used if there is a direct connection between the manufacturer and the consumer without the services of trading and intermediary organizations);

4) testing of a product sample with subsequent control based on the supervision of samples purchased on the open market and received from the enterprise (combining the second and third certification models);

5) testing of a product sample and evaluation of factory quality management with subsequent control based on supervision of factory quality management and testing of samples received from the factory and the open market (the need to create a quality control system at the enterprise in order to reduce defects);

6) only assessment of factory quality management;

7) verification of batches of products (comprehensive tests in independent laboratories). All operational parameters are checked taking into account safety, ergonomics, environmental impact. Product control is selective;

8) 100% control.

60. PSYCHOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT

Psychology of management studies the hierarchical relationships of workers in an organization, as well as the conditions for optimizing these relationships in order to increase labor productivity, personal development of workers and labor collectives.

Psychological factors include:

- moral and psychological climate in the team;

- cohesion of employees;

- psychological compatibility of people in the team;

- the level of psychological pressure of the team on its members, the degree of conformism.

On the formation of a moral and psychological climate many circumstances and motives of people's activity influence (goals for which this team was created and works; ways and means to achieve goals; generally accepted norms and rules of relationships; fair distribution of work and duties, etc.). Important for creating a favorable psychological climate in the team is leadership style.

A team rallies faster, where the leader is energetic, purposeful, knows how to influence people so that they rally. Even better, if the manager has become the leader of the team, they follow him, they believe him, imitate him, unite around him and his ideas. With weak management, this process is slower, and in the future more efforts will be required to unite the team.

Psychological compatibility employees in a team is achieved under the following conditions:

- compatibility of characters, types of temperaments;

- high professional level of all employees in the team.

The manager must:

- to know and use the inclinations of people, their positions for the formation of trust;

- distribute work and responsibilities so that no one can enjoy the fruits of the work of another;

- create conditions for the personal safety of people;

- to promote the emergence of a sense of mutual assistance and support in work;

- eliminate the causes that give rise to the destructive activity of people;

- to develop in employees a sense of responsibility to the team for their actions;

- ensure the dissemination of objective information;

- to form a system of control over the work. Level of psychological pressure of the collective on its members and the degree of conformity (similarity of opinions) depends on the moral and psychological climate, cohesion and compatibility of employees. Here it is important to use such an instrument of psychological influence as the opinion of the work collective. The degree of conformism depends on the quantitative composition of the team.

In practice Managers use two main methods of team management.

1. The Delphi method, the essence of which is that each employee works on a problem individually, and the results of the work are analyzed and evaluated jointly, collectively, and a single solution to the problem is developed.

2. The method of brainstorming - as a method of psychological pressure is that the experience, professionalism and creativity of individual employees have a positive effect on other members of the team, open up the possibility of movement and development for them.

61. QUALITY MANAGEMENT

E. Deming in 1950 formulated the following basic postulates of quality management.

1. Permanent goal - improving the quality of products and services. This process must be carried out continuously and systematically. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure: rational allocation of resources, satisfaction of long-term needs, competitiveness of products, business growth, employment and creation of new jobs.

2. Adopt a new philosophy. It is impossible to continue to live with the existing system of delays, delays, mistakes, defective materials and imperfection of the labor force. It is necessary to change the management style: constantly improve the quality of all systems, processes, activities within the company.

3. Stop dependence on inspection. To do this, mass inspections should be eliminated as a way to achieve quality. This goal can be achieved provided that quality issues are in the first place for the enterprise and it has constant information about the level of quality, using statistical methods of quality control in production and procurement.

4. Stop the practice of concluding contracts on the basis of low prices. It is necessary to balance quality with price; choose one supplier of one product; work with the supplier to reduce overall costs.

5. Constantly and continuously improve the planning system, production and service, provide for the prompt solution of emerging problems, constantly improve productivity. System improvement also implies constant monitoring of processes in the organization.

6. Train on the job. Introduce modern methods of training and retraining in the workplace for everyone, including management personnel, to use the capabilities of each employee.

7. Establish leadership in order to assist staff in solving assigned tasks, as well as to develop two-way communication between the manager and subordinates to increase efficiency and productivity.

8. Eradicate fear. An employee of the company should not be afraid of changes in his work, but strive for them.

8. Remove barriers between departments and groups of personnel.

9. Avoid empty slogans.

10. Eliminate digital quotas at work. The norm for piece work is set as the average time for its completion. Therefore, half of the workers perform it quickly and then rest, while the other half will be late with its implementation and continue to work. The piecework system can be replaced by a system that increases the quality and productivity of a team working as a team.

11. Give the opportunity to be proud belonging to a company (be proud of your work).

12. Encourage education and self-improvement. Career advancement should be determined by the level of knowledge.

13. Get everyone involved for the transformation of the company.

These postulates were supplemented by D. Juran's philosophy of continuous quality improvement. Ju-ran's idea includes two approaches:

- improvement achieved by innovation (new product, new technology);

- continuous improvement - unclaimed reserves, potential abilities, qualifications, experience of employees are used without additional financial costs.

62. CHRONOLOGY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF QUALITY SYSTEMS

The history of the creation of the theory of total quality management constitute four groups of teachings.

1. Scientific management. The founders are F. Taylor, M. Weber, A. Fayol. F. Taylor proposed a system that included the concepts of upper and lower quality limits, a tolerance field, introduced measuring tools as templates and gauges, and also justified the need for an independent position of a quality inspector, a diverse system of fines for defectives, forms and methods of influencing product quality.

2. Development of statistical quality control methods - SQC (W. Shewhart, G. Dodge, G. Roming, etc.) Control charts appeared, selective methods of product quality control, technological process regulation were substantiated.

In the 20s. 1924th century specialists realized that various changes in the production process can be described using statistical methods. W. Shewhart applied statistical methods to the production process. In XNUMX, W. Shewhart proposed a statistical explanation of the behavior of the production process over time, which was later called control charts. In his scientific works, for the first time, he focuses on the consumer. W. Shewhart had a great influence on his compatriots E. Deming and D. Juran.

Deming, Juran were the first to pay attention to the organizational issues of quality assurance, they emphasized the role of top management in solving quality problems (heads of finance, marketing, production, sales).

3. In the 50-80s. intra-company systems appeared abroad, which are called quality control systems: TQC (Feigenbaum), CWQC (K. Ishikawa), etc. During this period, the convergence of quality assurance methods with the ideas of general management begins.

Under total quality control Feigenbaum understands such a system that allows solving the problem of product quality and its price, depending on the benefits of consumers, manufacturers and people selling the products (distributors), as the living standards of the population improve.

Ishikawa believes that total quality control is a system designed primarily to unite the efforts of all departments of the company, aimed at meeting the requirements of consumers.

4. In the 80s. systems are emerging in which quality management is seen as management of all production. Therefore, the solution of quality problems requires the creation of such an organizational structure, which should include all departments, each employee of the company at all stages of the product life cycle.

Such systems include the TQM system - total quality management based on ISO 9000 standards. Its principle is that there is no limit to improvement. TQM is a comprehensive system focused on continuous quality improvement, minimization of production costs and just-in-time delivery.

63. CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIABILITY AS A QUALITY INDICATOR

One of the most important characteristics of quality is product reliability. Reliability is considered as a property of a product to maintain the value of its quality parameters within certain limits expected by the consumer, for a certain (guaranteed by the manufacturer) time and under certain operating conditions (predetermined by the consumer and the manufacturer).

Product reliability - a complex property, which is determined by the indicators of reliability, maintainability, persistence and durability.

Reliability (product uptime), i.e., the time during which the product will retain its quality parameters within predetermined limits of their change under specified operating conditions. Reliability indicators include the probability of failure-free operation, mean time to first failure, time to failure, failure rate, failure rate parameter, warranty time.

Maintainability - the property of the object, which consists in adapting to the prevention of the causes of failures, damages and maintaining and restoring a working state by carrying out maintenance and repair.

At the same time, it is important to reduce the proportion of repairable products compared to non-repairable ones. During the operation of the facility, it is important to observe planned and unscheduled breaks in work for maintenance, repair, control checks, which maintains the maintainability of the facility.

Persistence (stability) of the properties of the quality of objects characterizes the proportion of the decrease in the most important indicators of purpose, reliability, ergonomics, environmental friendliness, aesthetics, patentability as it is used.

Durability - the property of the object to remain operational until the limit state occurs with the established system of maintenance and repair. The indicators of the durability of the object include the standard service life, the service life until the first overhaul and other indicators. The totality of the quality parameters expected by the consumer of the product he needs and their values that satisfy the consumer's needs will constitute the value of the product. Therefore, when purchasing a product, the consumer pays attention to its non-defectiveness. A defect is a discrepancy between any quality parameter of the product and the requirements of the consumer. Defects are divided into internal and external. An internal (hidden) product defect is a defect that, due to the imperfection of production quality control, gets into the finished product, and then to the consumer. The main task of the manufacturer is to improve quality by minimizing such potentially unreliable products that will not be able to fulfill their functional purpose. An external defect is a defect that can be detected as a result of one-time measurements of quality parameters in the control of production and finished products. The task of the manufacturer is to completely exclude external defects from the real product.

