LECTURE No. 2. Culture from ancient to modern times

1. Change of cultures

In understanding the theory of culture, an important role is played by such a principle as historicism. That is, the approach to the study of culture should be as a phenomenon developing over time. After all, history is characterized by such a pattern as a change of cultures. At first glance, it may seem that a particular culture strives for the greatest sustainability, which would lead to its long-term existence. But meanwhile, in history we observe that a certain culture is a temporary phenomenon.

This means that when studying the history of culture, one must not forget to consider it as a directed process. What is this direction? It is precisely connected with the historicism of culture. The orientation of culture is defined as a certain development in time from the past to the future. With such a view of culture, we will be able not only to consider it at a certain point in time, but also to determine its movement, transformation, and also to compare different temporary states.

But as noted above, one specific culture can not only move in time, but also be replaced by another specific culture.

There can be two reasons for this:

1) external circumstances, such as an ecological catastrophe, a political crisis, the acquisition of another culture, etc.;

2) cultural reform based on the continuity of cultures.

With the first reason, everything is more or less clear, so let's dwell on the consideration of the second - on the cultural reform. After all, at first glance, the established culture is not the only one. In addition to it, there will always be a number of smaller crops that can influence the main crop. Sometimes these minor cultures may even be in opposition to the dominant culture. This leads to its modifications. An example is the medieval culture of the Renaissance that appeared as if in opposition. Despite its differences, this culture has absorbed some of the features of the opposition culture, such as mysticism, nominalism, etc.

But the reforms of cultures do not always go quietly and calmly, when cultures, borrowing something new, change, move to new stages. Sometimes conflict between cultures is the source of a cultural revolution. History knows a number of such examples.

In 1966-1976 A cultural revolution took place in China, which led the country to a huge crisis. The Cultural Revolution took place in Europe in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. due to church reforms. It resulted in the emergence of a new branch of the Christian religion - Protestantism.

From the point of view of the temporal, historical classification of culture, epochs are distinguished:

1) primitive;

2) antiquity;

3) medieval culture;

4) the culture of the new time;

5) the culture of modern times.

Of course, these are not all cultural epochs, but significant ones.

2. Culture of primitive peoples

Primitiveness This is the childhood of all mankind. It is in the primitive era that most of the history of mankind falls. Despite this, our knowledge of these distant times is very scarce.

One of the most striking events of that time was the transition of a person from the stage of skillful (Homo habilis) to the reasonable stage (Homosapiens). This transition did not happen overnight; he had to overcome a long and difficult path. Scientists are still arguing about how everything happened, when Homo sapiens appeared, and how he settled throughout the globe.

Many people tend to think that humans descended from African monkeys 8-5 million years ago, since monkeys split into two branches. One had great apes, such as chimpanzees; in the other, Australopithecus, the ancestral form of humans.

How is man different from apes? The thing is that for a person the world around him is the object of his thoughts and speech. The formation of communities with specific goals led to the formation of mankind. As a result - the emergence of art.

The huge period of the primitive era makes it logical to periodize it. Periods of the primitive world:

1) Stone Age (2 million - 6 thousand years ago). It in turn is divided into:

a) ancient, another name is Paleolithic, it consists of lower, middle and upper (late);

b) medium (Mesolithic);

c) new (Neolithic);

2) copper age (4-3 thousand years BC);

3) the Bronze Age (beginning of the 1st millennium BC);

4) Iron Age (from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC).

One of the most striking achievements of primitive man is his mastery of such skills as agriculture and cattle breeding. This happened about ten thousand years ago. How did people feed themselves before that? Their extraction of means of subsistence at that time did not differ much from animal habits.

There were three ways to get food:

1) gathering;

2) hunting;

3) fishing.

An interesting fact is that already in the Paleolithic, reasonable solutions to problems can be traced among people of that time. For example, despite the fact that the tools for hunting were very primitive, brilliant tactics with which they hunted animals helped not to starve to death. Only at the beginning of the Mesolithic do bows and arrows appear, which means that the main quality of a hunter is now not strength and tactics of action, but accuracy. At the same time, fishing techniques improved, such devices as hooks and nets appeared, which are used to this day.

In the Mesolithic era, the first signs appear that people are moving from appropriation to agriculture. This is evidenced by such finds dating back to the Mesolithic era as sickles, grains of barley, wheat, etc.

In addition to agriculture, people began to master another type of producing economy - animal husbandry. Scientists tend to argue that it was the farmers who first began to domesticate animals.

All this contributed to the simplification of human life and, as a result, the growth of the human race.

Now man is not just a part of nature. He himself is able to change the world around him, in particular, through art.

Already in the Stone Age, the first signs were discovered that a person was beginning to express himself through various forms of art. In 1836 French geologist, archaeologist Edward Parte (1801-1871) in the grotto of Chaffaut in the department of Vienne, discovered a plate on which an engraving was made. E. Larte was the founder of paleontology, he discovered Aurignacian culture. This is the name of the Late Paleolithic culture in Western Europe. A variety of female figurines made of bone and stone have been preserved. These figurines, which speak of the cult of the ancestral mother, are called Venuses. It is interesting that similar Venuses have been found in various remote areas of the globe (Italy, Austria, Russia, France).

But still the main theme in art was the theme of hunting. And the main object of creativity were animals. Various depictions of prehistoric animals that have been found indicate that hunters have studied the various habits of animals very thoroughly. Comprehending the surrounding world, a person very accurately managed to depict animals on engravings, in sculptures made of stone, wood or clay. On the other hand, there were incomparably few images of people, since the person himself did not enjoy as much attention as the world around him.

In the primitive era, people begin to use all kinds of symbols to convey their feelings and visions. The symbols of that time can be not only realistic and understandable, but also extremely conditional. These symbols carry a great aesthetic load, which conveys the feelings and opinions of the author.

Consider the cultures of different eras of the primitive world separately and in more detail.

Paleolithic era

Art never stands still, it develops. This is primarily due to the fact that a person constantly learns something new, learns the world around him more and more. And art just reflects the knowledge gained by a person by various means.

So in the Paleolithic era, art did not stand still. Scientists usually distinguish three stages in visual activity, which are characterized by different artistic forms.

Stages in the visual arts of the Paleolithic following:

1) more natural creativity. This stage is based on creating natural layouts. Basically, these are various pictorial compositions from the carcasses of killed animals, their bones, etc.;

2) artificial figurative form. Natural models give way to other natural materials, mainly clay. Here you can find sculptures, profile contours, bas-reliefs and other compositions;

3) Upper Paleolithic art. These are various paintings on the walls of caves, engravings on bones, etc.

natural creativity most often accompanied by a set of ritual actions. They were carried out with the carcass and skin of a dead animal. Then a natural model was made, when the skin of an animal was thrown over a natural mound, and an animal head was put on top.

The gradual accumulation of creative experience has led people to start using artificial materials. This was expressed in the next step, in an artificially figurative form, when three-dimensional sculptures began to be created, gradually simplified to a bas-relief image, when a convex three-dimensional image protrudes above a flat background.

Bright images in a three-dimensional image, already colored, appear in the third stage - in Upper Paleolithic art. The main examples of fine art of this period are cave paintings. Some of the first such paintings date back to the Late Paleolithic. The palette of that time was not very rich. It has only four colors: black, white, yellow and red.

But fine art is not all the art of the Paleolithic era. One striking example is the development of musical art.

There are also three main stages:

1) imitation of the sounds of nature, when the heard motives are imitated with a voice;

2) an artificial intonation form, when motives are performed, while the pitch, tone position remain fixed;

3) intonational creativity - polyphonic motives (in two or three voices).

One important feature of Paleolithic art should be noted. All cultural monuments of this period performed not only the aesthetic functions of art, but were also used in religious and magical rites, they were a kind of guide in nature for a person.

Mesolithic and Neolithic eras

It was in the Mesolithic that a person moves from an appropriating way of obtaining food to a producing one. He begins to master agriculture and cattle breeding. This was facilitated by the appearance of the first metal tools.

Another achievement of the Mesolithic is the production of refractory clay. New types of fine art appear - decorations on the surfaces of clay vessels. This was mainly done by farmers.

The ornament that was used to decorate the surface of the dishes became noticeably more complicated in the Neolithic era. The Neolithic is marked by the emergence of such art forms as metalworking, ceramics. At this time, bows and arrows were invented, pottery began to be created.

The first metal products were forged. On the territory of Russia found metal products dated to the seventh millennium BC. And about five thousand years ago they began to make knives and hooks from copper. They were found in the Urals. Four thousand years ago, the first artistic castings appeared, and very skillful ones.

The Bronze Age

The visual art of the Bronze Age is characterized primarily by the fact that the image of the animal gradually disappears in the images created by the artists of the past. The main object for the fine arts are geometric shapes.

One of the brightest cultures of that time is considered Maykop culture. It belongs to the people who lived in the North Caucasus in the third millennium BC. One of the most significant and famous attractions is Maikop mound. It represents the burial of a tribal leader. The burial was very rich; it contained gold and silver jewelry, as well as a silver vessel on which a mountain range was depicted. The Maykop mound was discovered in the city of Maykop in 1897.

Another important advantage of the Bronze Age is the emergence of metallurgy and metalworking. This phenomenon belongs to the last stage of the Bronze Age. The centers of metallurgy were found in the northwest of the Caucasus.

Iron age

Along with bronze objects, iron objects begin to appear. As a result, the development of production is increasing. As a consequence of this development, there was a transition from pastoral tribes to nomadic pastoralism. But not all tribes were engaged in cattle breeding. The life of many tribes was based primarily on agriculture. But during the Iron Age, it was already plow agriculture. During this period, the social structure of the tribes changes.

An important feature of the Iron Age is the development of artistic crafts. These are mainly products made of gold, silver and bronze.

There was also great progress in architecture. In the Iron Age, structures such as fortresses appeared, designed to strengthen settlements. They were built most often from roughly hewn stones.

At the end of the primitive era, these types of settlements appear.

1. Unfortified settlements, these include settlements и parking. The sites date back to the Stone and Bronze Ages. The villages belong to the monuments of the Bronze and Iron Ages.

2. Fortified settlements. These are settlements such as settlements, common in the Neolithic era and in the Iron Age.

In addition to settlements, burials were common in the primitive era.

Burials are of two types:

1) unpaved burials, they were built without any grave structures;

2) burials with grave structures. These include mounds, tombs and megaliths.

Burials are real monuments of culture. Let's consider them in more detail.

Very interesting mounds Yamnaya culture. The Yamnaya culture is understood as a community of archaeological cultures dating back to the Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages (second half of the third - beginning of the second millennium BC). At the base of the mounds there was a belt of stone blocks or slabs. This belt is usually called cromlech. Often such slabs were covered with a carved geometric pattern. A wooden tent was placed on top of this stone belt; underground there was a wooden base.

Very often, in addition to all this construction, stone tombstones in the form of a statue of a person - stone women were placed above the barrows. This is a very significant phenomenon, since the image of a person in art begins to appear.

Another type of burials is megaliths, megalithic burials. They are more complex structures than mounds.

Megaliths are of two types.

Dolmens - structures made of large stones, which are a huge box, which was covered with a flat slab from above. Such designs were distributed primarily in the coastal regions of Europe and Asia, as well as in northern Africa. Translated from the Breton language, dolmen is a "table-stone".

Menhirs - structures, which are a long stone (from four meters), which was dug into the ground. Menhir in Breton means "long stone". Such megalithic burials were widespread in the west of Europe, North Africa, Siberia, the Caucasus and India.

One more variety of megalithic burials can be distinguished. Since the stones were placed in different ways, sometimes entire alleys were built from them. For example, in Carnac in France, 2683 menhirs were placed in the form of long alleys. And sometimes menhirs are placed in a circle, then it is customary to call them already cromlech.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that the culture of the primitive era was the basis for the further development of the entire world culture. All ancient cultures relied primarily on what had already been introduced by primitive peoples.

3. Culture of the Ancient World

The era of primitive society is being replaced by a period that is usually called the Ancient World in historiography. Its culture is based primarily on the culture of primitive predecessors.

The Ancient World is commonly understood as the ancient period in the history of Greece and Rome, as well as the Ancient East, which includes such countries as Egypt, India, China, Mesopotamia, etc. Let us dwell on the culture of the Ancient East.

The Ancient East

The culture of the Ancient East is represented by the cultures of several countries. For example, such as Ancient Egypt, Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient China, Ancient India. The cultures of these countries have many similarities, but there are also a number of differences due to various factors, such as geographical location.

Consider the culture of ancient Egypt.

Ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt is a very significant country not only for the Ancient East, but for the whole world, since it was Ancient Egypt that became the first state on Earth that grew to a great power, subsequently becoming a huge and powerful empire, also the first in the world. In this empire, there were laws that were unshakable and incomprehensible, all power belonged to the ruling class, to which the rest of the Egyptian people obeyed.

So where did such a powerful empire and the Egyptians come from? There is a lot of controversy here. But most Egyptologists are inclined to two opinions.

1. The ancient Egyptians were from Asia. This is evidenced by their language and character traits.

2. The ancient Egyptians are relatives of the Negro peoples. This version is supported by the Egyptian cult of the dead, their worship of animals and inanimate objects (fetishism).

But whoever turns out to be right, in any case, by the fourth millennium BC, the Egyptian people formed on the banks of the Nile River, and the first signs of statehood began to form there.

What was the state in ancient Egypt?

The head of state in Egypt was the pharaoh, who held absolute power, all of Egypt with all its many resources. Such absolute rights of the pharaoh were given primarily by the religion of the ancient Egyptians. It is according to religion that a person must unquestioningly obey the pharaoh, otherwise terrible consequences threaten him.