64. HR MANAGEMENT AND ITS FEATURES

There are three main models of personnel management.

1. The personnel manager as a trustee of his employees, who cares about healthy working conditions and a favorable moral and psychological atmosphere at the enterprise.

2. HR manager as a specialist in labor agreements (contracts), including collective agreements. Administrative control is exercised over the observance by employees of the terms of the employment contract, accounting for job movements; regulation of labor relations in the process of negotiations with trade unions.

3. HR manager as an architect of the organization's human resources, playing a leading role in the development and implementation of the organization's long-term strategy. Its mission is to provide the organizational and professional component of the personnel potential. He is part of the top management of the organization and has training in human resource management.

Features of personnel management:

- a wide variety of existing approaches to personnel management, due to differences in national institutional and organizational contexts, has led to the fact that so far neither a single set of professional knowledge nor a common professional ideology of this management activity has been formed;

- personnel work is traditionally on the periphery of the attention of the heads of organizations. The role of HR specialists is determined by the fact that they act as advisors to management and are not directly responsible for the development and implementation of the enterprise strategy;

- one of the functions of HR specialists is to protect the interests of ordinary employees, which, in the opinion of other top managers, hinders the achievement of the organization's goals;

- personnel management is treated as an activity that does not require special training; unlike other managerial specialties, it could be content with common sense considerations, and it was believed that any leader could cope with the functions of a personnel manager;

- the lack of specialized training and relevant professional qualifications reduces the authority of cadre workers in the eyes of management. Main current trends:

- absolute and relative growth in the number of employees of personnel services;

- raising the status of this profession: the heads of personnel services in most organizations began to be part of the board and even the board of directors;

- sharply increased attention to the level of professional training of personnel managers;

- in the face of growing competition (including for highly qualified personnel), the isolation of personnel policy from the overall business strategy adversely affects the success of the organization as a whole.

Today, a management system is being formed, focused primarily on the development of human capital.

Personnel policy of the organization should provide: organizational integration; high level of responsibility of all employees; functional integration; high quality work.

65. CREATING A HR SERVICE AT THE ENTERPRISE

Tasks of the personnel service - the direction of personnel work, the idea of the goals of working with personnel, specified taking into account the specific conditions of the organization's existence.

Tasks of the personnel department:

- helping the organization to achieve its goals;

- effective use of skills and capabilities of employees;

- providing the organization with highly qualified and interested employees;

- the desire for the most complete satisfaction of employees with their work, for their self-expression;

- developing and maintaining a high level of quality of life that makes it desirable to work in this organization;

- communication of personnel management with all employees;

- assistance in maintaining a good moral climate;

- traffic management for the mutual benefit of individuals, groups of enterprises, society.

There are two structures of personnel management in the organization. Headquarters - specialists of personnel management departments involved in the development of principles for working with the organization's personnel, specific programs and the organization of personnel events (HR managers). Linear structure - managers-practitioners who implement specific functions of working with personnel in the course of performing their own managerial functions (line managers).

When designing the personnel management structure, the following should be considered.

1. The level at which it is supposed to implement personnel management:

- if it becomes the subject of care and consideration at the highest corporate level, it will corporate personnel management;

- if it is made only an obligation for the middle level, it will be the organization of work with personnel, which will be implemented head of the personnel department together with line managers;

- if the organization will talk about the executive level of management, which is expressed either in personnel work or in solving individual problems.

2. The staff of the personnel management service.

3. The main tasks solved by the personnel management service.

At the stage of organization formation, it is important to develop such a system for collecting, storing and using personnel information, which, on the one hand, corresponded to the projected structure of the organization, and, on the other hand, was flexible enough to possible changes in the future.

Personnel Information - a set of data organized in a certain way about the personnel of the organization (personal files, personnel records, orders for the movement of personnel).

The most typical tasks that require information support include personnel and managerial office work, intra-organizational personnel planning and personnel assessment.

Personnel and management records management includes the development of a staffing table, job descriptions, orders for personnel and the maintenance of personal files, information on the calculation of wages for employees of the organization.

Intraorganizational workforce planning includes work on analysis, cost estimation and control. When organizing training, a person must analyze the need for training and the workload of employees, have information on planning their use, and evaluate the costs of the proposed training. Then you can proceed to the preparation of the actual preparation plan, its implementation and control.

66. OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Readiness for change is evidenced by:

1) flexibility of the organizational structure - the presence of small, easily managed structures, minimization of bureaucratic procedures;

2) the principles of innovativeness of the organization - focus on continuous improvement, understanding the naturalness and continuity of the development process, attention to the ideas of employees, comparison with the results of competitors;

3) the principles of innovation laid down in the provisions of the personnel policy - continuous learning, creativity, flexible remuneration system, incentive system, experience assessment.

On the ability to change The following characteristics of the personnel are evidenced:

- analyticity of consciousness - the ability to consider the situation as a whole and in individual aspects to highlight the relationship and properties of objects;

- Dialogism of consciousness - the ability to see several options for the development of events, ways to solve problems, to assume the existence of alternative solutions.

The driving forces of employees to change are:

- the philosophy of the contract - the conclusion of an agreement between a group of shareholders and a group of employees on the exchange of labor for a certain fee;

- the philosophy of common destiny - the belief in the existence of interdependence between employees, consumers and shareholders, that the interests of employees and consumers are as important as the interests of shareholders.

There are four levels of change:

1. Change in knowledge requires minimal time and minimal costs, it is enough to conduct a training program, distribute materials, instructions.

2. Change in individual settings requires more time and cost, it is necessary to create conditions for the person to accept the need for change.

3. Change in individual behavior needs to be provided with even more time and resources and requires a positive experience of new behaviour.

4. Change in group behavior requires a maximum of time and significant resources, the creation of a new way of collective behavior.

Stages of the process of preparing and implementing changes:

- Summing up and praising the past;

- rationale for changes;

- creation of continuity between the past and the future.

Manager Responsibilities:

- select authoritative leaders;

- form target, project groups to develop a strategy for change;

- form an expert group;

- organize meetings of the project and expert groups to discuss the project;

- present the project to the employees of the organization.

The HR department should:

- draw attention to the need for change;

- organize the process of receiving proposals from employees of the organization and their support;

- disseminate information about ongoing changes;

- take into account the characteristics of the staff and their personal characteristics;

- take into account productive objections and adapt the change program.

Consideration should be given to individual change acceptance mechanisms: identification - people accept the proposed changes; assimilation - people translate common goals and principles of change into personal goals; approbation - a person checks the changes on his own experience and forms an attitude towards the changes.

67. TASKS OF HR MANAGEMENT DURING THE FORMATION OF THE ORGANIZATION

The main tasks of the personnel service for management personnel at the stage of formation of the organization are:

1. Organizational project preparation:

- designing the organizational structure;

- calculation of the need for personnel;

- analysis of the personnel situation in the region;

- development of systems of payment and stimulation of labor.

2. Personnel formation:

- analysis of activities and formation of criteria for the selection of candidates;

- determination of the segment of the labor market from which it is expedient to select.

3. Development of a system and principles of personnel work:

- formation of a personnel policy and a plan of personnel measures;

- formation of the personnel service itself;

- development of a system for the selection, storage and use of personnel information.

Methods of personnel formation organizations are the following methods of designing the organizational structure: analytical, technological, organizational-cultural and "prototypical".

The following types of organizational structure of the enterprise are distinguished: linear is strictly hierarchically organized, characterized by the division of areas of responsibility and unity of command; functional it is built on the principle of distribution of functions within the organization and most often exists simultaneously with the linear one, which creates double subordination for performers; ring, in which the links are connected to each other in series, but the "output" of the last link is also the "input" of the first.

On the organization design process four groups of factors influence:

- the external environment and infrastructure in which the organization operates;

- technology of work and type of joint activity;

- features of personnel and corporate culture;

- prototypes and already existing, effective organizational structures of similar organizations. Stages of organization design.

1. Goals and results of activities are determined.

2. Relations with the external environment are determined.

3. Processes are separated.

4. Functions are grouped.

5. Internal links are determined.

6. The scale of manageability and control is determined.

7. The hierarchy of the organization and its links are determined.

8. Distributed rights and responsibilities.

9. The levels of centralization / decentralization are determined.

10. The strategic principle of functioning is chosen.

Personnel planning determines the need for employees of a certain qualification, methods for attracting and optimizing personnel, ways to increase the efficiency of using and developing personnel, and determines the costs of these activities.

When recruiting, the personnel service should proceed from the determination of the optimal number of personnel and its qualitative parameters. The task of the personnel service is to monitor the compliance of the personnel of the organization with the tasks facing it. Evaluation of candidates when hiring is to select such an employee who is able to achieve the result expected by the organization.

When forming an organization, an important place is given to the adaptation of a person to a new organizational environment.

68. TASKS OF HR SERVICE IN THE PERIOD OF INTENSIVE GROWTH OF THE ORGANIZATION

At the stage of intensive growth to meet the growing demand, the organization must quickly restructure, organize new departments, divisions, establish links between them. In connection with the rapid growth, the problem of managing the organization, managing new and optimizing old connections is becoming more acute.