Religion played a big role in the life of the ancient Egyptians. They were pagans, that is, they worshiped not one, but many gods. According to some reports, there were from hundreds to thousands of different gods. The main one was the god of the Sun, who, depending on the time of day, had different names (Ra, Atum, etc.). It was the gods who endowed the pharaohs, according to the Egyptian religion, with unlimited power. But despite their divinity, not all pharaohs were pleased with the way the Egyptians thought, their worship of a huge number of gods. Namely, the existing polytheism could in no way contribute to the strengthening of the Egyptian state, its centralization. All this resulted in religious reform. Its essence was that the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep IV(1368-1351) declared the solar disk to be the true god. He gave him the name of the god Aton, he called himself Akhenaten, which in translation meant "pleasing to the god Aton." The next stage of his reforms was the closure of temples in which other gods were worshiped, all the property of these temples was confiscated. As a result, many dissatisfied people appeared. The priests did not want to put up with changes in religious life. Therefore, these reforms of Akhenaten turned out to be short-lived, the cults of the old gods were soon restored.

The religion of the Egyptians greatly influenced their culture.

A special place in the art of Ancient Egypt was occupied by architecture, and the most significant profession was the architect, who continuously monitored the construction of grandiose construction sites typical of Egypt at that time.

An interesting fact is that if the dwellings of the ancient Egyptians were built from short-lived materials, such as raw bricks, then various religious buildings were built from durable stone. This explains the fact that they were able to stand up to our times.

The architecture of Ancient Egypt can no longer be imagined without its main cultural asset - the pyramids. The pyramids were buildings for the gods. They were built from strong stones.

The construction of the pyramids was such a grand undertaking that it is difficult to imagine how ruinous it was for the treasury of the state, how much human labor was expended, how numerous the human losses were.

According to the teachings of the Egyptian priests, the human soul was immortal. In ancient Egypt, the funeral cult played an important role. According to him, only the material basis of a person, i.e., his body, perishes with death. And in order for the intangible basis of a person, his soul, to continue to live, it is necessary to create the most favorable conditions for this, that is, try to preserve the body of a deceased person. So a new art arose - making mummies. And for the mummy there should be a specially designated place - a tomb. As such tombs, in which the human body would be under powerful protection from everything extraneous, grandiose pyramids were built. According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the body was united with the soul exactly seventy days after death, the deceased came to life and went to the Land of Eternity. But despite the fact that, according to the doctrine, the soul of every person is immortal, the pyramids were built only for the nobility and, of course, for the pharaohs.

The very first pyramid for the pharaoh Djoser (2780-2680) was erected about five thousand years ago, its architect was Imhotep (circa 1800 BC). He will be honored as a great royal architect and wise magician for many generations after him.

In total, there were about a hundred pyramids, of which only a part has come down to us.

The most famous and grandiose is the pyramid of Pharaoh IV of the Cheops dynasty (Khufu). It is located in the Egyptian city of Giza. Its dimensions are enormous: the height is 146,6 m, and the area is about 55 square meters. m. It was built from huge limestone stones, the mass of which reached 000 tons. According to scientists, 3 such stones were spent on the construction of the Cheops pyramid. Inside the pyramid is a system of passages, the inner walls are covered with polished slabs.

In addition to the Pyramid of Cheops, there are other famous pyramids in Giza: Pharaoh Khafre and Pharaoh Mikherin. All three of these pyramids at Giza are one of the seven wonders of the world.

By the second millennium BC, there are some changes in the construction of the pyramids. They cease to be so grandiose and become less ruinous, since they are no longer built from stones, but from bricks.

Numerous robberies of the pyramids led to the fact that by the first millennium the pyramids began to be replaced by secret tombs, although they continued to be robbed. One of the most famous of these tombs is the mortuary temple of Pharaoh Mentuhotep I, which is a rock tomb, and the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut, located on three rocky terraces in the Deir el-Bahri valley and built by Senenmut.

In addition to architecture, fine arts made a rich contribution to the culture of Ancient Egypt.

Very often various obelisks were placed in front of palaces or temples. They were thin and tall, often covered with copper on top. Obelisks were often painted with hieroglyphs.

Hieroglyph is a pictorial symbolic letter, which is very characteristic of the culture of ancient Egypt. It is from Egyptian hieroglyphic writing that the syllabic script originated.

Another widely used image in ancient Egypt was a stone image of a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a man. Such statues were most often placed in front of mortuary temples and were called sphinxes. In front of the pyramid of Pharaoh Khafre stands the largest of the sphinxes, which was created in the first half of the third millennium BC. The length of this statue is about 57 m. Later, in the sixteenth century BC, a temple was erected between the paws of the “father of awe,” as the sphinx was called for the fear it inspired.

In addition to these monuments, there were many more masterpieces of art, all kinds of statues, steles and other monuments depicting the Egyptian rulers and their families.

It was in ancient Egypt that one of the most beautiful female images was created - a sculptural portrait of Queen Nefertiti, who was the wife of the pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1368-1351).

According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, portrait statues are doubles of dead people. Therefore, the sculptural portrait was widespread in Egypt in ancient times.

All cultural monuments (murals, portraits, etc.) in Ancient Egypt were distinguished by a sense of harmony, a desire for beauty, for integrity. This craving for integrity determines the fact that architectural ensembles were widespread in ancient Egypt, representing a kind of synthesis of all kinds of art. Sculptors, architects, painters worked together, creating complete works of art, many of which have no equal to this day. The architects had a very unusual approach to business creating their architectural monuments, they did not forget about very small details, took into account many characteristics, such as geographical location, illumination at different times of the day, etc. This sometimes gave unusual effects. No wonder architects were often credited with magical powers, some were deified.

Considering the fine arts of Ancient Egypt, do not pay attention to its decorative and applied part. After all, the level to which arts and crafts rose at that time was very high. First of all, this applies to various items of utensils. All kinds of dishes and vessels made of crystal and alabaster appear. The manufacture of jewelry has been greatly developed. Exquisitely shaped, with an elegant finish, jewelry was made from various materials. Mostly it was gold, precious stones, etc.

An important feature of the fine arts of Ancient Egypt is the fulfillment and preservation of its main accepted canons. Technique, style, proportions and other aspects of fine art have been unchanged for centuries and even millennia.

What happened in ancient Egypt with writing? Very few texts from that time have come down to us. Basically, these are various prayers and records related to housekeeping. They belong to the second millennium BC. But we must assume that there were more ancient texts.

The work "Conversation of the disappointed with his soul" is interesting. It is significant in that it is a very abstract essay. In it, a man who has not found meaning in his life thinks about suicide. His soul, on the contrary, tries to dissuade him in every possible way.

In general, the literature of Ancient Egypt is very diverse, there were works of completely different genres: stories, teachings, songs, spells, autobiographies, etc.

The emergence of writing is usually attributed to the thirtieth century BC, this is associated primarily with the fact that the government of Egypt required it.

There are three stages in the development of writing in ancient Egypt:

1) hieroglyphic letter;

2) hieratic letter (business cursive);

3) demotic letter (folk cursive).

It is worth noting that it was in ancient Egypt that such an art form as music appeared. Its appearance is associated primarily with various ritual rites and festivities, which led to the emergence of dances, pantomime, etc. The music that appeared then began to be divided into:

1) cult;

2) folk;

3) courtier.

Very often on the Egyptian frescoes of the second millennium BC you can find images of various musical instruments (drums, harps, lyres, etc.). This suggests that music played a huge role in the life of the Egyptians. No wonder the musicians were considered relatives of the pharaohs, they enjoyed great honor and respect in society.

Various life situations and needs led to the development of science in the country, without which then no further existence was seen.

First of all, it's math. After all, how can one create such a grandiose structure as a pyramid without mathematics, without calculating areas and volumes?

By observing the heavenly bodies, the Egyptians created a completely accurate calendar. It, like the modern one, consisted of 365 days, but differed in that it had only three, not four seasons, each of which had three months.

Another merit of the ancient Egyptians is the clock, they were water, solar.

There were also great achievements in medicine. Medical books began to be created, in which there were quite real recipes and several magical ones. Teachings about blood circulation appeared, the doctrine about the main organ - the heart.

In ancient Egypt, there were several types of doctors:

1) "uterine";

2) dental;

3) eye.

There was also such a type of medical activity as surgery.

In addition to the above sciences, such humanities as geography and history developed.

All this cultural development led to the fact that the first schools began to appear in ancient Egypt. At first, these were schools for scribes, which were located at the court of the pharaoh, then all boys from the age of five to sixteen began to be sent to school. At school, they were taught writing, reading, sports, etiquette, etc. Military schools and others appeared.

The culture of Ancient Egypt is very rich and diverse. She made a huge contribution to the culture of all mankind.

Ancient Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia also called Mesopotamia due to its geographical location. Since Mesopotamia includes lands located between two rivers: Tiger и Euphrates.

Mesopotamia began to be inhabited about forty thousand years BC. By the XNUMXth millennium BC. e. the first settlements of Mesopotamia began to appear on the territory. The first cities appeared in the middle of the XNUMXth millennium BC. e. By the third millennium BC, about twenty city-states had appeared. These were Ur, Uruk, Akkad, Lagash, Kish, Umma, Babylon, etc.

Most of these cities were founded by the Sumerians. That is why the culture of Ancient Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) is also called Sumerian culture.

One of the most significant achievements of the culture of Ancient Mesopotamia is the invention of writing. This achievement dates back to the XNUMXth millennium BC. This means that it is Sumerian writing that is the most ancient.

Many cultural values ​​and achievements of the Sumerians were inherited by the people of the city of Akkad. As a result, the influence of this city on the culture of Mesopotamia as a whole became enormous. Therefore, it is more expedient to understand the culture of Mesopotamia as Sumerian-Akkadian culture. Let's look at it in more detail.

As mentioned above, the writing of Mesopotamia played a huge role in the history of civilization and specifically the ancient peoples. But it is worth noting that the Sumerian script was different from the script of Akkad. She is older.

Sumerian writing developed in several stages. At first everything was very primitive. Thoughts were fixed in ways unimaginable to modern man, for example, by tying knots on ropes or carving scars on tree trunks. Then pictorial writing appeared, when objects and concepts were carefully and in detail depicted with the help of drawings. Gradually, this method became much simpler. Picturesque writing has evolved into sketchy writing. That is, the detail in the description disappeared, specific drawings were replaced by symbols. Such an expression of one's thoughts was far from ideal, since so many concepts were almost impossible to depict, they were replaced by similar ones, the essence of "written" was lost. So, ideograms began to appear that conveyed the essence of the depicted word. For example, a painted eye could mean the verbs "see" or "look." This letter is called ideographic-rebus. This letter was characterized by a wedge-shaped form of writing. That's why Sumerian writing very often called cuneiform.

Cuneiform script was written in the following way: appropriate recesses were made on soft, damp clay with sticks, with the help of which symbols were obtained that had a wedge-shaped shape. Cuneiform, which appeared in Sumer, was later used in the Akkadian language. And then it spread further, even reaching Siberia and Persia. In the second half of the second millennium BC cuneiform was recognized as an international type of writing.

Subsequently, pictorial writing gave way to another type of writing, when with the help of symbols not specific objects or actions were transmitted, but sounds. First, signs appeared to indicate syllables, then they began to appear alphabetic characters. And by the middle of the first millennium BC, cuneiform completely becomes alphabetical writing.

But not only writing is the only achievement of the culture of Mesopotamia. She played a huge role in the development of mathematics. It was here that complex counting systems arose.

Another science originating in the Ancient Mesopotamia is astronomy. It was in Mesopotamia that the first scientific thoughts arose, which formed the basis of astronomy.

The literary achievements of the peoples of Mesopotamia are magnificent. They created the first library catalogs. Literary genres such as the poem and the elegy first appeared in Mesopotamia.

It is worth noting the monumental art of Mesopotamia, which was left an imprint by the local religion. An example of architectural achievements are the temples of Mesopotamia. Their role in people's lives was huge. Thousands of peasants and slaves worked on their territory, the temples traded, and cultural life was developed in them: they had their own schools and libraries.

The architectural forms that originated in Ancient Mesopotamia became the basis of the architecture of Ancient Rome and subsequently Europe of the Middle Ages.

Ancient india

The culture of India is very original, because it went its own ways. It has a uniqueness and originality that distinguishes Indian culture from the cultures of other countries.

The origins of Indian culture go far, to the third millennium BC, when the Harappan civilization appeared on the territory of the Hindustan peninsula in the Indus River valley.

In general, the development of the culture of Ancient India can be divided into several stages, which correspond to the historical development of the Indian state:

1) Ancient India. Two periods can be distinguished here:

a) Harappan culture;

b) Vedic culture;

2) Magadho-Maurian era;

3) Kushano-Gupta era.

Let's look at each era in more detail.

Harappan culture

Various archaeological finds testify to the high level of culture of the peoples living there. It was found that already in the third millennium BC there were highly developed urban-type settlements with a very competent arrangement and architecture of buildings. For example, for the convenience of the passage of carts and movement, the corners of houses at intersections were made rounded. The houses were mostly built of brick and had two floors. An important achievement of the Harappan culture was the urban sewer system. The houses of that time already had original bathrooms for washing. There were city baths, the air in which was heated, there were pools.

In addition to the high level of architectural skills, during the Harappan culture, many types of various crafts were developed, such as metal processing, working with stone, copper, and bronze. This is evidenced by the found tools, jewelry, weapons, and various decorative items.

Writing was also developed in Harappa. Basically, it was a picture letter, in which there were about four hundred pictographs. Syllabic signs also began to appear.

Already at the beginning of the second millennium BC, scientists record the decline of the Harappan culture, which soon disappeared altogether as a result of a natural disaster. According to most geologists, such a natural disaster was a strong earthquake, which entailed other cataclysms.

Despite its collapse, the Harappan culture served as a kind of starting point for the entire further development of the culture of Ancient India.

Vedic culture

The ancestors of the Vedic culture were the tribes of the Aryans, who invaded the territory of India in the middle of the second millennium BC.

At the initial stage, they did not differ in high culture, they did not go far from the nomadic way of life, they were mainly engaged in cattle breeding. Then agriculture appeared, which developed noticeably thanks to the tools that appeared.

Since the main occupations of the Aryan tribes were cattle breeding and agriculture, it is obvious that the majority of the population were rural residents. There were no cities, there were only fortified points, the main task of which was to protect the population from enemies.

The Aryans had a well-developed spiritual culture, in particular, this applies to literature. Important literary monuments of this period are works written in the ancient Indian language. (Sanskrit). These works, called Vedas, gave the name to the entire Indo-Aryan culture.

There were four collections of the Vedas.

1. Sama-Veda. This is a collection consisting of chants and rituals of the Indo-Aryans.

2. Rig Veda. A collection consisting of a book composed of Indo-Aryan hymns.

3. Yajur Veda. AT In this collection, prayer formulas were collected, according to which sacrifices were made.

4. Atharva Veda. This is a collection of various chants and rituals of the Aryans.

Before the advent of writing, the Vedas were passed from mouth to mouth, were part of oral creativity. But then the priests wrote them down, supplementing each collection with their own ritual commentary. Such ritual comments were called Brahmins... Subsequently Brahmins called the highest caste in India.

In addition to the Brahmins, the Vedas began to be supplemented with religious and philosophical commentaries. These were:

1) Aranyaki. Translated from Sanskrit - “linen books”. These are comments intended for hermits who go into the forests;

2) Upanishads. Translated from Sanskrit - “secret knowledge”. These comments were placed at the end of the Veda. There were about two hundred of them in total, ten of them are considered the main ones.

The sacred books that served as assistants to people in solving various issues were the "Mahabharata" (which means "The Great War of the descendants of Bharata") and the "Ramayana" ("Tales of the exploits of Rama"). These are two poems, huge in size, containing poems, legends, traditions, treatises on various topics (from religion to housekeeping).

The heroes of these poems are Krishna и Frame.

Vedic literary achievements are so great, they are so comprehensive, striking in the refinement of their form, that we can conclude how developed the people were, how great were the philosophical knowledge of people. Vedic collections are real encyclopedias of knowledge on various topics (medicine, mathematics, geometry, agriculture, astronomy, crafts, military affairs, etc.).

The original polytheism of the Indo-Aryans gradually came down to one stream - Brahmanism, according to which the creator of the universe is Brahma, emerging from a golden egg split by the power of his thoughts. Brahmanism greatly influenced Indian religion. For example, there is a theory such as samsara (differently - metempsychosis), according to which the soul is reborn all the time. That is, after the death of a person, it does not die, but inhabits another person or some creature. Here, according to Brahmanism, everything depends on karma a person, which is predetermined from above, and also consists of the actions and deeds of a person. The better the karma, the better the person behaved during life, the better his subsequent life will be. If a person led an unrighteous life, then according to the theory of Brahmanism, severe punishment awaits him in the next life. For example, a drunkard will turn into a moth, a thief will turn into a rat, and the soul of a murderer will turn into the body of a predatory animal.

Already by the middle of the first millennium BC on the territory of modern India there will be many slave-owning states that will constantly be at enmity with each other. The victory in these constant wars will be won by the state Magadha, in which a dynasty would be formed in the second half of the first millennium BC Mauryan. The Mauryan dynasty would last until the second century BC.

The state of Magadha became the first slaveholding power in the history of India. The main religion based on Brahmanism is Jainism, which will subsequently grow into an entire ideology of slave-holding powers. The prophet of this religion is Jaina (Gina the winner). He with his followers creates church organizations, monasteries and temples.

A characteristic feature of the new religion was asceticism, i.e. suppression of various desires, a tendency to loneliness, renunciation of many benefits, etc. All this was necessary in order to achieve the main result of the entire life of a supporter of Jainism - nirvana. Nirvana is understood as the highest state of the spirit, its complete satisfaction.

With its striving for asceticism followed by nirvana, Jainism called into question the basic Vedic values ​​and Brahmanism, since according to Jainism the path to salvation is open to everyone without exception, and according to Brahmanism - only to the elect, to whom the Brahmin priests belonged.

In addition to Jainism, in the sixth century BC, another religion appeared, which also became contrary to Brahmanism. This religion, which later became world, is Buddhism. Its founder is Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 560-480 BC). e.). Spending his life in luxury and wealth, without knowing troubles, at the age of twenty-nine, having learned that not everyone’s life is as carefree as his, he indulged in asceticism. After much thought, Siddhartha Gautama fell into nirvana and became Buddha, which means "awakened to a new life." He began to pass on his knowledge to his students, his teachings developed into a new religion - Buddhism.

Buddhism is a cross between Brahmanism and Jainism.

At the center of Buddhism are the "four noble truths":

1) life is suffering;

2) the cause of suffering is the desire for pleasure;

3) to stop suffering, it is necessary to destroy desires;

4) maintaining the eightfold path, i.e. the middle path between the two religions: Brahmanism and Jainism.

During the reign Ashoka (273-232 BC) Buddhism becomes the state religion.

In the Magadho-Maurian era, many types of art reached a high level. Particularly architecture and fine arts.

The most famous architectural monuments are:

1) Stambach, which are monolithic pillars;

2) stupa - cult Buddhist structures of a hemispherical shape;

3) cave temples, which later gave way to chaityas - temples for prayer with oblong halls, rows of columns and a stupa.

The literature of the Mauryan dynasty also reached a high level. The first grammars of the Sanskrit language appeared.

The Mauryan dynasty lasted two centuries until the sons Ashoka the whole state was not fragmented and the dynasty did not come to an end. It was replaced by new dynasties - first the Kushan dynasty, which was replaced by the Gupta dynasty. At the same time, a new period in the development of the culture of Ancient India began.

Kushano-Gupta era

The culture of the Kushan dynasty (I-III centuries AD) is characterized by the presence of two schools of art:

1) Gandharian (with her anthropomorphic Buddha image);

2) mathura (the main direction is secular sculpture).

In the fourth century AD, the Kushan state collapsed and gave way to the Gupta state, which was the last slave-owning power in this territory.

The period of Gupta rule is significant for the flourishing of material culture. So, agriculture, various crafts (making jewelry, weapons) developed noticeably, sericulture spread, the finest fabrics made of silk and cotton began to appear, and metallurgy reached a high level.

In addition, fine arts and architecture have made progress. The most common structures were stone buildings, cave temples with many sculptures, wall paintings, and carvings. Fine art most often uses scenes from the life of the Buddha, mythological themes, as well as magnificent patterns, images of nature and everyday life.

Changes in power led to changes in religious beliefs. If during the Kushan dynasty the main religion was still Buddhism (but Buddha is now not just a teacher, he is a deity), then after the collapse of the Kushan dynasty, the flowering of Buddhism ended, which gradually gave way to Hinduism.

The main impetus for the adoption of the new faith was primarily the social system that was formed under the Guptas. It is about the resulting social inequality caste system. Castes were groups of people who were united by the same social functions that they performed, their professions, etc. And it was the new religion (Hinduism) that recognized the existence of such castes.

The main feature of Hinduism is the veneration of the triad of gods, which included:

1) Brahma - creator god. According to the Hindus, he was the creator of the universe;

2) Vishnu - guardian god, guardian of the world order;

3) Shiva - God-destroyer, "master of animals." He appeared to the Hindus as the embodiment of cosmic energy.

But despite the great importance of religion in people's lives, scientific knowledge played a huge role. Astronomy has developed greatly. It was the ancient Indian astronomers who began to divide the year into twelve months, each of which had thirty days. For the first time, theories began to appear about the sphericity of the Earth and about its rotation around its own axis.

In addition to astronomy, mathematics also achieved notable successes. Back in the days of the Harappan culture, the decimal number system was formulated, which people use to this day. Such sciences as algebra, trigonometry and geometry stood out.

The religion of the ancient Indian people influenced the development of such sciences as medicine and chemistry. Surgery especially developed, during operations they began to use a huge number of instruments, anesthesia was used. Among physicians, the most prominent doctors can be distinguished: who lived in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. BC e. Javak and who lived already in the XNUMXst century AD. e. Charaka. These doctors, thanks to their merits, were known even outside their country.

The significance of the culture of Ancient India for world culture is enormous, its contribution is colossal and irreplaceable for the modern world.

Ancient China

China is a huge country in size, statehood in which arose in the second millennium BC.

The culture of ancient China is characterized by originality and originality.

At the initial stage of their development, the Chinese were characterized by the cult of nature and ancestors. The Chinese believed that everything in the world changes under the influence of two main forces: Light and Darkness.

With the advent of statehood, a new cult appeared - the deification of the power of the king. According to the ancient Chinese, the king is the son of God on earth, and China is Celestial.

All these views later formed into a system of three main religions, which included Taoism, monism и Confucianism.

Taoism, which arose in the VI-V centuries. BC BC, was founded by the Chinese sage Laozi. It was Laozi who introduced in his work “The Book of Tao and Te” the main concept of Taoism - tao. Tao had a huge number of meanings, first of all, it is the spiritual principle, the source of everything on earth. It is Tao, according to Laozi, that all laws in nature are subordinated, because Tao is the main unified law.

The teachings of Laozi and his followers were formed in the so-called philosophical Taoism, the central concept of which was doctrine of immortality. Later, another direction of Taoism, coming from the philosophical path, will emerge - religious Taoism. AT this doctrine was the central concept absolute tao. According to this concept, the return to the true Tao is seen only through death.

In parallel with Taoism, another religion was born - Confucianism. The founder of this religion was Kongzi (Confucius). He considered the cause of many troubles on earth as a consequence of the moral decline of people. Confucius called on people to be humane, obedient, and respectful to their elders. The teachings of Confucius represented a certain set of rules and guidelines for life, this largely contributed to the fact that Confucianism from a simple ideology turned into a state religion. According to Confucianism, the emperor is the son of heaven, the father of the people, and the people are the children of the emperor.

The significance of Confucianism in ancient China was so great that even the life of the ancient Chinese was regulated with its help. With the help of the basic rules and laws of Confucianism, various human actions were assessed, certain norms of life were developed that could not be violated. The Chinese society never doubted the correctness of these truths, this was their characteristic feature - the desire for dogmatism. People believed these dogmas so much that they could not somehow contradict them, as a result of which the people became passive in making their decisions. As a rule, any new thought was just a continuation of a well-known dogma, a truth expressed by an old sage.

But despite this tendency to dogmatism, the development of science deserved great respect in ancient China. Basically, the humanities were formed, since the technical disciplines were considered not prestigious. But still, the rest of the sciences did not stand still.

Chinese astronomy was characterized by great achievements. It was the Chinese who compiled the world's first star catalog, which described about 800 luminaries. The first books on astronomy appeared, in which there were maps of the starry sky. The Chinese were the first to create a celestial globe.

The Chinese made a great contribution to world medicine. It was they who began to use acupuncture and moxibustion, created the first drugs. Chinese emperor Shen Nongcu authored the first book on existing drugs.

The writing and literature of ancient China reached great heights. An interesting fact is that it is the Chinese hieroglyphic script that is the only one that still exists today. Already in the third century AD, there were over eighteen thousand hieroglyphs.

The development of writing and literature in general was strongly influenced by the manufacture of paper. It was invented by a Chinese official Tsai Lun, it is he who made from tree bark, hemp and other components in 105 AD. e. I received the paper for the first time.

The monuments of ancient Chinese literature are magnificent and significant. It is worth noting the "Book of Songs" and "Book of Changes" written in the first millennium BC. The most famous poets in China were Qu Yuan (c. 340 - OK. 278 years BC.

e.), his poetry was characterized by the sublimity of feelings, the transition from folklore traditions to the author's transmission of his thoughts; Luzi - the author of the main treatise of Taoism "Tao de jing"; Xunzi is the author of the treatise "Xunzi".

Originality is also characteristic of various types of fine arts of ancient Chinese masters. Painting and sculpture mostly have religious themes. Buddhism came from India to China, which greatly influenced the culture of the Celestial Empire, especially the artistic component. Ink painting on silk and paper was greatly developed, and frescoes began to be made.

Among the various types of applied art, it is worth noting the manufacture of the most wonderful jewelry of the finest work. An important place was occupied by stone and bone carving. In China, green jade was especially held in high esteem, which was called the "eternal stone" and was compared with gold and silver.

The development of Chinese artistic ceramics provided the prerequisite for the production of porcelain.

Originality was also inherent in ancient Chinese architecture. They were the first to build multi-storey buildings. The most characteristic were the buildings that were called pagodas. They can still be seen in modern China. The pagodas were wooden pillars to support the tiled roof, with typical raised edges.

The most famous building in China the great Wall of China about four thousand kilometers long, built by Chinese prisoners in 221-207. BC e.

But one cannot give a complete picture of the culture of Ancient China without mentioning the art of music and the theater.

Already in the second millennium BC, more than twenty different musical instruments existed in China. The first books began to appear, telling about the musical ideas of the Chinese people. The most popular book is the treatise "Yuezi". Professional musicians began to appear, who were invited to perform at various ceremonies, holidays, etc.

In ancient China, a characteristic happiness concept, according to which our life is the only one, we should value it and try to make it as good as possible. This concept primarily influenced the literature of Ancient China, as well as another form of art that received enormous development and spread in the Middle Kingdom - theater.

Although actors were considered the lowest stratum of society, the importance of theater in people's lives was enormous. Under its wing, the Chinese theater united various types of art: music, painting, dance, singing, etc.

The origin of theatrical art in ancient China is associated, firstly, with various religious activities, such as cult worship, all kinds of rituals, which were characterized by a certain theatricality.

In ancient China, there was a division of various theatrical performances by type. These were:

1) performances of mimes;

2) musical and dramatic performances;

3) shadow theater, which originated in China;

4) the puppet theater, which performed its works mainly at weddings and feasts to funeral music;

5) acrobatic dances;

6) circus programs.

The contribution of the Chinese people to the cultural treasury of the Ancient East and the whole world was very significant.

Antiquity

Ancient culture is understood as the culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The word antique in translation from Latin means "ancient". And to determine the culture of the two ancient states was introduced during the Renaissance.

The cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many common features. And they also had a huge impact on the entire European and world culture as a whole. Let us consider in more detail the development of each culture separately.

Ancient Greece

The development of the culture of Ancient Greece is usually divided into the following time stages:

1) the preclassical period, which is subdivided into:

a) the period of the most ancient civilizations (III-II millennium BC).

This includes:

▪ Minoan culture;

▪ Mycenaean culture;

b) the Homeric period (XI-IX centuries BC);

c) archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC);

2) the classical period, it is subdivided into:

a) the heyday (XNUMXth century BC);

b) the era of the crisis of the policy (VI century BC);

3) the culture of the Hellenistic era.