At this stage, the most important question is attracting new staff. The growth of the organization also poses problems of manageability, the personnel manager must think through the issues of changing the organizational structure, management principles.

At the same time, the most important is the problem of erosion of corporate culture. Corporate culture is a complex set of assumptions accepted without evidence by all members of a particular organization and setting a general framework for behavior accepted by most of the organization.

As part of the process of external adaptation (determining the organization of its place), the following parameters are distinguished:

- the purpose of the organization and its place in the social environment determines mission of the organization - an idea of what the organization is created for;

- the prospects of the organization determines such a parameter as a description of the desired future of the organization - an idea of organization development results and concrete steps to achieve them;

- the idea of the organization and the principles of its work specifies such a parameter as the idea of clients, those who, on the one hand, can pay attention to the organization, and on the other hand, whom the organization considers it necessary to honor to become its client;

- in developing the policy of the organization, management should identify strategic partners, special relationships and requirements for them, as well as a strategy for working with different types of partners.

As part of the work on formation of the internal environment of the organization, creating internal integration should analyze:

1) the specifics of the activity to determine the type of joint basic activity, its technology and its features;

2) the impact of activities, goals, clients and other parameters on the characteristics of the staff;

3) the rules and norms of behavior of employees in the organization and outside may include: awareness of oneself and one's place in the organization; values and norms; communication system; criteria and rules for the distribution of status and power; rules of informal relations; appearance, habits and traditions of the organization; relationships between people; employee development, motivation.

To maintain and strengthen corporate culture you must follow the rules:

- hire employees who are able to perceive the corporate culture;

- formalize the rules, symbols and norms of behavior;

- punish and dismiss employees who deviate from the norms of corporate culture.

To maintain corporate culture used by:

- the behavior of top management and line managers, setting an example for others;

- stimulation and punishment of behavior that deviates from the norms of corporate culture;

- development of criteria for intra-organizational promotion, etc.

69. TASKS OF HR MANAGEMENT IN THE PERIOD OF STABILIZATION

The main task of the work of managerial personnel at this stage - not only maintaining the achieved level of profitability and not increasing production costs, but also the mandatory reduction of costs for raw materials, technology and especially personnel, in particular, in a situation of fierce competition. In order to maintain stability, any organization needs to search for new market segments, diversify production, and include new business in its field of activity. An increased organization must consolidate its own organizational structure, make it as efficient as possible in the new conditions of all-round economy. All this determines the activity of the personnel service.

In this situation, the tasks of personnel management are as follows.

1. To optimize production, reduce personnel costs, it is necessary to analyze activities, identify sources of losses and build work as efficiently as possible. New options for activities should be fixed in regulatory documents and should become the norm of normal work. In a situation of stabilization, organizations should least of all have rush jobs and extreme decisions.

2. To assess the effectiveness of each activity, to identify reserves for productivity and quality growth, the organization must conduct regular assessment procedures - certification of personnel, jobs. Based on the data obtained, work distribution systems, activity technologies, forms of payment and incentives can be improved.

Personnel certification - Personnel activities designed to assess the compliance of the level of work, qualities and potential of the individual with the requirements of the activity performed. Its main purpose is not to control performance, but to identify reserves for increasing the level of employee return.

To more personnel were used effectively personnel management should think over a career planning system, the formation of a personnel reserve, the organization of training and promotion of personnel. It is in a situation of stability that the staff begins to perceive career plans, plans for increasing remuneration as reasonable and real tools for planning their life.

3. The most significant problem that managerial personnel face at the stage of stabilization is the problem of choosing between focusing on functioning (maintaining the efficiency of the organization in the current technology and volume) and development (preparing the organization for the next change, preventing a crisis that is inevitable if the organization cannot find a new product, change direction).

Thus, both the management of the organization and the management of personnel must decide what is expedient for the organization now: to focus as much as possible on the "exploitation" of what has been achieved or to start changes, to prepare a new product, a new market, the organization itself for the future and thereby prevent the inevitable approaching stage of the crisis.

However, the manager must take into account that a person tends to strive for stability, the naturalness of the process. Therefore, even after the adoption of a strategic management decision, the personnel must be included in the reorganization, innovation activities. You can start the process of change only by overcoming resistance to change.

70. HR MANAGEMENT IN THE PROCESS OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS

Merging process - this is an important stage in the life of the organization, which requires appropriate management decisions. It is similar to the stage of intensive growth, but has its own characteristics.

The reason for failures during the merger may be flaws in planning; underestimation of differences between organizational cultures; insufficient organizational structure and management system; staff resistance to change and lack of willingness to cooperate.

The stages that companies go through in the merger process.

Pre-planning stage. Tasks of personnel management at this stage:

1) organize the headquarters of the merger. As a leader, there should be an experienced manager not lower than the Deputy General Director, who is involved in the development of an integration plan, tracking information for each level of work;

2) systematic comparison of corporate cultures of merging organizations, highlighting critical differences in leadership styles:

- identification of management levels, size of the administrative apparatus;

- authoritarian or democratic management style;

- the essence of existing rules and procedures;

- corporate values (conservatism, innovation, entrepreneurial spirit, accuracy of performance);

- control and reporting systems are more flexible or more rigid;

- system of rewards and incentives;

- personnel policy;

- the degree of openness of the organization;

3) development and implementation of the concept of information support for the merger process based on the effective management of public opinion, control by shareholders, customers and staff;

4) development of a reorganization plan, i.e., solving personnel problems, which include: attracting, reshuffling and reducing personnel.

Transitional stage. The peculiarity of this stage is that the acquired company is passive, because intercorporate integration is a conflict-generating process. Employees of both companies experience uncertainty in the face of new circumstances, which contributes to a decrease in productivity and discipline. Many top managers of the acquired company will have to quit or get less promising jobs. At this stage, it is necessary to involve external specialists for an objective and balanced assessment, taking into account the interests and wishes of the leaders of the two structures.

The leveling stage. The main task is to ensure the coordination and productivity of the work of the updated teams at the level of the board, services and departments, horizontal and vertical interaction of specialists from various services and departments. Managers need to be prepared for staff resistance to attempts to break ingrained traditions. Certification of managers and specialists is useful in order to identify points that need to be adjusted.

Mature integration stage. Includes a tracking system for all results through contacts with managers and specialists of all departments throughout the year. At the end of this period, management conducts a systematic audit of the results of the merger to form a strategic development plan.

71. BASIC MANAGEMENT STYLES

Management style - this is a set of the most characteristic and stable methods of solving problems used by the leader, the manner of his behavior in relation to subordinates. Management style has a significant impact on the effectiveness of the team and the organization as a whole.

There are 3 most common leadership styles: authoritarian or autocratic, democratic and liberal, although in practice there is often a mixture of styles.

For authoritarian (autocratic) style characteristic is the centralization of power in the hands of one leader, demanding that everyone report on affairs only to him. The style is characterized by a focus on administration and limited contacts with subordinates. Such a manager single-handedly makes decisions, not giving the opportunity to take the initiative to subordinates, is categorical and harsh. Characterized by dogmatism and stereotyped thinking. Everything new is perceived with caution or not accepted at all, because the same methods are used in managerial work. This creates a tense environment, as subordinates avoid close contact with such a manager.

This style does not stimulate the initiative of subordinates; on the contrary, it is often punished by an autocrat, which makes it impossible to increase the efficiency of the organization.

Democratic style: most issues are resolved collegially, subordinates are systematically informed about the state of affairs in the team. A manager of this style in communicating with subordinates is extremely polite and friendly, is in constant contact, delegates part of the managerial functions to other specialists, trusts people. Demanding but fair.

When exercising control, a democratic manager pays attention to the final result, which creates conditions for the self-expression of subordinates, who develop independence of judgment.

Management is carried out without pressure, taking into account the abilities of people. This style of leadership is considered by many to be optimal, but it is not always the most productive.

Head with liberal (non-interference) leadership style practically does not interfere in the activities of the team, and employees are given complete independence, the possibility of individual and collective creativity. Such a leader is polite, ready to cancel the decision he has made, and lacks initiative. Of the means of personnel management, persuasion and requests prevail.

Softness in communication prevents him from gaining real authority. The consequence of this is undeserved concessions, excessive familiarity. Such a leader does not show pronounced organizational skills, weakly controls and regulates the actions of subordinates, and therefore his managerial activity is ineffective.

The flexibility of a manager is to take advantage of each style and apply it depending on the specific situation in the organization.

72. CREATING A MANAGEMENT STYLE

Leadership style - the phenomenon is strictly individual, because it is determined by the specific characteristics of a particular person and reflects the peculiarities of working with people and the decision-making technology of this particular person. The style is regulated by the personal qualities of the manager.

Among the objective external conditions, that form the leadership style at a particular managerial level, include:

- the nature of the team (industrial, scientific and technical, etc.);

- the specifics of the tasks to be faced (routine, habitual or urgent, unusual);

- conditions for fulfilling these tasks (favorable, unfavorable or extreme);

- methods and means of activity (individual, pair or group);

- the level of development of the team.