Let us follow the development of Greek culture in stages.

Preclassic period

The most ancient civilizations that existed in Greece were the Minoan and Mycenaean (Achaean). Already at the turn of the third and second millennia BC, the first cities appeared on the island of Crete, a new civilization was born, named after the famous king Minos Minoan.

Archaeological excavations have shown that the life of the Minoan people was concentrated around palaces, consisting of various structures. These palaces were constantly growing, more and more decorated, becoming real works of art. The miraculously executed frescoes, weapons, bronze figurines that have come down to us speak of a high level of development, the flourishing of the Minoan culture. But a natural disaster (volcanic eruption on the island of Thera), various invasions of warlike strangers led to the collapse of the Minoan civilization, which gave way to another civilization, the Mycenaean. These two cultures, due to their close geographical location, were very interconnected. That is why in Mycenae, as in the Minoan civilization, life centered around the palaces. But in the Mycenaean culture, a certain warlike mood prevailed. This was manifested in the more fortified walls of the palaces, and in the images on the frescoes. If, say, the main subjects of the Minoan frescoes were scenes from life and everyday life with images of animals and plants, then the Mycenaean frescoes were dominated by subjects with military scenes, hunting episodes, etc.

The Mycenaean civilization ceased to exist in the XNUMXth century. BC e., when the Greek tribes came to the territory of this civilization - Dorians. This time is marked by the heyday of the Iron Age in Greece, a new period begins, named after the great ancient Greek poet Homer's period. It was his famous and magnificent poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" that made it possible to learn about this time.

The Homeric period is not distinguished by the grandeur of architecture and fine arts. According to the works of Homer, even the nobility lives in wooden houses or houses made of unbaked bricks, while several centuries before that palaces were so common. But there were cultural achievements during the Homeric period as well. For example, ceramic vases, painted with wonderful ornaments in the form of geometric figures, bronze figurines, and terracotta figurines testify to great skill.

The Homeric period ended with the beginning of a new stage - Great Colonization, which took place during the period VIII-V centuries. BC e. A new period has begun archaic.

The development of sciences begins, especially astronomy and geometry are worth noting. Egyptian influence played a big role here. This influence was also reflected in Greek art. The architecture and sculpture of ancient Greece of the archaic period originate precisely in ancient Egypt.

There are also changes in the social structure of society. The tribal community is being replaced by city-states called policies. The largest of them are: Athens, Thebes, Sparta, etc. Initially, separately functioning policies begin to unite under the common name of Hellas. So-called centers are formed, which are sanctuaries, and a common pantheon of gods appears, common to all policies. Zeus the Thunderer became the supreme god. His Hera was the mistress of the sky, there were many of their children (Athena - the goddess of wisdom, Apollo - the god of light, patron of the arts, Aphrodite - the goddess of beauty and love, etc.), whom the people worshiped. But the Greeks did not only worship gods. There were many myths about Greek heroes (Hercules, Perseus, etc.).

The most important phenomenon of the archaic period of Ancient Greece was the beginning Olympics, dedicated to Zeus. The first Olympic Games took place in 776 BC. e. and have been held since then every four years.

In addition to the Olympic Games, others were also held: the Isthmian Games were held every two years in honor of Poseidon (lord of the seas), the Pythian Games were held every four years, in which athletes and musicians competed in honor of the god Apollo.

The ancient Greeks made a great contribution to the development of such a science as philosophy. It was in one of the developed regions of Greece, Ionia, that during the archaic period such a philosophical science was born as natural philosophy. In Ionia lived such thinkers as Anaximenes (585-525 BC), Thales (624-546 BC) and more

Mathematics also reached great heights. Here the main merit belongs to the ancient Greek philosopher, mathematician Pythagoras of Samos (540-500 BC) to н. e.). He studied whole numbers and proportions. He also made great contributions to astronomy and music theory.

Lyric poetry occupies a leading position in archaic literature. If the epic prevailed in the Homeric period, now all attention has been transferred to the inner experiences of a person. A significant place is occupied by such poets as Sappho (approximately 610-580 BC), Anacreon (second half of the XNUMXth century BC), Alcaeus (turn of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries BC).

В the sixth century BC, a new literary genre appears - fable. Its appearance is primarily associated with the name of Aesop.

In the archaic period, the Greek theater appears, the origins of which were round dances in honor of Dionysus, when from the general choir they began to single out characters who later became actors.

The art of the archaic period is characterized by the search for beauty, some kind of aesthetic ideal. That is why the main types of sculpture have become:

1) kuros - naked young man;

2) kora - a young girl in long clothes with a smile, later called archaic.

During the archaic period, architecture was greatly developed. First of all, these are temples and sculptures that form single ensembles.

Temples are characterized by orders of two types:

1) strict and geometrically correct Doric;

2) more decoratively saturated ionic.

In addition to architecture, ceramics flourished in the archaic period. Three types of vessel painting were invented:

1) black-figure technique (red clay was painted black, then painted with various subjects);

2) red-figure technique (differed in more detailed drawing);

3) attic technique (depicting scenes from the life and life of the people).

Archaic culture left its mark on the next stage in the development of culture - the classical period.

Classical period

The beginning of the classical period is established with the victory of the Greeks in the long Greco-Persian wars, which lasted from 500-449 BC. BC e. During this period, Athens became the center of Greece.

Great importance in the classical period was given to the upbringing and education of citizens. Physical education played a huge role. Dancing and gymnastics were compulsory subjects in schools. In addition to physical education, a lot of time was devoted to spiritual improvement. Wandering philosophers, called sophists, who appeared in the classical period, were of great importance. They could be hired for money to teach various disciplines.

Thanks to the sophists, who were able to brilliantly conduct discussions and disputes, such a branch of philosophy as dialectics was formed in the classical period. Its ancestor was the great thinker Socrates (470-399 BC). e.).

The knowledge of nature has been greatly expanded. Greek scientist Democritus (c. 460 - OK. 360 AD BC e.) introduced a new and very progressive concept for that time atoms as indivisible particles.

The medicine of the classical period is associated primarily with the name of a doctor known today Hippocrates (c. 460 - OK. 370 years BC. e.).

He introduced a number of innovations into medicine, abandoned all religious prejudices in identifying the causality of the disease. He introduced the concept of ethical norms of a doctor, who, firstly, has no right to harm the patient. And to this day, in many countries of the world, becoming doctors, people take the Hippocratic oath, the so-called code of doctors.

In classical literature, the predominance of two genres stood out: comedy and tragedy. It also affected the theatre.

Aeschylus is considered one of the greatest authors of tragedies. (525-456 BC). His tragedies are imbued with a desire for kindness and patriotism. A striking example is his work “Prometheus Bound”.

The themes of a person's struggle with difficult reality, his fate and punishment were raised in the literary works of another no less significant tragedian Sophocles (496-406 BC). The heroes of his works were people close to the ideal, the way Sophocles wanted all people to be.

The emergence of a new literary genre - psychological drama - is associated with the name Euripides (c. 485 - OK. 406 AD BC e.). His most famous works are “Phaedra” and “Medea”, in which the main conflict occurs between the mind and the heart, between reason and desires. Very often this conflict ends in the death of the main character.

Magnificent monuments of architecture related to the classical period. A new order appears - Corinthian. It is characterized by a foliage-like finish.

A striking example of architectural achievement is the Acropolis of Athens, a rocky hill 300 m long and 170 m wide, on which a complex of structures was built. This complex includes:

1) Propylaea (437-432 BC) - the front gate, their architect was Mnesicles;

2) Parthenon (447-436 BC) - the main temple built in honor of the goddess Athena according to the project of architects Iktina и Callicrates, in 432 was supplemented with statues, metopes and friezes created by the ancient Greek sculptor Phidiem;

3) Temple of Niki Apteros (443-420 BC) - Temple of the Wingless Victory, built by the architect Callicrates;

4) Erechtheion (421-406 BC) - the temple of Athena and Poseidon, made in the Ionic style with the famous portico of caryatids (supports in the form of figures of women), leading to the next temple;

5) Temple of Pallas Athena - city temple;

6) Sanctuary of Poseidon-Erechtheus.

In addition to these temples, on the territory of the Athenian Acropolis there were magnificent statues (the statue of Athena Promachos cast by Phidias).

In 431 BC. e. The Peloponnesian War began between Athens and Sparta. She divided the entire classical period into two stages: before the war and after. The period before the war is called heyday, the period beginning with the Peloponnesian War was called the era of the polis crisis.

The war could not but affect the way of life and thoughts of people. The main goal of people has become the search for happiness.

On this basis, in the era of the crisis of the polis, two philosophical schools are formed:

1) cynical, which recognized happiness for a person as his spiritual freedom. Its founder was the ancient Greek philosopher Antisthenes (c. 450 - c. 360 BC);

2) hedonic - I saw the highest good in pleasure. Founded by an ancient Greek philosopher Aristippus (second half of the 5th century - beginning of the 4th century BC).

The development of philosophy was promoted by two outstanding philosophers who lived in the era of the crisis of the policy - Plato and Aristotle.

Plato (c. 427 - OK. 347 years BC. BC) was a student of Socrates. He founded a new school in Athens - academy. He developed a theory about the world of ideas and the world of things that are a reflection of ideas. He believed that knowledge is nothing but a mental memory of ideas. His famous project is an ideal state, which is a hierarchy of three estates:

1) rulers-philosophers (rulers-wise men);

2) warriors and various officials;

3) peasants, merchants and artisans.

Aristotle (384-322 BC). BC) was a student of Plato. He is called a philosopher-encyclopedist for his works, which can be divided into four groups:

1) works devoted to the natural sciences ("Physics", "Meteorology", "On the Origin and Destruction", "History of Animals", "On the Parts of Animals", "On the Origin of Animals", "On the Movement of Animals", "On the Sky" );

2) works devoted to logic ("Categories", "On Interpretation", "Topic" and "Analytics");

3) works on the beginning of being ("Metaphysics");

4) works devoted to political, public, state, historical, etc. problems ("Politics", "Poetics", "Rhetoric", etc.).

For his merits, Aristotle was called the standard of wisdom. His influence on philosophy and on the development of human thought in general was enormous.

Rhetoric achieves high skill in the era of the crisis of the polis. Mainly it's merit Isocrates (436-338 BC) и Demosthenes (384-322 BC). e.). Their speeches were examples of the highest literary skill.

Despite the crisis, architecture does not stand still. Here there is a predominance Corinthian style (the theater of Dionysus in Athens, the mausoleum in Halikornass, the theater in Epidaurus, etc.).

Sculpture has also changed. It has become more dramatic in comparison with the sculpture of the heyday. Sculptures began to convey the inner life of the depicted hero, a certain plot was outlined ("Hermes at rest", "Aphrodite of Cnidus", "Hercules", "Alexander the Great", etc.). Outstanding sculptors of the era of the crisis of the policy were Scopas, Lysippus, Praxiteles and more

With a hike Alexander the Great (356-323 BC). e) a new cultural era of Ancient Greece begins to the East, replacing the classical period. This is the so-called Hellenistic culture.

Hellenistic era

During this period, Greek culture begins to go beyond the territory of the Greek state. This happens under the influence of more and more new conquests of Alexander the Great.

One of the main merits of the culture of the Hellenistic era is the disappearance of the boundaries that were previously between science and technology, that is, between theory and practice. In many ways, this is the merit of the ancient Greek scientist, mathematician and mechanic Archimedes (287-212 BC). He used his knowledge and discoveries to create his own technical devices and instruments. He created the screw pump, defensive guns and throwing machines.

In the era of Hellenism, there lived another outstanding scientist, the creator of elementary geometry Euclid (about 365-300 BC). e.).

Thanks to such great thinkers as Aristarchus of Samos (320-250 BC), Eratosthenes (c. 320-250 BC) и Hipparchus of Alexandria (190-125 BC). BC), there was a rise in astronomy and geography.

Changes in people's lives contributed to a number of transformations in philosophy.

Two new philosophical schools emerged:

1) Epicureanism ("The Garden" of Epicurus), the founder of the school - an ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (c. 335-262 BC). BC), according to whom the highest goal of man is bliss, peace of mind, the absence of all suffering and fears;

2) stoicism - the founder was an ancient Greek philosopher Zeno (c. 490-430 BC). Adherents of this school believed that the ideal norm of human behavior is apathy and dispassion, when actions do not depend in any way on feelings.

Among the monuments of architecture, it is worth highlighting such famous buildings as faros lighthouse in Alexandria, which is one of the seven wonders of the world, Wind tower in Athens. Among the statues The Colossus of Rhodes, also one of the seven wonders of the world Venus de Milo, Nike of Samothrace.

The significance of the culture of Ancient Greece is enormous. It is still called the most human of cultures, the "golden age" of mankind.

Ancient Rome

The influence of the Ancient World can be traced in many cultures of the world.

Being part of ancient culture, Roman culture had a number of common features with the culture of ancient Greece. This was facilitated by the fact that during its heyday, Ancient Rome annexed Greece. But despite the fact that many features of Roman culture were borrowed from more ancient cultures, the culture of Rome brought a lot of its own, it has a certain originality and originality, which makes it so significant for the whole world culture.

The formation of the culture of Ancient Rome took place in several stages, mainly related to the historical and political changes that took place on the territory of the Roman civilization. The conditional division according to the stages of development of ancient Roman culture is as follows:

1) the period of Etruscan culture;

2) the royal period;

3) the period of the republic:

a) early republic

b) late republic;

4) Empire period:

5) early empire;

6) late empire.

It is impossible to consider these stages as unrelated time intervals. On the contrary, the interconnection of these periods is reflected in the transfer of accumulated knowledge and experience from generation to generation.

Let's consider each stage separately and in interconnection with subsequent periods.

Etruscan culture

The name of this stage in the development of Roman culture comes from the name of the civilization that formed on the Apennine Peninsula. Appearance Etruscan civilization refers to the first millennium BC. At this time, the first city-states appeared on the territory of Ancient Rome, which united into a federation.

The Etruscans had a very developed culture. This was especially true for architecture. Archaeological studies have shown that the architecture of the Etruscan cities was specific. The layout of city streets was very characteristic of extreme clarity, geometric consistency of forms, orientation of buildings in accordance with the cardinal points.

Another architectural merit of the Etruscan culture is the appearance of buildings with a domed vault.

The importance of the Etruscans for world writing is also great. It is during the Etruscan period that Latin alphabet, which, as you know, was extremely widespread, and in the Middle Ages and the New Age was generally considered mandatory for any educated person. And in the modern world, although it ceased to be used as a colloquial language by the 9th century, it is used in medicine, biology, other related sciences and even in jurisprudence; Latin letters are widely used for various designations in physics, mathematics, etc. .

Roman numerals, invented back in the days of the Etruscan civilization, are widely used to this day.

The applied art of the Etruscans reached great heights. Magnificent works of art were ceramics, especially lacquered in such a way as to imitate a metal surface.

Archaeologists have discovered wonderful ornaments, jewelry, sculptures made of bronze and terracotta, testifying to the high level of craftsmen of that time.

The opinion about the perfection of the Roman portrait was noticeably influenced by Etruscan painting with its desire for realism. There was no idealization familiar to ancient centuries, works of fine art conveyed everything as it is.

The religious beliefs of the Etruscans were noticeably influenced by the beliefs of Ancient Greece. Etruscan culture adopted the Greek pantheon of gods, although their worship was not widespread enough, and all kinds of divination and interpretation of various occurring phenomena were of great importance in religion.

Having absorbed various cultural achievements of neighboring states, the Etruscan civilization itself was the creator of its own culture, which was spread and adopted by other civilizations.

The Etruscan civilization as an independent existed until the fifth century BC. Gradually, she lost her possessions as a result of invasions from neighboring territories. And by the third century BC, the Etruscan civilization was completely conquered by the city of Rome that arose on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula. This event marked the end of Etruscan culture and the beginning of a new cultural stage - tsarist period.

royal period

The royal period is primarily associated with the emergence of a new city, in the future the capital of an entire empire, Rome. There are several versions of its origin, but the most common is the legend of Romulus and Remus, two brothers who were thrown into the Tiber River as babies, but survived. Subsequently, at the place where they were thrown, the brothers created a city. A long feud over who would rule this city led to Romulus killing his brother Remus and becoming the first king of Rome, named after him. It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.

The development of Rome took place under Etruscan influence. Many Etruscan achievements were borrowed, for example, in the field of construction, various crafts. Rome borrowed writing, Roman numerals, methods of interpretation and divination, and much more.

The influence of the Etruscan religion on the Roman religion led to the fact that from the habitual veneration of all kinds of spirits, they moved to the veneration of the gods in human form. That is, anthropomorphism has replaced the once animistic religiosity.

Gradually, a certain structure appears in the religion of the Romans. The division of priests according to their functions begins.

There were the following colleges of priests.

1. Pontiffs. They were the high priests who were in charge of all the other colleges. Their functions included conducting various religious ceremonies and burials, writing calendars with marks of favorable and unfavorable days.

2. Augurs - priests, whose functions included divination by the flights and cries of birds, called auspices.

3. Haruspics - a college of priests, which was engaged in divination by the entrails of animals that had previously been sacrificed, and also carried out the interpretation of various natural phenomena, such as snow, lightning, rain, thunder, etc.

4. Fecials - priests who monitored the implementation of the principles of international law, they performed rituals at the conclusion of peace or the declaration of war.

5. Flamins - priests who worshiped individual gods.

The development of religion also led to its influence on architecture, the first temples began to appear (the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built during the reign of the legendary Roman king Tarquinia Prisca (Ancient)).

The last king in Rome was Tarquin the Proud (534/533-510/509 BC). BC), under his rule, Rome in 510 became an aristocratic slave-owning republic, a new historical and cultural stage in the development of Ancient Rome began, called Republic period.

Republic period

The period of the republic is divided into two stages: early republic (late VI - early III centuries BC) and late republic (mid III - the end of the I centuries BC).

During the period of the early republic, the entire territory of the Apennine Peninsula fell into the hands of Rome. Rome begins to conquer Greek cities (Southern Italy), thereby joining the higher Greek culture at that time. For example, if earlier the Etruscan alphabet was used to designate the letters of the Latin language, now it has given way to Greek letters, which are more convenient for this.

In Rome, a new art form appears - the theater and a new profession - the artist.

Roman culture has always been distinguished by the observance of the rights and obligations of citizens, faith in the power of law and the state. Already in the fifth century BC, the makings of Roman law appear in the form of compiled "The Laws of the Twelve Tables".

With the advent of the civil community and the speeches of senators and officials, the emergence of Roman oratory. Roman orators are a kind of standard - how to be able to persuade.

The Romans achieved success in the era of the early republic and in military affairs. The organization of the Roman army begins to take shape. Its main unit is legion, which included from three to six thousand infantry.

In turn, the legions were divided into divisions.

1. cohorts - units, which included 360-600 people, were adopted in the second century BC.

2. Maniples, which numbered 60-120 people, were part of the cohort.

3. Centuries - divisions of one hundred people.

The Roman army was celebrated for its excellent discipline, which was maintained through harsh punishments for those who violated it, as well as rewards for distinguished soldiers.

From the sixties of the third century BC, the period of the late republic begins in Rome. Its beginning was marked by such historical events as the transformation of Macedonia and Greece into Roman provinces, as well as the destruction of the main Roman enemy - Carthage.

In the middle of the second century BC, civil wars began in Rome, which led to the collapse of the republic. A new form of government appears - principate, which is a hereditary dictatorship. The basic principles of the new government were laid down by the Roman emperor Octavian Augustus (63-14 AD) to н. e.).

Due to the fact that the Roman state at that time was an association of many conquered states, Roman culture was also many-sided, it traced Etruscan, Roman, Greek, Italian roots. Therefore, this period of development of Roman culture is characterized by such a phenomenon as eclecticism. Eclecticism is understood as a mechanical combination of dissimilar and even opposing views, judgments, opinions, principles, etc.

For example, eclecticism is very characteristic of the Roman religion. Most of the Roman gods could be identified with the Greek ones (see table).

But there were also differences between the Greek and Roman religions. For example, Apollo, the god of love and beauty, was very revered in ancient Greece, while in the Roman religion there was no such deity. But in Rome there was a cult of the god Janus, who was depicted with two faces: directed to the past and directed to the future. In Greece, there was no god like the Roman Janus.

An interesting fact, characteristic of the Romans, was that the pantheon of their gods was not constant, often replenished with new foreign gods. This is because the Romans believed that each new god could only increase the power of Rome. The love of the Romans for jurisprudence led them to make legal deals even in religion. In their opinion, if everything is done without violating all the formalities, then any ritual or other religious act will bring the desired result.

In general, in the days of Ancient Rome, legal science reached colossal heights. There was a huge library dedicated to jurisprudence. Its main authors were Servius Sulpicius Rufus (c. 105-43 BC) и Mucius Scaevola (c. 140-82 BC.

e.). Mucius Scaevola wrote works on private law, which were the basis for the emergence of civil rights.

Jurisprudence is not only the writing of laws and rights, but also practical activities related primarily to speaking in court. Trials served as a great impetus to the development of rhetoric, that is, eloquence.

A prominent representative of oratory in the period of the republic in Rome was Cicero (106-43 BC). His outstanding oratorical talent is evidenced by his surviving judicial and political speeches (58 speeches). But Cicero was not only a brilliant orator, but also a writer. Many of his works have reached us: 19 treatises on rhetoric, philosophy and politics, as well as more than 800 of his letters, from which many facts about the history of Ancient Rome during the period of the Republic were collected.

As in ancient Greece, in ancient Rome great importance was attached to education, with minor amendments. For example, mathematics has given way to jurisprudence and rhetoric. A great place was occupied by the history of Rome, its language and literature. There is a certain practicality in Roman education. Subjects such as music and gymnastics began to be replaced by fencing and horseback riding, which were more necessary for that time. Philosophy also faded into the background.

Greek influence can also be seen in Roman literature. Among the writers, it should be noted the famous creator of comedies Plautus (c. 250-184 BC), comedian Terentia (190-159 BC). An important feature of their works was that they practically did not reflect Roman reality, all the actions took place in Greek cities, all the heroes bore Greek, not Roman, names.

The first authors who wrote in Latin were Cato the Elder (234-149 BC), Varro (116-27 BC) и Cicero.

For Roman architecture, originating in Greek, was characterized by the desire to emphasize strength, power, greatness. The practicality characteristic of the Romans led to the fact that the construction of temples faded into the background. First of all, buildings and structures with specific functions were built.

The architectural buildings were characterized by pomp, abundance of decorations, and a penchant for ideal geometry.

During the Roman Republic, new types of architectural structures appeared.

1. basilicas. They were rectangular structures, which were broken from the inside by rows of columns. Most often, basilicas served as places for trade and trials.

2. Thermae. These were primarily bathhouses; in addition, there were libraries, sports halls, places for games, etc.

3. amphitheaters - buildings with an oval arena with seats for spectators located in a circle. Designed for gladiator fights.

4. Circuses. AT they held competitions between chariots.

The great contribution of the Romans was made in the creation of sculptures. A new type of sculpture appeared - the togatus, a statue depicting a man in a toga (Roman clothes), mainly a speaker. In addition to togatus, busts were created by the Romans. The most famous of them: the busts of Caesar and Cicero, Brutus and the Orator.

At the end of the first century BC, the era of the Roman Republic ends, a new period begins - The Roman Empire.

Empire period

The empire period is divided into two phases: early empire (late I century BC - II century AD) and late empire (late III - late V centuries).

The early empire is usually called the principate; it is characterized by the flourishing of a huge Roman state.

There have been a number of developments in religion. The roles of the state and the emperor were so great that the emperor was declared divine after death. A new cult appeared - the patron goddess of the entire Roman Empire, Roma, began to be revered.

In the era of the early empire, science flourished in Rome. Cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, Alexandria, and others become scientific centers. Geography and medicine can be singled out among the sciences.

Roman writer and scholar Pliny the Elder (23/24-79 AD). BC) creates an encyclopedia on geography, zoology, botany and mineralogy, called “Natural History”. Ancient Greek scientist and historian Strabo (64/63 BC - 23/24 AD) sums up all the knowledge of the ancient world in geography in his work Geography, which consisted of seventeen books. Another ancient Greek scholar Ptolemy (after 83 - after 161 AD) created an encyclopedia, where he collected all the knowledge of the ancient era on astronomy, his work was called "Almagest". In the book "Geography" gave basic information on geography, which were known in antiquity. Among physicians, it is worth highlighting the doctor Galena (129-199 AD). BC), who studied human respiration, the activity of the human spinal cord and brain. His main work is “On the Parts of the Human Body.” In it he gives a complete description of human anatomy. During the era of the early empire, jurisprudence continued to develop. It is primarily associated with the names of such lawyers as Guy (second half of the XNUMXnd century) (his main work is the study guide to Roman law "Gaius Institution", consisting of four books), Papinian (c. 145- 212) (in 426 his writings were legally binding), Ulpian (c. 170-228) (like the writings of Papian, his writings were also recognized as legally binding in 426). The literature of the era of the early empire also reached greatness. A special role here is assigned to the approximate emperor Augustus - Gaius Cilnius Maecenas (74/64-8 BC). BC), whose name would later become a household name, since he helped the Roman poets in every possible way.

The literature is represented by such names as Virgil (17-19 BC e.) (his famous poem "Aeneid"), Horace (65-8 BC. e.) (his "Science of Poetry" is the basis of classicism), Ovid (43 - 18 years old n. e.) (author of the poem "Metamorphoses"), Apuleius (P century) (author of the novel "Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass"), Plutarch (c. 46 - 119 years n. e.) (his famous work "Comparative Lives"). The development of the architecture of the era of the early empire is manifested in such architectural monuments as the Colosseum (a huge amphitheater designed for 50 thousand spectators), the Pantheon - a temple in the name of all the gods 43 m high.

At the end of the second century, there was a crisis of the Roman Empire, and with it a cultural crisis. The era of the early empire is replaced by the era of the late empire in the third century. There are changes in the state system - the principate is replaced dominant (unrestricted monarchy). But these changes could not save the Roman Empire, and in 395 it fell apart into two parts: the western (center - Rome) and the east (center - in Constantinople). At this time, the first signs of the Christian religion appeared on the territory of the Roman Empire, especially in its eastern provinces. At the initial stage, Christianity was forbidden, but with the coming to power of the emperor Constantine (272-337 AD). e.) the situation is changing. He allows Christians to preach their religion, and later Christianity becomes the state religion. The new religion significantly influenced both fine art and architecture. The first Christian churches (basilicas) appear. The culture of Ancient Rome, together with the culture of Ancient Greece, gave a powerful impetus to the development of European culture and are themselves great cultural monuments of all mankind.

4. Culture of the Middle Ages

You can treat culture differently middle ages, some believe that in the Middle Ages there was some kind of cultural stagnation; in any case, they cannot be thrown out of the history of culture. After all, even in difficult times there have always been talented people who, despite everything, continued to create. It is impossible to say exactly when the historical period called the Middle Ages or Middle Ages began and ended. This period follows the history of the ancient world and precedes the modern era. It spans about ten centuries and is divided into two stages:

1) early Middle Ages (V-XI centuries);

2) the classical Middle Ages (XII-XIV centuries).

Early middle ages

The main feature of the early Middle Ages is the spread of Christianity.

Christianity appeared in the first century in Palestine, then, spreading across the Mediterranean, in the fourth century became the state religion of the Roman Empire. Gradually begins to take shape priesthood institution.

The influence of religion on the cultural life of the Middle Ages was so great that it is impossible to consider cultural achievements without taking into account the important spiritual factor. The church becomes the center of all cultural and social processes in society. That is why it is theology (theology) in the Middle Ages that becomes the head of all other cultures, which in one way or another had to obey it.

Theology was primarily supposed to protect the official church from all sorts of heresies. This concept arose in the early Middle Ages and meant those movements of Christianity that deviated from the official doctrines of the Christian church. They were treated.