As the main features that characterize the style of leadership, The following can be distinguished:

- socio-political features, embodied in the state approach to solving economic problems, adherence to principles, responsibility, constant contact with the masses, their wide involvement in management;

- professional and organizational features - a scientific and creative approach in the development of managerial decisions, competence, efficiency, initiative, focus on prospects;

- moral and psychological traits - the unity of respect and exactingness when interacting with subordinates, taking into account the opinion of the team, attention to each of its members, tact, justice, self-criticism, modesty.

The applied leadership styles are associated with the methods of performing managerial functions, with the ratio of personnel management methods. There are three groups of methods: administrative, economic and socio-psychological.

Administrative Methods management are based on the relationship of unity of command, discipline and responsibility, are carried out in the form of organizational and administrative influence. Organizational impact is aimed at organizing the production and management process and includes organizational regulation. The administrative influence is expressed in the form of an order, order or instruction, which are legal acts of a non-normative nature.

Economic methods - these are elements of the economic mechanism by which the progressive development of the organization is ensured. The most important economic method of personnel management is technical and economic planning, which combines and synthesizes all economic methods of management.

Socio-psychological methods. The specificity of these methods lies in the use of informal factors, the interests of the individual, group, team in the process of personnel management. They are divided into two groups: sociological and psychological. Sociological methods allow you to establish the appointment and place of employees in the team, identify leaders and provide their support, connect the motivation of people with the final results of production, ensure effective communication and conflict resolution in the team. Psychological methods directed at a specific person, personified and individual. Their peculiarity is an appeal to the inner world of a person, his personality, intellect, behavior.

73. THEORY OF STYLE IN APPLICATION TO MANAGEMENT PRACTICE

Multidimensional Control Styles is a complex of complementary, intertwining approaches, each of which is independent of the others, so it can be implemented along with them.

Initially, the idea of a "two-dimensional" style of management was formed, based on two approaches: focused on creating a favorable moral and psychological climate in the team and improving human relations; on the creation of appropriate organizational and technical conditions under which a person will be able to fully realize his abilities.

Situational approach to the study of management effectiveness explores the interaction of various situational variables in order to discover a cause-and-effect relationship in the relationship between the leader and subordinates, which makes it possible to predict the possible behavior of the leader and the consequences of this behavior.

To measure and define leadership style Fiedler proposed to use a scale of characteristics of the least preferred worker. In accordance with this scale, the respondents must, marking the scores for each item on the scale, describe a hypothetical person with whom they would work least successfully. After scoring, the leadership style is determined. The manager's ability to control such a situation is determined by three variables:

- relationship between the leader and subordinates (level of support, trust);

- structured work (clearness of the goal, a variety of means to achieve the goal);

- official positions of the head (the level of formal power).

Management style focused on strengthening the team and maintaining human relations, most suitable in situations that are moderately favorable for the leader, when he does not have enough power to ensure the necessary level of cooperation with subordinates, but if the relationship is good, then people generally comply with the demands placed on them benevolently.

The model describing the dependence of leadership style on the situation was proposed by T. Mitchell and R. House. It is based on the motivational expectation theory. Performers will strive to achieve the goals of the organization when there is a connection between their efforts and the results of the work, that is, if they receive some personal benefit from this.

In accordance with the situational theory of P. Hesley and C. Blanchard, the use of one or another style depends on the maturity of subordinates, their ability to be responsible for their behavior, education and experience in solving specific problems, on the inner desire to achieve the goals.

Model of leadership styles by V. Vroom and F. Yetton assumes the presence of five management styles, depending on the situation, the characteristics of the team and the characteristics of the problem:

- the manager himself makes a decision based on the available information;

- the leader informs subordinates of the essence of the problem, listens to their opinions and makes a decision;

- the manager presents the problem to subordinates, summarizes their opinions and, taking them into account, makes his own decision;

- the head together with subordinates discusses the problem, and a common opinion is developed;

- the leader constantly works together with the group, which either develops a collective decision, or takes the best, regardless of who its author is.

74. MAIN TYPES OF LEADERS

Studies of American corporate culture have identified four main type of leader-manager.

1. "Masters". These are people who adhere to the traditional value system. The people around them are evaluated mainly in terms of how creatively they relate to their duties. However, they are so absorbed in the subject of their own research that they are unable to manage complex and changing organizational systems.

2. "Jungle Fighters" These are people who passionately strive for power. They perceive themselves and those around them as living in a "human jungle" where each seeks to eat the other. Their intellectual and other psychological resources are primarily aimed at ensuring their own security and well-being. They usually view work colleagues as competitors or enemies, and subordinates as a means in the struggle for power. Among them, in turn, two subtypes are distinguished: "lions" and "foxes". "Lions" are winners who have achieved success and are building their "empire". "Foxes", having arranged their holes in the corporate organization, continue to deftly and prudently move on. Due to their entrepreneurial spirit, they manage to quickly climb the corporate ladder. However, their plans usually eventually collapse as a result of the retaliatory actions of those whom they once deceived or used for selfish purposes.

3. Company people. They identify with the organization to which they belong.

If they are psychologically weak, they tend to subordinate themselves to others and rather achieve security than success. Being strong-willed and strong enough, they strive for recognition from others, to increase the degree of cohesion of the organization. The most creative of them create an atmosphere of cooperation and friendliness in the company, but they are not able to successfully arrange business in a highly competitive environment.

4. "Players". They consider business life in general and their work in particular as a kind of game, they like to take risks, but with calculation and are often fond of innovations. They seek the satisfaction of winning itself. Their main concern is to gain fame as winners. This type is the most common.

However, the leaders holding the highest positions, along with the features of "players", have the characteristics of "company people". They play the game mainly in the interests of the company, identifying themselves with it.

By stimulating interest in the work of their subordinates, they reward those who contribute to the success of the organization, and punish those who hinder them.

As they move up the career ladder, their own intellectual abilities improve, and character traits acquire such a psychological structure that can combine very different, sometimes even contradictory traits: the desire for cooperation and competition, concise leadership style, intolerance to bureaucracy, risk appetite , sober calculation, etc.

75. LEADERSHIP AND ITS FEATURES

Leadership - this is the ability to convince people of their ability to manage, this is voluntary submission to a person who enjoys respect and authority, recognition of his qualifications and experience, regardless of his authority. Leadership is a special type of attitude towards a person, based on the recognition of his management abilities, those human qualities that a manager needs.

Leader - a person who ensures the integration of group activities, unites and directs the actions of the entire team.

Leadership as a process presupposes influence.

A broad understanding of leadership includes:

- influence on goal setting and development strategy;

- influence on the coordination of behavior to achieve goals;

- impact on group support;

- impact on organizational culture.

As a property, leadership is a set of characteristics or a system of qualities that belong to those who exercise non-coercive influence.

Managers act as formal leaders, but at the same time they can be informal leaders.

Leadership as a specific type of management relationship is based more on the process of social impact, or rather the interaction of the organization. Leadership is a type of managerial interaction based on the most effective combination of various sources of power for a given situation and aimed at encouraging people to achieve common goals.

The leader is characterized by the following groups of qualities:

- attention management, or the ability to present the essence of the result, goal and direction of action in such a way that it is attractive to followers;

- management of meaning, or the ability to convey the meaning of the created image, goal or vision in such a way that they are understood and accepted by followers;

- management of trust, or the ability to build one's activities with such constancy and consistency as to gain the full confidence of subordinates;

- self-management, or the ability to know and recognize one's strengths and weaknesses so well and in time, in order to skillfully attract other resources, including the resources of other people, to strengthen one's weaknesses.

Approaches to the Study of Leadership differ in a combination of three main variables: leadership qualities, leadership behavior and the situation in which the leader operates. An important role is played by the characteristics and behavior of the followers. Each of the approaches offers its own solution to the problem of effective leadership in the organization.

Traditional Concepts define effective leadership on the basis of either the qualities of the leader or the patterns of his behavior. These concepts, due to the infinite number of identified qualities and patterns of behavior, have not created a complete theory. Approaches based on the situational nature of leadership explain the effectiveness of leadership through the influence of external factors, without taking into account the leader as a person. New concepts combine the advantages and achievements of both traditional and situational approaches. They focus on the leader's ability to create a new vision for solving a problem and use their charisma to inspire and enthrall followers to take action to achieve the goals.

76. ADDITIONAL MANAGEMENT STYLES

Additional management styles include paternalism, opportunism, and facadism.

Paternalism (materialism) is characterized by a combination of a high level of concern for production with a high level of concern for people that complements it. Maternalism differs from paternalism by the gender (male, female) of the leader. One of the characteristics of a leader is a generous autocrat.

Satisfaction is expressed in demonstrating that this person is a source of wisdom and knowledge for others. When subordinates do what the paternalist expects of them, they are encouraged by the leader and loyalty is expected from them. In the actions of the leader, there is a tendency for subordinates to depend on his whims; as a result, they do not strive for independence of thinking, judgments, and beliefs.

The leader takes the initiative as long as the subordinates can trust him and do what is required of them. The paternalistic leader considers it his duty to teach people, he has strong convictions and actively promotes them.