1. Monophysitism - a trend that denied the duality of Christ, his God-human nature.

2. Nestorianism - a trend that preached the position that the human nature of Christ exists in itself. According to their teaching, Christ was born a man, and only then took on the divine nature.

3. Adoption heresy - the doctrine according to which Christ was born a man, and then was adopted by God.

4. Cathars - heresy, according to which everything earthly, material is a product of the devil. Its supporters preached asceticism and were against the institution of the church.

5. Waldenses - adherents of heresy, who opposed the clergy and the official church, were supporters of asceticism and poverty.

6. Albigenses - a heretical movement that opposed the official church, its dogmas, church land ownership, and the clergy.

The official church did not put up with heresies, in every possible way fought against their spread. In the classical Middle Ages, such a method as inquisition.

Among the various cultures of the Middle Ages, philosophy can be distinguished.

Philosophy in the Middle Ages is the first "servant" of theology. Among the philosophers who fully satisfied the wishes of theologians, one should single out Thomas Aquinas (1225-1275 AD). e.). In his works he sought to prove the existence of God. In his opinion, God is the supreme cause of all phenomena and processes, and it is to her that the mind seeking an answer must come.

Astronomy, history, geometry, etc. were considered lower sciences. They were subordinate to philosophy, which itself was subordinate to theology. Therefore, everything created, founded by these sciences was under the constant control of the church. The accumulation of knowledge resulted in the creation of encyclopedias, textbooks on mathematics and medicine. But everywhere the religious dominant was still felt, which did not give free rein to the thoughts of scientists. The Church managed to affect even artistic creativity. The artist had to strictly follow church canons. First of all, it had to reflect the perfection of the world order. In the period of the early Middle Ages, the Romanesque style in art takes shape. All architectural structures of the Romanesque style (temples, castles, monastic complexes) were distinguished by their massiveness, severity, fortress character, and great height. The most famous examples of the Romanesque style are such buildings as the cathedrals of Notre Dame in Poitiers, Toulouse, Arne (France), the cathedrals in Noritch, Oxford (England), the church of the monastery Maria Lach (Germany), etc.

In literature, there has been a predominance of works of the heroic epic. The most famous works are "The Poem of Beowulf" (England) and "Elder Eda" (Scandinavia). These works belonged to oral poetry and were transmitted by singer-musicians.

In addition to the epic, during the early Middle Ages were widespread sagas. The most famous of them were “The Saga of Egil”, “The Saga of Njal”, “The Saga of Eric the Red”, etc. The sagas told about the past, they were sources from which one can learn about ancient peoples.

Classic Middle Ages

In the classical period of the Middle Ages, the influence of religion on cultural life became even more significant. Of great importance, as mentioned above, have become widespread inquisition (from Latin inqusitio - "search"). Inquisitions were ecclesiastical trials of non-Christians. Interrogations were carried out with the use of torture, after which public executions were held when heretics were burned (auto-da-fé). AT the period of the classical Middle Ages in art there has been a predominance gothic style, which replaced the Romanesque style. The architecture of the Gothic style was characterized by the fact that the temple buildings seemed to be carried upward by slender columns, the windows were decorated stained glass windows, the towers had openwork decorations, many curved statues and complex ornaments. Vivid examples of the Gothic style in architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Reims, Notre Dame Cathedral in Amiens (France), etc. A new direction appears in literature - chivalric literature. Its main character is a feudal warrior. Vivid monuments of knightly literature are such works as “The Song of Roland” about the campaigns of Charlemagne (France), “Tristan and Isolde” - a tragic novel about the love of the knight Tristan and the wife of the Cornish king Isolde (Germany), “The Song of My Side” ( Spain), "Song of the Nibelungs" - a legend about the destruction of the Nibelungs by the Huns (Germany).

During the Classical Middle Ages, church theater. During liturgies, small skits on biblical themes began to be staged. (mysteries). Later, these sketches began to be staged outside the church, and scenes from ordinary people’s lives were added to religious themes. (farces).

At the beginning of the fourteenth century, interest in the human person intensified in cultural life. This marks the arrival of a new period in the development of the culture of Western Europe - renaissance, which is also called Renaissance.

Renaissance (Renaissance)

The first trends towards the advent of a new cultural era were outlined in Italy as early as the thirteenth century, while the Renaissance came to the rest of Western European countries only in the fourteenth century.

At its initial stage, the Renaissance was presented as a return to the achievements of antiquity. In Italy, forgotten literary works and other cultural monuments of antiquity began to rise. But do not assume that the Renaissance is just a retelling of the culture of the ancient world. Absorbing all the best of ancient cultural values, the Renaissance created its own vision of the world, in the center of which is a person. Unlike the opinions of the ancient world, according to which a person should learn from nature, according to Renaissance thinkers, a person is the creator of his own destiny, he is able to do what he wants, even separated from nature. By this, the Renaissance contradicts the teachings of the Middle Ages, according to which the head of the world is not man, but God, the Creator.

The new line of thought was called humanism (from lat. humanus - "human"). This idea, which puts a person at the center of everything, influenced people's desire for personal success, which is possible with constant development, enrichment of their scientific and cultural knowledge, development of creative energy. As a consequence of this approach, there is a huge cultural heritage left to us by the Renaissance. And above all, this High Renaissance, to which the cultural period in Italy belongs.

Italian Renaissance

As already mentioned, the Renaissance began in Italy in the thirteenth century. This initial period, which lasted from the thirteenth to the beginning of the fourteenth century, was called Proto-Renaissance. The basis for the Italian Renaissance was given by such cultural figures as painters Pietro Cavallini (c. 1240/1250-1330) - Author of mosaics in the Church of Santa Maria in Trust Vera, frescoes in the Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere; Giotto di Bondone (1266/1267-1337) - his frescoes are in the Arena Chapel in Padua and in the Church of Santa Croce in Florence; poet and creator of the Italian literary language Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) (the story "New Life", the poem "The Divine Comedy", etc.); sculptor and architect Arnolfo Di Cambio (c. 1245-1310) (Church of San Domenico in Orvieto); sculptor Niccolò Lisano (c. 1220-1278/1284) - he owns the chair of the baptistery in Pisa.

The Renaissance itself in Italy is usually divided into three stages:

1) early Renaissance (tricento and quatricento) (mid-XIV-XV centuries);

2) high renaissance (cinquecento) (the end of the XV - the middle of the XVI centuries);

3) late renaissance (second third of the XNUMXth - first half of the XNUMXth centuries).

The literary work of the early Renaissance is primarily associated with such names as Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1357) и Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374).

Main achievement Petrarch is that he was the first humanist who put man at the center of everything. His most famous work is "Canzoniere" ("Book of Songs"), consisting of sonnets, ballads and madrigals on the life and death of the Madonna Laura.

Product Giovanni Boccaccio The "Decameron", which consists of several short stories, is permeated with humanistic ideas, and even today it remains very instructive, although it was created more than six hundred years ago.

In the fine arts of the early Renaissance, it is worth noting the outstanding Italian painter Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). Most of his works were of a religious and mythological nature, permeated with spiritual sadness, lightness, and distinguished by a subtle coloring. His most famous masterpieces: “Spring” (1477-1478), “Birth of Venus” (c. 1483-1484), “Lamentation of Christ” (c. 1500), “Venus and Mars” (1483 .), "Saint Sebastian" (1474), "Pallas and the Centaur" (1480), etc.

Among the sculptors of the early Renaissance in Italy, the most famous representative of the Florence school is Donato di Niccolò Betto Bardi, better known as Donatello (1386-1466). He created new forms of sculpture: the type of round statue and sculptural group. An example would be his works such as “David” (1430), “Judith and Holofernes” (1456-1457).

Another talented sculptor and architect of the early Renaissance Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446). He was the creator of the theory of linear perspective. Based on the architecture of antiquity, he constantly used the achievements of modernity and introduced innovative ideas into his works. That is why his architectural structures (Pazzi Chapel in the courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce, the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, etc.) can rightfully be called the standard of engineering and construction thought.

The High Renaissance is associated with the names of three great artists: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael и Michelangelo Buonarroti.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a painter, architect, sculptor, scientist and engineer. There are few cultural figures who could be compared with a brilliant creator and thinker. No one can remain indifferent to the name of his painting "La Gioconda", everyone immediately understands what kind of work he is talking about. This portrait has become the most famous portrait not only of the Renaissance, but, perhaps, of the entire history of culture.

The image of man in the works of Leonardo da Vinci is fully consistent with the ideas of humanism, carries a high ethical content. It is worth taking a look at least at the famous painting in the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan "The Last Supper", where all the characters have very clear and distinct facial expressions, understandable gestures. Known are the artist's sketches ("Heads of Warriors", "St. Anna with Mary, the Infant Christ and John the Baptist", "Women's Hands" and "Woman's Head"), in which he very successfully conveys the emotions, feelings of the characters, their inner world. Leonardo da Vinci's notes have been preserved, in which he himself talks about his many-sided talents and the possibility of their application.

Another prominent High Renaissance painter Raphael Santi (1483-1520). His enormous talent was revealed already at an early stage of his work. An example of this is his painting "Madonna Conestabile" (c. 1502-1503). Raphael's works are the embodiment of the humanistic ideal, the strength of man, his beauty and spirituality. Perhaps the most famous work of the master is the Sistine Madonna, painted in 1513.

Closes the top three of the legendary Italian painters Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564). His most famous artistic work is the painting of the vault of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican Palace (1508-1512). But Michelangelo Buonarroti was not only a talented painter. The master gained fame as a sculptor after his work “David”. In it, he, like a true humanist, admires human beauty.

In the literature of the High Renaissance, it is worth highlighting the Italian poet Ludovico Ariosto (1474-1533), the author of the heroic knightly poem “Furious Roland” (1516), imbued with the ideas of humanism, and the comedies “The Warlock” (1520) and “The Matchmaker” (1528), permeated with subtle irony and lightness.

The further development of humanistic ideas was hindered by the church, which tried in every possible way to restore its rights, which it had in the Middle Ages. Various repressive measures were carried out, which were directed against cultural figures. This could not but affect the further development of the culture of the Renaissance. As a result, many creative people began to move away from the ideas of humanism, leaving only the skills that the masters of the early and high Renaissance achieved. This programming, with which cultural figures began to work, was called mannerism. And of course, it cannot lead to anything good, because all creative meaning is lost. But despite the leading positions of Mannerism, there were masters who still followed humanistic ideals. Among them were artists Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Jacopo Tintoretto (1518-1594), Michelangelo da Caravaggio (1573-1610)sculptor Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571).

The end of the Renaissance was marked by the release of the "List of Forbidden Books" in 1559 by order of Pope Paul IV. This list was constantly updated, and disobedience to this prescription was punished by excommunication from the church. The "List of banned books" also included works of the Renaissance, for example, books Giovanni Boccaccio.

So, by the forties of the seventeenth century, the last stage of the Italian Renaissance, the late Renaissance, ended.

But the Renaissance affected not only Italy, there was also the so-called Northern Renaissance, which belonged to such countries as England, the Netherlands, France, Germany, Switzerland, Spain, etc. These countries cannot be left without attention, since their culture at this stage is no less significant than the culture of Italy, and even on the contrary, very interesting at least by the fact that it did not have such a rich ancient cultural layer as Italy had, and was formed during the difficult period of the Reformation.

Northern Renaissance

The literature of the Northern Renaissance reached great heights.

In the Netherlands, the flowering of literature is associated primarily with the name Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536). The most famous works of this humanist are “Praise of Folly” (1509) and “Home Conversations”. In them, he ridicules many vices and calls people to free-thinking and the pursuit of knowledge. In France, the ideas of humanism were developed in their literary works François Rabelais (1494-1553) (his outstanding work "Gargantua and Pantagruel") and Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), who affirmed the ideas of rationalism in his main work, “Experiments.”

The work of the Spanish writer had a huge impact on world literature. Miguel de Cervantes (1547-1616). It is especially worth noting his main work - the novel Don Quixote. It is the standard for humanistic literature. Cervantes' compatriot, another Spanish writer Lope de Vega (1562-1635) thanks to his works "Dog in the Manger", "Blood of the Innocents", "Star of Seville", "Dance Teacher" and others, remains relevant today. Raising important questions for each person, he does not lose his novelty and significance today.

And finally, in England, the literature of the Renaissance is associated with the name of an outstanding author William Shakespeare (1564-1616). He owns thirty-seven plays ("Hamlet", "Othello", "King Lear", "Richard III", "Romeo and Juliet" and many others), the productions of which have not left theater stages all over the world to this day.

It was thanks to W. Shakespeare that theatrical art in England received tremendous development during the Renaissance.

Outstanding creators were not only in the literary environment. Painting received a big boost. Major painters in the Netherlands were Jan van Eyck (c. 1390-1441) - the author of a new oil painting technique at that time, Hieronymus (c. 1460-1516), Frans Hale (1581/1585-1666) - virtuoso painter, Pieter Bruegel (1525-1569). And perhaps the most significant names in the world of painting - Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) и Harmens van Rijn Rembrandt (1606-1669). Rubens's works are characterized by pomp, high spirits, and a lot of decorations and decorations. The main theme of his works were religious and mythological subjects (“The Union of Earth and Water” (1618), “Perseus and Andromeda” (early 1620), “The Judgment of Paris” (1638-1639)), as well as portraits (“Portrait of Helena Faurment with her children” (circa 1636), “The Chambermaid” (circa 1625)). Rembrandt mainly painted portraits, which were characterized by extreme accuracy and vitality of the images. For example, it is worth noting his portraits “Portrait of Floris Soop”, “Philosopher”, “Rembrandt’s Mother”, etc. Rembrandt also painted paintings on religious (“Return of the Prodigal Son”) and historical (“Conspiracy of Julius Civilis”) themes.

Among German painters, it is worth noting the masters of realistic portrait Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/1498-1543), humanist Grunewald (1470/1475-1528), as well as a graphic artist Lucas Cranach the Elder (1427-1553).