Opportunism occurs when the leader in his activities is not based on clearly defined principles, but acts only to achieve personal success. The goal is to be an exceptional person who wants to be at the top because they are the center of attention. The behavior of an opportunist is unpredictable and depends on who he is dealing with.

Prefers to avoid conflict in every possible way, but does not hide when conflict arises, tries to resolve differences without confrontation or polarization. If a conflict arises with a person of a higher rank, the opportunistic leader takes the first step towards reconciliation. With an equal, he behaves insinuatingly, compromises. When conflict arises with subordinates, the position of the opportunist is to surrender or leave the subordinate.

The opportunist takes initiative on the basis of precisely calculated risk, and it is directed to selfish interests. He avoids feedback that may indicate the weakness, limitations, or mistakes of the opportunistic leader. Asks for critical comments only when the review is favorable.

Facadeism. It takes place when it is necessary to show the external side of phenomena, processes (facade). The person avoids revealing his thoughts, although he gives the impression that he is honest and frank. The façade leader's tricks can vary depending on what is profitable. The main goal in this case is to hide the desire for control, domination and power. Negative motivation consists in the desire to avoid self-disclosure by hiding true goals and therefore does not reveal his experience, creates a positive reputation that helps to maintain deception.

The façade leader does not avoid conflict. However, the goal is not to resolve them, but to obtain certain benefits for themselves.

It is characteristic of the façade maker that he acts with initiative and continues to act in this way until success is assured. When you need to achieve advantages, the actions of the façadeist will not keep you waiting. The façade manager is characterized by an incomplete transfer of authority and the adoption of key decisions. Criticism against him is not pleasant to him.

77. MANAGEMENT ROLES IN THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The main managerial roles of the HR manager are as follows.

1. HR strategist - a member of the management team responsible for the development and implementation of the personnel strategy, as well as the organizational mechanisms for its provision; systems of management and management of services performing the functions of personnel management.

2. Head of Human Resources - organizer of the work of personnel departments.

3. HR technologist - a developer and implementer of creative approaches in areas specific to the personnel manager, competent in special and technological knowledge, able to attract a variety of internal and external resources and use them effectively, taking into account the business perspectives of the organization.

4. HR innovator - leader, leader-developer of experimental, initiative or pilot projects that require great attention and careful study.

5. Executor - A specialist in operational personnel policy.

6. HR consultant - a professional who uses a panoramic vision of the corporation's prospects, practical knowledge in the field of human resource management and expert skills to identify needs, opportunities and ways to solve problems related to the development of organizational and human resources.

The key competencies of the HR manager were grouped into three groups.

1. Personal Integrity: - ethics - respect for the rights of the individual, responsibility for the promises made, reliability, honesty, fairness;

- conscientiousness - high demands on the results of their work;

- prudence - the ability to make reasonable, realistic and reasonable decisions.

2. Purposefulness and productivity:

- effectiveness - focus on the final result;

- perseverance - the ability to overcome the limitations imposed by the current situation;

- commitment to the organization, business orientation - willingness to follow the standards of the organization, dedication to work and responsibility for the quality of their work;

- self-confidence - willingness and ability to solve extraordinary problems.

3. Teamwork skills:

- team orientation - understanding the need for joint activities and the ability to work in collaboration with others;

- contact - the ability to establish business and creative relationships with partners;

- sociability - the ability to use oral and written speech, stylistic and other expressive means to influence partners and achieve mutual understanding;

- ability to listen - the ability to perceive, assimilate and use information extracted from oral communication.

The reputation of a professional, the social and professional capital he has accumulated largely determine the success of his activity in professional networks. Since network forms of organization imply a transition to contractual forms of attracting personnel, the manager must build work with him on the basis of not only formal and informal methods, but also using psychological contact techniques.

78. HR CHALLENGES DURING A CRISIS

In a crisis situation the management personnel of the enterprise must conduct a serious analysis and decide on possible options for further development. There are several options.

1. Sale of the enterprise - complete liquidation, sale of assets, dismissal of personnel and complete cessation of activities.

2. The introduction of external management - the invitation of a new manager.

3. Search for investments for a specific project, investment of funds - restructuring of production without changing the head.

In both the 2nd and 3rd cases, the task of normalizing activities remains, and for this it is necessary to analyze the financial condition, find a way for reorganization, develop anti-crisis marketing, investment and organizational and production strategies, find new partners and investors.

To overcome the emerging crisis especially important is the work with the staff. The activity of the personnel service at this stage should include the diagnosis of the personnel potential of the enterprise; development of a reorganization strategy and personnel programs to support the reorganization; staff reduction; increase in labor productivity; resolution of conflicts, especially aggravated during this period.

When developing an anti-crisis program working with the organization's personnel, it is important to perceive the crisis situation somewhat more broadly than just a crisis in a situation of a decline in production and loss of a customer.

From the point of view of the human factor, a crisis situation is characterized by the emergence of at least two problems:

- discrepancy between the professional tools owned by the organization's personnel and those required for the new situation;

- inadequacy of the norms and rules of intraorganizational life (corporate or organizational culture) to new conditions. Crisis management personnel in such conditions is designed to take into account a whole range of issues of adaptation of the employee to the external and internal conditions of the functioning and development of the organization.

Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of motivational attitudes, the ability to form and direct them in accordance with the objectives of the organization. This should also include the problems of interaction between the leaders of the organization with trade unions and employment services, ensuring the safety of personnel, and developing fundamentally new approaches to the priority of values. During a crisis, HR should focus on promising areas of work with personnel:

- mass retraining of employees of the organization in connection with the transition to new technologies;

- rejuvenation of personnel by attracting young professionals;

- development of principles of employment of employees in case of their mass release;

- attraction of wide layers of employees to participate in the management of the organization.

It is also important effective use of HR marketing, which is provided in a number of ways:

- search for promising students;

- cooperation with the state employment service;

- the use of private firms in the selection and training of personnel;

- interaction with organizations leasing personnel;

- organization of prognostic studies on the problems of training and retraining of qualified employees of the organization. A strategic task at the stage of crisis is also the formation of an appropriate organizational culture of the enterprise.

79. TYPOLOGY OF CRISIS SITUATIONS

Types of crisis situations due to the stages of development of the organization.

The transition from the stage of formation of the organization to its intensive growth, as a rule, is accompanied by the first crisis situation - a crisis of growth.

Formation stage characterized by the presence in the organization of both specialist developers who are ready to create and offer a finished product, and the predominance of trusting relationships inherent in organic organizational culture. At this stage, the "creators" (or in addition) should be replaced by specialists who can ensure the promotion of goods on the market.

The next crisis situation awaits the organization, which is moving from the stage of intensive growth to the stage of stabilization. it maturity crisis. For the stabilization stage specialists capable of creating effective technologies are needed, which means that specialists in the promotion of goods must be replaced (or supplemented) by "technologists". The environment for their functioning should be the rules of strict hierarchy, subordination, due to professional activities. This type of relationship is characteristic of a bureaucratic organizational culture.

The next crisis awaits the organization during the transition from the stabilization stage to decline stage. It is this crisis that is considered the crisis itself. In order to survive in a recession, an organization needs very special people who can combine the skills of developers, salespeople and technologists. To overcome the crisis itself, the charisma of the leader is of particular importance.

An important feature of the situation of the crisis itself, which determines the ability or inability of the organization to survive, is the desire and orientation of employees to change.

Typology of situations of own crisis.

1. A situation where employees of an organization do not want to work in new conditions, but are equipped with tools. The task of the manager is to increase the level of motivation of employees for changes, the search for new areas of activity. To do this, he can resort to provoking a change in value orientations through conflict. Either the manager manages to convince the employees of the correctness of the strategy he proposes and establish normal working contact with his subordinates, or he fails and then it remains to get rid of the opposing employees.

2. The situation when the employees of the organization do not want to work in new conditions and are not sufficiently equipped with tools. The staff of the organization is confident that all the reasons for their difficult situation are related to external factors that cannot be influenced. The assessment of own resources is most often inadequately overestimated. The easiest way out of the crisis is to fully provide the organization with the resources to carry out the usual activities. The task of the manager is to resist manipulation by the staff.

3. A situation where employees of an organization want to work in new conditions, but are not sufficiently equipped with tools. For them, the most significant issue is the level of professional competence of the leader - they will obey him only if he himself is able to work in a new way. Therefore, the manager needs to organize the process of professional training directly at the workplace, and it is also necessary that he and his management team work in a continuous learning mode.

4. A situation where employees want to work in new conditions and are equipped with the appropriate tools. Even here there can be a crisis. The organization in such a situation is characterized by a high degree of readiness for change, self-organization.

80. HIGHLIGHTS OF THE PERSONNEL CRISIS

Most crises start due to miscalculations in assessing the situation, inattention or negligence in the actions of the employee, as well as the manager or supervisor. The role of hidden motivation of certain actions is emphasized, first of all, of decision makers at the middle and highest levels of organization management. Human error is inevitable and occurs in any environment; the rationality of people's behavior is limited - they prefer to stick to a formed opinion about the danger, even if the available information contradicts it. The very interaction of people generates new types of errors and misunderstandings that can lead to a crisis.