Spanish painting reached great heights thanks to the work of great artists El Greco (1541-1614) ("Opening the Fifth Seal", "Savior of the World", "Christ drives out the merchants on the hill", "Descent of the Holy Spirit", etc.) and Diego Velasquez (1599-1660) ("Surrender of Breda", "Breakfast", "Portrait of Prince Carlos Baltazar on a pony").

The Renaissance, which originated in Italy, was of such great importance for the culture of the whole world that it could not remain on the territory of one state and spread throughout Western Europe. In each country, the Renaissance had its own national features, but there was also much in common. First, the idea of ​​humanism, characteristic of the Renaissance in all countries, which can be traced in most works of art. And although the church tried in every possible way to stop the development of this new thinking of people, sometimes resorting to the most extreme measures, the Renaissance was the basis for all further cultures of Western European civilizations and even largely influenced the cultures of the countries of the East.

5. Culture of the New Age

New time covers the period of the end of the XVII-XIX centuries. It is usually divided into two stages:

1) the Age of Enlightenment ("Age of Reason"), referring to the XVII-XVIII centuries;

2) culture of the XNUMXth century.

Let us dwell in more detail on one of the brightest eras in the cultural history of European countries.

Age of Enlightenment

The impetus for the transition to the Age of Enlightenment in all countries is the rejection of the feudal way of life, the transition to a more democratic system. What is the manifestation of its democracy? Firstly, the culture of the Enlightenment is intended not for some chosen stratum of society, not for its rich top, but for the whole people.

The purpose of the Enlightenment is to make the whole people more educated. That is why the significance of the Enlightenment as a whole for the entire cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework was noticeably expanded, which until then covered only an insignificant layer of society. It is thanks to such a concept as the Enlightenment that the terms "cultured" and "educated" could refer to any person striving to enrich his inner world, even if this person had little means.

Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. It was the concept of equality that became the key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal among themselves and have the same rights to their further development as individuals served as the basis for the creation of the ideals of the Enlightenment. Who was the ideal of this era, which is often called "Age of Reason"? Of course, a person, who is distinguished from an animal by the ability to think rationally. It is he who possesses not only physical, but also spiritual power.

According to many thinkers, the Enlightenment is the main engine of social progress.

For example, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) wrote that “Enlightenment is a person’s emergence from the state of his minority...”. And “minority” “is the inability to use one’s reason without guidance from someone else.” According to I. Kant, a person “is in this minority through his own fault,” solely because of the “lack of determination and courage to use” his own reason.

This desire for independence, the participation of each person in the reorganization of the world around him through the possibilities of his mind, led to the fact that the religious understanding and thinking of the people radically changed. One of the extremes of these changes is the emergence of atheist enlighteners who denied religious ideas and cults and, contrary to these ideas, put man above all else. As a consequence - the emergence in the Enlightenment of a new form of faith - deism. Enlighteners-deists did not deny the existence of God as the world mind, as well as the fact that it is he who is the root cause of the world. That is, according to the deists, God is the creator of the world as a kind of "machine", by which he determined the laws of its movement. Any further intervention of God in the arrangement of this "machine" is rejected by the deists, here a person comes to the fore, who makes his own adjustments.

It is worth noting that the Enlightenment era was characterized by optimistic moods associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. No wonder there was another definition of the Enlightenment as the "golden age of utopia." This utopia referred primarily to a change in the political and social foundations. A harmonious society, living according to reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual person - this is the ideal social structure of utopian enlighteners. But despite the great desire to obtain such a society, many utopians, for example Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), had little faith in its possibility.

The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But the transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not just by gradual progressive transformations, but by real upheavals that affected various aspects of human life.

The Age of Enlightenment, which began with the last revolution in England (1689), subsequently included three revolutions at once:

1) industrial in England;

2) political in France;

3) philosophical and aesthetic in Germany.

But the Enlightenment affected not only the social structure of society, but also cultural development.

Leadership emerges in philosophy rationalism, which replaced metaphysics. That is, it was the mind that began to be revered as the basis of human knowledge and behavior. Only reason was recognized as having the final say, both in life and in science, and even in religion.

Although the Age of Enlightenment covered many countries, each of them had its own characteristics, primarily related to national identity.

England is considered the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Even the church here did not go against the Enlightenment, but accepting its values ​​and ideals. The reorganization of society after the revolution and civil wars, the strengthening of the rule of law with its desire for equality made England a kind of standard that other states aspired to.

The first to formulate the program of the English Enlightenment, which was also followed in France, was the philosopher John Locke (1632-1704). In his work "An Essay on Human Understanding", written in 1689, he identified three basic human rights, which are referred to as "inalienable rights":

1) the human right to life;

2) the human right to freedom;

3) the right to property.

D. Locke saw the result of the adoption of these three rights in the "legal equality of individuals."

D. Locke attributed great importance to human labor. In his opinion, it is labor that determines what kind of property a person will possess.

The idea of ​​equality was also adhered to by another English educator, the philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). He believed that all people are equal by nature, and inequality is the cause of many troubles, such as conflicts, wars, etc. And in order to avoid these troubles, T. Hobbes believed, every person needs to get rid of his selfish passions.

But there were thinkers who held a completely opposite opinion. Thus was born a new direction in philosophy, called ethics of self-love or reasonable selfishness. His followers were the English thinker and writer Bernard Mandeville (1670-1733), as well as an English philosopher and sociologist Jeremiah Ventham (1748-1832). According to supporters of the ethics of self-love, selfishness is the driving force in the cultural and moral life of people.

Among the Scottish educators, it is worth highlighting the economist and philosopher Adam Smith (1723-1790). He put forward his innovative idea of ​​​​civic behavior and social relations, in which he assigned a large role to the market. It was thanks to the market, according to A. Smith, that man was able to throw off the shackles of feudalism. Human freedom is determined primarily by his role in economic relations.

The Enlightenment in France became famous for the names of great thinkers. Primarily - Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Appreciate Diderot и Charles Louis Montesquieu.

One of the supporters of deism in France was a writer and educator Voltaire (1694-1778), whose real name is Marie Francois Arouet. Already in his early works his indignation towards absolutism was evident; he ridiculed feudal society with its principles and moral values ​​in every possible way. Such works as “Philosophical Letters,” written in 1733, and “Philosophical Dictionary,” written between 1764 and 1769, are devoted to criticism of the feudal-absolutist system. But Voltaire’s work covered not only philosophical and political themes. His prose was devoted to very diverse topics, written in various genres: from tragedy and comedy to poetry and novels. Voltaire's ideas played an important role in the development of world thought. In particular, in Russia it has become very widespread Voltairianism, which was associated with freethinking, religious skepticism, and the overthrow of authorities.

Another critic of absolutism was a contemporary and compatriot of Voltaire, a jurist and philosopher. Charles Louis Montesquieu (1689-1755). His main works are “Persian Letters,” written in 1721, and the book “On the Spirit of Laws,” written in 1748. In them, S. L. Montesquieu discusses the causality of the emergence of one or another form of statehood, sees a solution to problems associated with legality, separation of powers.

Irreconcilable with religious ideas, as well as absolutism, the great French writer and philosopher remained in power throughout his life. Denis Diderot (1713-1784). He was a materialist, that is, a supporter of the idea that matter is primary, and all thinking and consciousness are only properties of this matter. One of the greatest achievements of D. Diderot is the idea of ​​​​creating the Encyclopedia (1751-1780). He was not only its inspiration, but also its creator and editor. The Encyclopedia consisted of thirty-five volumes.

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a French writer and philosopher who, like other educators, treated the official church with distrust and even indignation. His works trace the main idea of ​​the Enlightenment - the idea of ​​universal equality. This theme is typical for such of his works as “Discourse on the Beginning and Foundations of Inequality” (1755), “On the Social Contract” (1762). In them he criticizes absolutism and extreme despotism of power.

According to J. J. Rousseau, many of the problems of a person are the result of his spoiled morals. This depravity came from bad upbringing and inequality. Therefore, Rousseau saw the way out in the eradication of all inequality, in the correct education of people who could serve for the benefit of society. That is why one of the most famous works of J. J. Rousseau is his novel "Emil, or on Education", dedicated to pedagogical problems in the education system. The main goal of education, according to Rousseau, is the development in a person of an inner consciousness of goodness and the protection of his moral feelings from the corrupting influence of society.

The Enlightenment did not stand still. The difficult situation in which Germany was located, its fragmentation and economic instability left their characteristic national imprint on the German Enlightenment.

Among the German philosophers of the Enlightenment, it is worth highlighting Immanuel Kantham his contemporaries: Gotthold Ephraim Lessing и Johann Gottfried Herder.

The main idea of ​​the German philosopher, art theorist and playwright Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) there was a political renewal which he saw in the unity of the human race. The purpose of this renewal is the final stage in the development of human civilization, "the era of the new, eternal Gospel."

Another German philosopher-educator, critic and esthetician was a supporter of humanistic ideas. Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803). He stood for originality in art, for national differences and diversity. Some of his most significant works, imbued with the ideas of humanism, were the essay “Another Philosophy of History for the Education of Humanity”, as well as “Letters for the Encouragement of Humanity” (1793-1797).

I. Kant had his own concept of the Enlightenment, according to which Enlightenment is the liberation of man from moral and intellectual dependence. In this regard, it is worth noting such a work by I. Kant as "Observation of the Feeling of the Beautiful and the Sublime." The beautiful and the sublime are the two main categories according to I. Kant. I. Kant observes all human feelings only through the prism of these categories.

And if the beautiful and sublime, rather, refers to the world of art and creativity, then there were other topics that I. Kant touched upon in his writings. He is concerned about many social issues. For example, questions close to art, such as the development of a culture created by man, the laws of this development. I. Kant sees the reason for any development as the natural competition of people in the pursuit of their personal freedom, self-realization, and the achievement of the significance of their personality.

An important concept in the philosophy of I. Kant is the concept of "thing in itself". This concept means a thing considered from the side of its qualities that do not depend on a person in any way. Interestingly, in the first edition of his Critique of Pure Reason, written in 1781, I. Kant denies any existence of a "thing in itself." And already in the second edition it proves the opposite, that the "thing in itself" can be real.

The significance of the philosophy of I. Kant for the subsequent development of philosophical thought is enormous. It was I. Kant who was the founder of German classical philosophy.

The art of the Enlightenment was characterized by its own style and genre features. There are three main trends characteristic of European art.

1. Classicism, from the Latin classicus, meaning “exemplary.”

2. Romanticism, from the French word romanticisme.

3. Sentimentalism, from the French word sentiment, which means “feeling.”

It was the sentimentalists who created the cult of nature characteristic of the Enlightenment. In their opinion, such natural areas as gardens and parks are the most favorable places for a person who strives for his development and improvement.

Here parks are not just places with natural or planted vegetation. They include various cultural buildings such as museums, libraries, theaters, art galleries and temples, etc. From this we can conclude that the art of the Enlightenment reached great heights.

Art in France is associated primarily with such a new concept as rococo. It is characterized by asymmetry, playfulness and pretentiousness, luxury and mannerism.

An example of Rococo are the works of the French painter Francois Boucher (1703-1770), such as “Venus Consoling Cupid” (1751), “Breakfast” (1750), “Diana’s Bath” (1742), “Morning” (1745), “Resting Girl” (1752 .), "Toilet of Venus" (1751), etc.

The ancestor of the Rococo style is considered to be a French draftsman and painter. Antoine Watteau (1684-1721). His works, from everyday scenes to gallant celebrations, stand out for their brightness, sophistication, and colorfulness. His most famous paintings: “Society in the Park” (1716-1719), “Dance” (1710-1720), “Mezzeten” (1717-1719), “Lovers on Vacation”, “Pilgrimage to the Island” Kiefer" (1717-1718).

But the very first painter-educator was an Englishman William Hogarth (1697-1764). It was he who was the first to introduce secular themes into painting, whereas previously works of art with religious themes had predominated. W. Hogarth's paintings were characterized by satire; he used painting to ridicule the vices of the aristocracy. An example of this is his paintings “The Career of a Prostitute” (1730-1731), “The Career of a Spendthrift” (1732-1735), “The Marriage Contract”, “Elections” (c. 1754), etc.

His compatriot, Enlightenment painter Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1888) was one of the most prominent portrait painters. His portraits ("Self-portrait" (1754 and 1758), "Portrait of a lady in blue" (1770), "Girl with piglets" (1782), "Morning walk" (1785), etc.) spiritualized, poetic, full of lyricism and spiritual refinement.

In Italy, namely in Venice, in the XVIII century. a new direction of painting was born - veduta.

Veduta (from the Italian word veduta) is an urban architectural landscape. Representatives of this trend were the Venetian painters-enlighteners Giovanni Canaletto (1697-1768) ("Portello and the Brenta Canal in Padua", "Stonecutter's Yard", "Square of Saints John and Paul in Venice", "Church of Santa Maria della Salute in Venice" , "Piazza San Marco in Venice"), Francesco Guardi (1712-1793) ("View of the square with the palace", "Capriccio on the embankment of the Venetian lagoon", "Departure of the Doge on the" Bucentoro "to the church of San Nicolò on the Lido", "View of the Venetian Lagoon with the Tower of Malghera").

The literary art of the Enlightenment did not stand still. This is largely due to the flourishing of theatrical art. After all, it is not for nothing that the Enlightenment is called the "golden age of the theater."

In England, it is associated with the name of the playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). He became famous for his satirical comedies: The Rivals (1775), Trips to Scarborough (1777), The School for Scandal.

Theatrical art was highly developed in Venice. Here, in a small town, there were seven theaters. Venetian theaters existed largely thanks to the merits of outstanding playwrights: Carlo Goldoni and Carlo Gozzi.

The most famous works Carlo Goldoni (1707-1793) - "The Sly Widow" (1748), "The Innkeeper" (1753), "The Servant of Two Masters" (1745-1753). Thanks to his wit and sparkling humor, K. Goldoni became widely known all over the world.

His contemporary Carlo Gozzi (1720-1806) wrote fairy tales (fiabs) for the theater, which were based on folklore: "The Love for Three Oranges" (1761), "The Deer King" (1762), "Turandot" (1762) and others. And if K. Goldoni refused method of commedia dell'arte (improvisation based on the script), then C. Gozzi, on the contrary, continued to widely use this method.