The main causes of the personnel crisis are:

- the emergence of significant disagreements in the team;

- organization in the team of another initiative group;

- limited resources;

- dependence on market conditions;

- available overloads in work;

- working conditions and unpreparedness of production;

- low salary;

- insufficient technical equipment;

- problems of turning an intellectual product into intellectual property;

- conservatism in innovations;

- complex communication links;

- a large number of management personnel;

- low-dynamic scientific structures;

- poor adaptability and weak response to fundamentally new products;

- organizational inertia.

In general, all of the above reasons lead to the following situation in the organization:

- the quality of the organization's personnel (level of education, qualifications) does not correspond to innovations (new equipment, technology, methods of organization), as a result, there is a mismatch of actions and a decrease in the competitiveness of the organization;

- shortage of labor force of necessary professions;

- inefficient use of the organization's existing personnel;

- discrepancy between the quality of the employee and the quality of the workplace;

- a weak, ineffective system of staff motivation due to conservatism and rigid authoritarianism of management, which leads to an increase in resistance to changes on the part of staff;

- incompetence or weakness of management, unwillingness to learn new management methods;

- curtailment or prohibition of informal relations on the part of management.

To prevent and eradicate such crisis manifestations, it is necessary to develop and implement the personnel policy of the organization that solves these problems.

Avoid or at least reduce the negative effects of the personnel crisis it is quite possible if the personnel policy of the organization is based on the following basic principles:

- the same need to achieve individual and organizational goals;

- conformity;

- professional competence;

- individuality;

- competitiveness, rotation and individual training;

- regularity of assessment of individual qualities and capabilities;

- assessment and advanced training;

- self-expression and self-development;

- motivation;

- Compliance of wages with the quality and volume of work;

- a uniform combination of incentives and sanctions.

81. CRISIS MANAGEMENT

The crisis is a deep disorder, a sharp pearl, a period of exacerbation of contradictions in the process of development of any sphere of human activity. Crises can be divided into economic, political and social, one or another system.

Images of crises also stand out: crisis as a shock; crisis as a dead end; crisis as a pathological condition and a crisis with a fatal outcome. The weakest, mildest crisis can be defined as a shock to the system, its breakdown, interruption in its functioning. Characteristic of this image of the crisis is that no deeper and more tragic changes are taking place. After a kind of "shake-up" the system continues its life with minor adjustments.

A more complex, deeper crisis - crisis as a dead end. In this case, as a result of the crisis, the system in its development comes to a standstill. In order to get out of such a crisis, the system needs to "turn back" so that, upon reaching a certain "basic" moment, it is necessary to choose new guidelines, a new path of development.

Crisis as a pathological condition - a kind of "disease" of the system. Accordingly, the removal from this state will be similar to treatment. To do this, it is necessary to make a diagnosis, find out the causes of the disease and directly treat either by eliminating (changing) the factors that caused the disease, or by eliminating (changing) specific external manifestations of the disease (symptomatic treatment). A crisis with a fatal outcome is manifested in the complete destruction, elimination of the system. The way out of such a crisis will be a renewal, the creation of an essentially new organism. In the works of foreign experts, the concept of "crisis management", or crisis management, is used, which is largely comparable to the concept of "anti-crisis management". Thus, crisis management is understood as a set of measures aimed at preventing, responding and studying crises.

Crisis management strategy includes four interrelated areas:

- crisis management (limitation of their consequences, compensation for the damage caused and return to the previous situation);

- preparation for crises (in particular, the formation of crisis departments);

- prevention of crises (reducing the likelihood of their occurrence on the basis of a critical assessment of products, services and production methods);

- prevention of counter-production, which refers to the destructive consequences of production in both "normal" and crisis conditions. Anti-crisis management functions are the types of activities that reflect the subject of management and determine its result. They answer the question: what should be done to manage successfully in anticipation, process and consequences of the crisis. There are six management functions: pre-crisis management, crisis management, management of crisis recovery processes, stabilization of unstable situations, minimization of losses and missed opportunities, timely decision-making.

Crisis Management Effectiveness achieved on the basis of:

- professionalism of anti-crisis management and its special training;

- possessing the art of management;

- methodology for developing risky decisions;

- scientific analysis of the situation, forecasting trends;

- corporatism, i.e. acceptance by all employees of the goals of the organization;

- leadership as a characteristic of the organization management organization;

- efficiency and flexibility of management;

- strategies and quality of anti-crisis programs;

- relying on the human factor;

- monitoring systems for anti-crisis situations.

82. OVERCOMING A CRISIS IN THE ORGANIZATION WITH THE HELP OF STAFF

To overcome the crisis in the organization it is necessary to mobilize human resources as soon as possible to implement the enterprise recovery plan. Human resource mobilization process a crisis enterprise can be represented as successive phases of the activity of the enterprise management:

- agitation phase - the creation of a sense of "strategic discomfort" among the staff, associated with the realization of the fact that the personal fate of employees depends on the survival of the company, is due to radical changes in the management strategy; formation of the image of a reliable and influential leader; establishment of bilateral channels of organizational communications between the anti-crisis manager and the team;

- phase of professional growth - creation of conditions for staff development; formation of mechanisms that support learning processes in the organization; ensuring a high level of motivation for self-development among employees; formulating a new mission of the enterprise and a vision of its future; the use of special language means, symbols and metaphors in organizational communication for effective mutual understanding and emotional support of employees of the enterprise; development by employees of the enterprise of the mechanisms of a market economy, entrepreneurial culture;

- integration phase - creation of new role models that reinforce new patterns of activity and behavior in the culture of a crisis enterprise; creative development and improvement of these models based on constant reflection on practice; selection and implementation of a series of projects in which promising ideas are successfully embodied, allowing to unite the efforts of all employees of a crisis enterprise.

Formation of a unique human resources potential necessary to maintain the level of competitiveness of a crisis enterprise. The thought leadership of the organization attracts talented people and creates a unique combination of professional abilities that contribute to leading the organization out of crisis.

Taking into account the specifics of the crisis of the enterprise, the manager must develop specific scenarios for working with personnel, choose the type of leadership that is most effective. In a crisis situation, issues related to the effectiveness of management teams, the adequacy of the type of team to the composition of the staff and the type of organizational culture are exacerbated.

There are four types of personnel policy, aimed at mobilizing human resources:

- passive policy, when the management does not have a pronounced program of action for personnel, it does not have a forecast of staffing needs and operates in an emergency response mode to emerging crisis situations;

- reactive personnel policy characterized by the fact that the management controls the symptoms of crisis situations in current activities, and problems arise in the medium-term forecasting of negative personnel situations;

- preventive personnel policy is based on reasonable forecasts of the development of crisis situations. The main problem is the development of targeted personnel programs;

- active personnel policy occurs when the organization has not only a forecast, but also means of influencing the situation.

83. JAPANESE WORKFORCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

"Japanization" of personnel management methods spread widely after the success of the largest Japanese companies. In 1981, American professor W. Ouchi put forward the "Z" theory. After studying the Japanese experience of management, he came to the conclusion that an effective type of Japanese approach to management can be proposed.

The starting point of the Ouchi concept is the position that a person is the basis of any organization, and the success of the functioning of the organization primarily depends on him. Ouchi formulated the basic provisions and rules for managing people, based on which one can achieve effective management. The ideas of "Z" theory, in a condensed form, boil down to the following:

- long-term recruitment;

- group decision making;

- individual responsibility;

- slow assessment of personnel and their moderate promotion;

- indefinite, informal control by clear and formalized methods;

- unspecialized career;

- Comprehensive care for employees.

Japanese philosophy of workforce management is based on the traditions of respect for the elder, collectivism, universal consent, politeness and paternalism. The prevailing theory of human relations and devotion to the ideals of the company, life-long hiring of employees in large companies, the constant rotation of personnel, the creation of conditions for effective collective work.

The main criteria The Japanese philosophy of human resource management of an organization are the following provisions:

- the basis of the organization is universal harmony;

- in relation to a person to work, the fulfillment of duties should prevail;

- almost complete absence of competition between employees;

- the employee is provided with high guarantees in the form of lifetime employment;

- decision-making is carried out from the bottom up;

- in rare cases, there is a delegation of power;

- family relations with subordinates are common, the team is one family;

- hiring of new employees is carried out immediately after graduation;

- remuneration, its growth depends on the length of service in the organization.

in Japanese factories workers are considered as valuable as expensive equipment, they are tried to be used in the best possible way. Continuous training, job rotation, foreign internships are used as engines of workforce planning. Quality circles increase the level of knowledge, the distribution of production tasks is more often carried out by groups than by individuals, and joint learning is encouraged. Job rotation between departments, open communications, information exchange between management levels, low staff attrition, the overall participation of employees in management, the relationship between production tasks and employee qualifications leads to the creation of sophisticated "personal" labor resource management systems.

System of permanent (lifetime) employment gives a strong incentive to create in most firms a detailed policy for each stage of the career of employees. All stages of the relationship between the employee and the organization - adaptation, career, retirement - are very specific. The main thing: the more complex and advanced the technology used by the company, the more sophisticated the practice of personnel work at all stages of the labor cycle.

84. ANTI-CRISIS MANAGEMENT AND ITS FEATURES

Crisis management - this is management, in which the prediction of the danger of the crisis is set in a certain way, the analysis of its symptoms, measures to reduce the negative consequences of the crisis and the use of its factors for subsequent development.

The possibility of anti-crisis management is determined by the human factor, since it is the conscious activity of a person that makes it possible to seek and find ways out of critical situations, to concentrate efforts on solving the most difficult problems, to use the accumulated experience in overcoming crises, and to adapt to emerging situations. The possibility of anti-crisis management is also determined by the knowledge of the cyclical nature of the development of socio-economic systems, which makes it possible to foresee crisis situations.

The whole set of problems of anti-crisis management can be represented by four groups:

1) the problems of recognizing pre-crisis situations consist in anticipating the onset of a crisis, in detecting its first signs, its nature; in building and launching a crisis prevention mechanism;

2) problems related to the key areas of the organization's life: the mission and purpose of management are formulated, the ways, means and methods of management in a crisis situation are determined;

3) the problem of differentiation of management technologies. It includes the problems of predicting crises and behavioral options for the socio-economic system in a crisis state, the problems of finding the necessary information and developing management decisions;

4) problems of conflict management and staff selection, which always accompany crisis situations, problems of investing in anti-crisis measures, marketing, as well as problems of bankruptcy and reorganization of enterprises.

The essence of crisis management is expressed in the following provisions: crises can be foreseen, expected and caused; crises to a certain extent can be accelerated, anticipated, postponed; it is possible and necessary to prepare for crises; crises can be mitigated; crisis management requires special approaches, special knowledge, experience and art; crisis processes can be controlled to a certain extent; management of crisis recovery processes can accelerate these processes and minimize their consequences.

Crises are different, and their management can be different, so the anti-crisis management system must have special properties, the main of which are: flexibility and adaptability; propensity to strengthen informal management, motivation of enthusiasm, patience, confidence; diversification of management, search for the most appropriate typological features of effective management in difficult situations; reducing centralism to ensure timely situational response to emerging problems; strengthening of integration processes, allowing to concentrate efforts and more effectively use the potential of competence.

Anti-crisis management has features in terms of its processes and technologies. The main ones are mobility and dynamism in the use of resources, the implementation of changes, the implementation of innovative programs; implementation of program-target approaches in technologies for the development and implementation of management decisions; increased sensitivity to the time factor in management processes, the implementation of timely actions on the dynamics of situations; increased attention to preliminary and subsequent assessments of management decisions and the choice of alternatives to behavior and activities; use of an anti-crisis criterion for the quality of solutions in their development and implementation.

85. PRINCIPLES OF ANTI-CRISIS PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

All principles of personnel management can be divided into three groups.

1. General principles, regulating the activities of state governments in general (scientific, concrete historical approach, morality, legality, democracy, continuity and turnover).

2. Specific principles determining the management of personnel potential in organizations: the principles of formation of a unique personnel potential of a crisis enterprise and its optimization; the principle of complementarity of managerial roles in the enterprise.

3. private principles, regulating the functioning of certain aspects of the activities of managerial personnel (principles of the activities of personnel services for the selection, placement, selection, training and retraining of personnel).

The general principles of anti-crisis management are as follows.

1. The principle of system. The systemic nature of management provides for a coordinated approach to all areas of the organization's human capital formation: recruitment, selection, placement of management personnel, their training and retraining, selection, and employment.

2. Equal Opportunity Principle representatives of all social, class, national and gender groups of the organization. Professional qualities are the main criterion for evaluating an employee when he is promoted.

3. The principle of respect for man and his dignity consists in the maximum development of initiative, professional skills; encouraging the achievements of employees; creating opportunities for creative growth; in the protection of rights, dignity, guarantees of personal security.

4. The principle of command unity. All team members have equal conditions, are collectively responsible for the results of the team's activities, plan activities taking into account the work plan of each team member.

5. The principle of horizontal cooperation. Today there is a tendency to transfer rights and responsibilities to the lower level of management in the absence of strict control from above.

6. The principle of legal and social security.

Private principles of anti-crisis management.

1. The principle of taking into account the long-term perspective of the organization involves the implementation of strategic forecasting and planning for the development of the organization.

2. The principle of integration and team cohesion is to educate the team in the spirit of corporate, joint responsibility and understanding that the personal fate of each depends on the survival of the organization, on the desire of employees for self-development, for professional development and respect for employees to each other.

3. The principle of participation of employees in decision-making, which prevents personnel from resisting organizational and technological innovations, promotes mutual understanding between managers and ordinary workers, and increases labor productivity.

4. The principle of relying on the professional core of human resources, which is a set of abilities of the employees of the organization, which provide it with a strategic advantage in the markets of goods, services and knowledge.

5. The principle of maintaining a balance of interests of managers and subordinate employees. To do this, surveys (anonymous) are conducted, information is collected about what employees think about the activities of the manager and the organization as a whole.

6. Principles of cooperation with trade unions and the public. Managers need to work with unions, seek partnerships, strictly enforce agreements, and use their power and authority when conflicts arise.

86. THE ESSENCE OF THE CONFLICT

Conflict - a clash of contradictory or incompatible forces, a contradiction that arises between people, teams in the process of their joint labor activity due to misunderstanding or opposition of interests, lack of agreement between the parties.

The conflict that arises in an organization is called organizational.

There is an opinion that conflict is always an undesirable phenomenon, leading to a decrease in the efficiency of joint labor activity and curtailment of interpersonal relations. However, it is not. Conflicts perform both negative and positive functions.

Positive functions of conflicts:

- in the course of the conflict there is a detente between the conflicting parties;

- previously hidden information about the subjects of the conflict and the causes of its occurrence becomes known, which ultimately increases the controllability of the conflict;

- there is a rallying of the organization's team in the confrontation with an external enemy;

- the conflict stimulates the organization to change and develop, since its resolution is impossible without appropriate progressive changes;

- the syndrome of submissiveness is removed from subordinates, industrial democracy develops;

- Diagnostics of possible opponents is carried out to prevent conflicts.

Negative features of conflicts:

- the conflict brings with it large material, emotional costs for the participation of all participants in the conflict;

- often there is a dismissal of employees, a decrease in discipline, a deterioration in the socio-psychological climate in the team;

- an idea is formed about the defeated groups or individuals as enemies;

- excessive enthusiasm for the process of conflict interaction to the detriment of work;

- after the end of the conflict, there is often a decrease in the degree of cooperation between part of the cooperation up to the curtailment of business contacts;

- complex restoration of business conflicts ("conflict trail").

The conflict may be functional, i.e. useful for members of the labor collective and the organization as a whole, and dysfunctional (destructive), reducing productivity, personal satisfaction and eliminating cooperation between team members.

Conflict is an evolving process consisting of several stages.

1 stage - the emergence of a conflict situation. At the heart of any conflict is a situation that includes either opposite positions of the parties on any issue, or opposite goals or means to achieve them, or a mismatch of interests, opponents. Thus, the conflict situation includes subjects and objects of the conflict. For the conflict to begin to develop, an incident is necessary when one of the parties begins to act, infringing on the interests of the other.

2 stage - the development of the conflict, which depends primarily on subjective circumstances, including the personality of those involved in it. An objectively arisen conflict situation can end by eliminating the object that caused its appearance.

3 stage - Crisis and rupture of relations between opponents. This stage, in turn, consists of two phases: constructive and destructive. As part of the constructive phase, the possibility of joint activities remains, and opponents can still be put at the negotiating table. On the destructive one, no cooperation is already possible: the opponents lose their self-control, and they must be separated.

4 stage - the end of the conflict in various ways and methods.

87. TYPES OF CONFLICTS IN ORGANIZATION

In relation to an individual subject conflicts are internal and external. The former include intrapersonal conflicts, the latter are interpersonal, between an individual and a group, intergroup.

Intrapersonal conflict due to the contradiction of man with himself. Most often, it is generated when a person is faced with a mismatch between external requirements and internal positions and motivation (dissatisfaction with work, the impossibility of realizing one's labor potential), or when the problem arises of choosing one of several possible and desired options (role conflict).

Interpersonal conflict. Most common, involves two or more individuals if they perceive themselves as being in opposition to each other in terms of goals, values, or behavior (problems of resource allocation in a team, disputes over a vacant job, disagreement, etc.). For the leader, such conflicts are the most difficult.

Conflicts between the individual and the group. They are mainly due to the discrepancy between individual and group norms of behavior. Anyone who does not perceive them becomes in opposition, risks being left alone and being unrecognized by the team.

intergroup conflicts, that is, between groups (formal and informal) and between trade unions and management. Such conflicts are usually active and involve a large number of employees, which makes them difficult to resolve.

Depending on organizational levels, to which the parties belong, conflicts are divided into:

- horizontal - between individual areas of activity in the organization, between formal and informal teams, etc.;

- vertical - between different levels of the hierarchy, their majority, about 70-80%;

- mixed, containing elements of both vertical and horizontal conflicts.

By origin and development conflicts can be divided into:

- business related to the official activities of a person, with the performance of business duties;

- personal, affecting informal relationships.

According to the distribution between the parties of losses and gains conflicts are divided into:

- symmetrical, with an equal distribution of the results of the conflict;

- asymmetric, when some lose or win much more than others.

According to the degree of manifestation, conflicts are divided into:

- hidden, usually affecting two people who, for the time being, try not to show the appearance that they are in conflict. Hidden conflicts often develop in the form of intrigue, which is understood as a deliberate dishonest action that is beneficial to the initiator, which forces the team or individual to certain actions and thereby damages the team and the individual;

- open, under the control of management, so they are less dangerous to the organization.

The nature conflicts are divided into:

- objective, related to real problems and shortcomings that arise in the process of functioning and development of the organization, i.e. have a business basis;

- subjective ones are due to the difference in individual assessments of certain events, relationships between people. They are always emotional and are often the result of people's psychological incompatibility, their misunderstanding and unwillingness to understand each other. By its consequences conflicts are:

- constructive, contributing to the development of the organization. However, any constructive conflict, if it is not overcome in a timely manner, turns into a destructive one;

- destructive, causing damage to the organization. It is important to know that the division of conflicts into types is conditional.

88. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS AT THE ENTERPRISE

Every conflict has a reason (source) occurrence. The causes that give rise to conflicts can be divided into three groups: arising in the process of work, caused by the psychological characteristics of human relationships, due to the personal characteristics of the employees of the organization.

The first group includes:

- insufficient coherence and inconsistency of the goals of individual groups and employees, due to the ambiguity of setting the goals and objectives of each unit and employee, poor organization of the labor process;

- task interdependence, where one person or group is dependent on another person or group to complete a task;

- fatigue of the organizational structure, unclear distribution of rights and duties, giving rise to double or triple subordination of performers. As a result, the subordinate is forced either to rank incoming orders according to their degree of importance, or to demand this from his immediate supervisor, or to grab onto everything;

- limited resources, and the allocation of a larger share of resources to one will mean that other members of the team will not receive them, which will cause discontent and lead to conflicts;

- poor communication. Employees who do not have reliable information cannot understand the situation or the point of view of others;

- insufficient level of professional training, as a result, such an employee is not trusted to perform certain types of work, so some employees are overloaded with work, while others are overloaded with it;

- unfavorable physical conditions, such as extraneous noise, heat or cold, poor layout of the workplace;

- uncertainty of growth prospects, while the employee works without enthusiasm, and the labor process becomes painful and endless for him.

to the second group refers to the psychological phenomenon of a person, manifested in a sense of resentment and envy; mutual likes and dislikes of people.

The third group includes such causes of conflicts as contradictions between the functions that are part of the employee's job responsibilities and what he is forced to do at the request of the head, if the head is prone to bureaucratic procedures; unreasonable public censure of some and undeserved praise of other employees; differences in behavior and life experiences. There are aggressive and hostile people who do not know how to control their emotions. Differences in life experience, values, education, seniority, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation in the workforce; lack of benevolent attention from the manager, his intolerance of criticism, inattention to the needs and problems of subordinates, etc.

Causes are only the causes of conflicts when they make it impossible for an individual or a group to realize their needs, they hurt personal and group interests. The reaction of the individual is largely determined by the social maturity of the individual, the forms of behavior acceptable for her, the social norms and rules adopted in the team. In certain situations, the manager himself becomes the source of the conflict, especially if he is inclined to introduce a lot of petty things into the fundamental struggle of opinions, and allows himself personal attacks, is vindictive and suspicious, does not hesitate to publicly demonstrate his likes and dislikes.

Causes of the conflict there may be such characteristics of a leader as unscrupulousness, a false understanding of one-man command as a principle of management, vanity and arrogance, harshness and rudeness in communicating with subordinates.

89. INTERPERSONAL STYLES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

There are several tactics for resolving conflicts, they lie in the plane of interpersonal relations and can be represented by five main styles.

The style of avoiding or avoiding conflict. It is associated with a lack of personal perseverance and a desire to cooperate with others as it permits. If the conflict has objective reasons, this approach is favorable, because it gives them the opportunity to calm down, comprehend the situation and come to the conclusion that there are no grounds for confrontation and its continuation is meaningless. If the conflict is objective, then the tactics of avoiding the conflict leads to the loss of both its participants and the organization as a whole, since time is dragging out, and the causes that caused the conflict not only persist, but may even worsen.

Smoothing (fitting) style. It is used when one of the parties is not interested in the subject of the conflict, her rank turns out to be higher, and she provides the other side with the opportunity to get what is more important to her, while she herself remains without a win, but does not lose either. This style reduces the intensity of passions, allows you to comprehend the situation and maintain good relations. However, the owners of this style, although they are positively evaluated by others, are often perceived by others as weak natures, easily amenable to other people's influence.

Style of coercion (resolution of the conflict by force in one's favor). It is characterized by great personal involvement and interest in resolving the conflict, but without taking into account the position of the other side. Make them accept their point of view at any cost. This style requires power or physical advantage to apply, so it is often accompanied by illicit force, intimidation, blackmail, etc.

The disadvantages of this method are: the suppression of the initiative of subordinates, the likelihood that all important factors will not be taken into account, since only one point of view is represented and dominates. At the same time, others develop an unfavorable opinion about the individual using this style.

Compromise style It consists in such behavior in the course of resolving an interpersonal conflict, which moderately takes into account the interests of each of the parties. Since in this case both parties do not lose, this style is widely used in practice, but, as a rule, it is not possible to make an optimal solution, since the problem itself remains unresolved. Compromise allows you to save the relationship and gain something instead of losing everything. According to experts in the field of management, the choice of a compromise strategy is the best way to eliminate contradictions. However, the use of compromise at an early stage of the conflict, which arose in connection with the solution of an important problem, can interfere with the search for alternatives.

Problem solving style (final conflict resolution). It involves acknowledging differences of opinion and willingness to learn from other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find a course of action acceptable to all parties. Everyone benefits from this style. Firstly, opponents become partners, and consequently, the situation in the organization improves. Secondly, the problem is resolved and ceases to exist. Thirdly, the benefits acquired by the parties, even if they are unevenly distributed, still exceed those that can be obtained using any other style. This style is based on the attitude to the conflict as a normal phenomenon, which nevertheless needs to be overcome and overcome.

The specific use of a particular style depends on the nature of the behavior of the participants in the conflict.

90. CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict management - this is a targeted impact to eliminate (minimize) the causes of the conflict or to correct the behavior of the participants in the conflict, change their goals.

The manager should not eliminate the conflict, but manage it and use it effectively. The first step in conflict management is to understand its sources. The manager should find out: this is a simple dispute about resources, a misunderstanding on some problem, different approaches to the value system of people, or is it a conflict that arose as a result of mutual intolerance, psychological incompatibility. After determining the causes of the conflict, he must minimize the number of its participants, because the fewer people involved in the conflict, the less effort will be required to resolve it.

There are three perspectives on conflict:

1) the manager believes that the conflict is not needed, it only harms the organization, so it must be eliminated in any way;

2) conflict is an undesirable but common by-product of any organization, and the manager must eliminate conflict wherever it occurs;

3) conflict is not only inevitable, but also necessary and potentially useful, and this is quite normal. Depending on the point of view on the conflict, which the manager adheres to, the procedure for overcoming it will depend. In this regard, there are two large groups of ways to manage conflicts:

- pedagogical (conversation, request, persuasion, explanation of the requirements for work and illegal actions of the conflicting);

- administrative (forceful resolution of the conflict, resolution by order).

To resolve organizational conflicts, structural methods of managing conflicts within the organization are used, which are associated with the use of changes in the structure of the organization and aimed at reducing the intensity of the conflict. These methods include:

- clarification of the requirements for work, i.e., what results are expected from each employee and unit within the framework of the delegation of authority and responsibility, clearly formulated policies and certain rules of conduct in the organization;

- application of coordination and integration mechanisms. The first, the most common, is the sequential application of a chain of commands, which streamlines the interaction of people within the established hierarchy of authority. To implement the integration, the creation of special services, target groups for communication between functions within the management structure is used;

- the establishment of a corporate set of goals, the implementation of which requires the joint efforts of two or more employees or departments. It is important that each of the participants clearly understand their place and role in the overall process;

- the use of a reward system that can be used to have a positive impact on people's behavior if the manager sees that individual employees effectively help achieve organizational goals and try to approach problem solving in an integrated manner. The reward system should not encourage non-constructive behavior of individuals and groups. The systematic use of a reward system helps people quickly understand the basic rules of behavior in a team and conflict situations. In this way, conflict situations in the labor collectives of organizations are manageable. In complex situations, where a variety of approaches and accurate information are significant factors influencing decision-making, managers must promptly identify emerging conflicts and resolve them, and in some cases encourage the occurrence of situations and manage them to resolve problems.

Authors: Zamedlina E.A., Zhulina E.G.

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