Comedy of manners reached great heights in the work of the French playwright of the Enlightenment Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais (1732-1799). The heroes of his works tried in every possible way to protest and ridicule the existing regime. (The Barber of Seville (1775) and The Marriage of Figaro (1784)).

In the Age of Enlightenment, a "universal genius" appeared in Germany, the founder of German literature, a writer Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832). His works are imbued with anti-feudal sentiments, they describe the problems of human relationships, the search for the meaning of life (the play "Egmont" (1788), the tragedy "Faust" (1803-1832), the autobiographical book "Poetry and Truth", etc.) . I. Goethe was not only a talented writer, but also a brilliant natural scientist (“An Essay on the Metamorphosis of Plants” (1790), “The Doctrine of Color” (1810)).

Musical art can be put on a par with theater and literary art. Operas and other musical works were written on the themes of the works of great writers and playwrights.

The development of musical art is primarily associated with the names of such great composers as J.-S. Bach, G. F. Handel, I Haydn, W. A. ​​Mozart, L. V. Beethoven and others.

An unsurpassed master of polyphony was a German composer, organist and harpsichordist Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750). His works were imbued with deep philosophical meaning and high ethics. He was able to summarize the achievements in musical art that his predecessors had achieved. His most famous works are “The Well-Tempered Clavier” (1722-1744), “The St. John Passion” (1724), “The St. Matthew Passion” (1727 and 1729), many concerts and cantatas, the Mass of the minor (1747-1749), etc.

Unlike I.-S. Bach, who did not write a single opera, to a German composer and organist George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) belong to more than forty operas. As well as works on biblical themes (oratorios "Israel in Egypt" (1739), "Saul" (1739), "Messiah" (1742), "Samson" (1743), "Judas Maccabee" (1747), etc.), organ concertos, sonatas, suites, etc.

The master of classical instrumental genres such as symphonies, quartets, as well as sonata forms was the great Austrian composer Joseph Haydn (1732-1809). It was thanks to him that the classical composition of the orchestra was formed. He owns several oratorios (“The Seasons” (1801), “The Creation of the World” (1798)), 104 symphonies, 83 quartets, 52 piano sonatas, 14 masses, etc.

Another Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), was a child prodigy, thanks to which he became famous in early childhood. He owns over 20 operas, including the famous “The Marriage of Figaro” (1786), “Don Giovanni” (1787), “The Magic Flute” (1791), more than 50 symphonies, many concerts, piano works (sonatas) , fantasies, variations), unfinished "Requiem" (1791), songs, masses, etc.

The difficult fate that left its mark on all creativity was with the German composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827). His genius manifested itself already in childhood and did not leave him even in the terrible trouble for any composer and musician - hearing loss. His works have a philosophical character. Many works were influenced by his republican views as a composer. Beethoven owns nine symphonies, instrumental sonatas (Moonlight, Pathétique), sixteen string quartets, ensembles, the opera Fidelio, overtures (Egmont, Coriolanus), concertos for piano and orchestra and other works.

His famous expression: "Music should carve fire from human hearts." He followed this idea to the end of his life.

19th century culture.

Early XNUMXth century characterized by major changes in social and political life. Bourgeois revolutions break out in many countries. People strive to get rid of political oppression and all injustice.

In addition to changes in the structure of society, the transformation also affected the scientific side of life. The first signs of an industrial society are observed. This is primarily due to the industrial revolution, scientific discoveries, etc.

Here are just a few scientists who have had a significant impact on the development of science: a German naturalist and doctor who formulated the law of conservation of energy, Julius Robert Mayer (1814-1878); English physicist who experimentally proved the law of conservation of energy James Prescott Joule (1814-1878); creator of the thermodynamic theory of chemical processes, the theory of vortex motion of a liquid and anomalous dispersion, German scientist Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz (1821- 1894). Biology has achieved enormous results thanks to such German scientists as Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) ("Microscopic studies on the correspondence in the structure and growth of animals and plants" (1839)) and Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1804-1881). Together they created the cell theory. The grandiose evolutionary doctrine was introduced into biology by an English naturalist Charles Robert Darwin (1809-1882). His main work is On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859).

Physics of the XNUMXth century was able to overcome the boundaries and move into the realm of the microcosm and the world of high speeds. First of all, this is the merit of the two greatest minds of the XNUMXth century: the German theoretical physicist, the founder of modern physics, the creator of the theory of relativity Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and German physicist, founder of quantum theory Max Planck (1857-1947).

In the art of the XIX century. two main styles continued to develop: classicism and romanticism.

Classicism began to take shape in XVII in. It was characterized by a return to the achievements of the ancient world.

The main principles of classicism were philosophical rationalism, rationality, regularity, ennobled beauty. Education played an important role. At the same time, the public was placed above the personal. Heroes of classicism struggled with their passions for the good of society, duty, etc.

In literature, classicism was reflected in the works of such masters as the German poet, playwright Johann Friedrich Schiller (1759-1805) ("Mary Stuart", "Maid of Orleans", "William Tell", etc.), French poet and playwright Marie Joseph Chenier (1764-1811) ("Charles IX, or A Lesson to Kings", "Kai Gracchus", etc.), his brother, poet and playwright André Marie Chenier (1762-1794) (cycle "Yamba").

Classicism in painting is associated primarily with the French painter Jacques Louis David (1748-1825). Adopting the ancient example, he created real masterpieces of classicism: “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), “The Death of Marat” (1793), “The Sabine Women” (1799), “Andromache at the Bedside of Hector” (1783). ), portraits “Doctor A. Leroy” (1783), “Greengrocer”, “Old Man in a Black Hat”, etc.

A student of J.-L. David was an excellent portrait painter, a French painter Jean Augutes Ingres (1780-1867) ("Portrait of the Artist" (c. 1800), "Portrait of Bertin" (1832), "Madame Devose" (1807)).

The musical art of classicism in connection with the French Revolution took on somewhat new forms. First of all, this is due to the emergence of new ideals, the desire for mass character. The emergence of a new musical genre "opera of salvation" was possible thanks to two composers of this era: François Joseph Gossecou (1734-1829) (opera "The Triumph of the Republic, or the Camp at the Grand Pre", 1793) and Etienne Megule (songs for revolutionary celebrations, the opera Stratonika (1792), Joseph (1807), etc.).

Disappointment in the revolution, social cataclysms led to a change in ideals. Disgust for the bourgeois system with its rationalism and enlightenment led to the fact that classicism began to become obsolete. It was replaced by a new direction - romanticism. Romantics began to abandon objectivity in favor of subjective creative imagination.

Among the writers of romanticism, it is worth highlighting Jean Paul (1763-1825), founder of romantic ethics, author of the novels "Hesperus", "Siebenkäz" and others, as well as a romanticist, a brilliant German writer Ernst Theodor Hoffmann (1776-1822) ("Devil's Elixir", "Golden Pot", "Lord of the Fleas", "Little Tsakhes", "Ondine", "Notes of the Cat Murr", etc.).

The pinnacle of English romanticism was the lyricist George Noel Gordon Byron (1766-1824). His works are characterized by protest. The main character, a rebel and an individualist, strives for freedom and is often pessimistic. His most famous works: the poems “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, “Manfred”, “Cain”, oriental poems “Lara”, “Corsair”, “Giaour”, etc.

In the XNUMXth century Progressive romanticism began to stand out in France. His followers include writers Victor Hugo (1802-1885) ("Notre Dame Cathedral", "The Man Who Laughs", "Les Misérables", etc.) and Georges: Sand (1804-1876) ("Indiana", "Valentine", "Sin of Mr. Antoine", "Consueto", "Horas", etc.).

Among romantic composers, a special place is occupied by F. Schubert, K. M. Weber, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Chopin, F. Liszt.

Austrian composer Franz Schubert (1797-1828) is the creator of romantic songs and ballads, he owns several vocal cycles, symphonies, ensembles. He is rightly called the largest representative of early romanticism.

The founder of the German romantic opera is a composer and conductor, as well as a music critic Carl Maria von Weber. He wrote ten brilliant operas, among them "The Magic Shooter" (1821), "Evryant" (1823), "Oberon" (1826).

Another German composer and conductor brought innovations to the opera Richard Wagner (1813-1883). In his operas ("The Rienza" (1840), "The Flying Dutchman" (1841), "Tristan and Isolde" (1859), "Parsifal" (1882), etc.) he took a musical basis added a poetic and philosophical meaning.

The French romantic composer, as well as the conductor, was also an innovator in music. Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) - the creator of the romantic program symphony.

Speaking of romanticism in music, one cannot fail to mention the greatest Polish composer and pianist Frederic Chopin (1810-1849). His love for his homeland was very strongly reflected in his works. They have a national connotation, a folklore imprint. F. Chopin owns 2 concertos, 3 sonatas, ballads, scherzos, nocturnes and etudes, as well as other works for piano.

Romanticism was also reflected in the visual arts.

In France, romanticism is associated primarily with the painter Theodore Gericault (1791-1824). His works are distinguished by dramatic tension and psychologism. The main thing is that T. Gericault finds his subjects in everyday life and uses everyday scenes. His most famous works: "The Raft of Medusa" (1818-1819), "Epsom Derby" (1821).

Another romantic painter is compatriot T. Gericault Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863), the works are imbued with the spirit of love of freedom, tension, excitement ("The Orphan in the Cemetery", "The Death of Sardanapalus", "Greece Dying on the Ruins of Missolunga", "Massacre on Chios", "Freedom on the Barricades"). Delacroix's influence on subsequent generations is enormous.

But romanticism did not last forever. The time has come when he completely exhausted himself. Then he was replaced by a new direction of art - realism. It began to take shape in the thirties of the XIX century. And by the middle of the century it becomes the dominant trend in the art of the New Age. It is characterized by the transmission of the truth of life.

In literature, realism reached its peak in the work of the French writer Support de Balzac (1799-1850). His main work is the epic "The Human Comedy", consisting of 90 novels and short stories. In his works, O. Balzac paints realistic pictures, reflecting social mores and contradictions.

Another realist writer, French Prosper Merimee (1803-1870) rightfully considered the master of the novel. His works ("Carmen", "Colombes", "Chronicle of the reign of Charles IX", etc.) are elegant, concise, and have a refined form.

The greatest realist in England is the writer Charles Dickens (1812-1870), the founder of a new direction - critical realism. Describing the various layers of English society, he ridicules its vices and shortcomings.

In the art of music, realism is characterized by the emergence of a new direction - verism. Its representatives are Italian composers, the founders of verismo in opera Ruggero Leoncavallo (1857-1919), Piero Mascagni (1863-1945). Another Italian composer significantly expanded the scope of opera verism Giacomo Puccini(1858-1924). He owns such operas as “Tosca”, “Turandot”, “Madama Butterfly”, “Manon Lescaut”, “La Bohème”, “The Girl from the West”, “Cio-Cio-san”.

After the revolution, realism strengthened its position in the visual arts. One of the most brilliant realist artists is considered Francisco José de Goya (1746-1828). His works are permeated by the theme of love of freedom. They are distinguished by richness, passion, and vivid emotionality. An example of this is his works such as “Caprichos”, “Bullfight”, “Saturn Devours One of His Children”, “Panic (Colossus)”. Very often, Goya's paintings are imbued with the national spirit, despite their uniqueness.

By the end of the XIX century. new directions in art begin to take shape:

1) symbolism;

2) naturalism;

3) impressionism.

Symbolism is characterized by the transmission of images using various symbols. In literature, French poets are prominent representatives of symbolism. Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891), Stéphane Mallarmé (1842-1898).

An English draftsman can be called a symbolist in painting Aubrey Vincent Beardsley (1872-1898) ("Spleen Cave", 1895-1896, "Toilet of Salome", 1893, "Lysistrata", 1896).

Naturalism was characterized by an objective transmission of reality, and artistic perception was preferred to scientific perception.

A supporter of naturalism in literature was a French writer Emile Zola (1840-1902). His main work, dedicated to the life of one family, is Rougon-Macquart, written between 1871 and 1893, consisting of twenty volumes. In his book "The Experimental Novel" (1880), he acted as a supporter of naturalism in art.

In the transfer of fleeting impressions, changes in the real world, the Impressionists achieved great success. Impressionism appeared in France in the works of such painters as Edouard Monet (1832-1883) ("Breakfast on the Grass", "Bar Folies Bergère", "Seascape", "On the Bench") and Pierre Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) ("Ball at the Moulin de la Galette", "Neighbourhood of Menton", "Girl Playing the Guitar").

After analyzing the culture of the New Age, we saw how diverse it is in its styles and genres. Very often, under the influence of external factors, such as political and social changes, the forms and methods of art changed right before our eyes.

Of greatest importance for subsequent generations was the development in the XNUMXth century. realistic direction in art.

6. Culture of modern times

XNUMXth century - the newest time in culture. For the XNUMXth century characterized by constant progress, it has been outlined in all areas of life.

Another characteristic of the XNUMXth century. indicator - a constant desire for unification, internationalization. If earlier culture had clearer and more definite national boundaries, expressed in cultural differences between different states, then for modern times these boundaries have become less and less strict and distinct. The main reason for such an interethnic association is the scientific and technological revolution, which made it possible to establish closer contact between countries. Of course, this interpenetration of the cultures of different states was not always calm and peaceful. It is worth remembering the political conflicts leading to world wars and other confrontations. And, if we follow the course of history, we can see that the most problematic relations between states were characteristic of the first half of the XNUMXth century. The second half turned out to be more calm and serene, as a result of which internationalization went much faster and more progressively.

Global changes in people's lives associated with the transition to a new type of society - capitalist, as well as a huge leap in the development of scientific knowledge and other factors could not but affect culture. As a reaction to these changes - the emergence of new cultural forms.

Let's take painting as an example. A number of new, very often completely original forms have appeared, such as:

1) nabizm (from the French nabis - "vices" and from the Hebrew nabi - "prophet");

2) fauvism (from the French fauve - "wild");

3) cubism (from the French cubisme, from cube - "cube").

Nabizm originated in Paris around 1890. Its creators were artists Maurice Denis (1870-1943), Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947) and more

The Nabists, starting from Art Nouveau, united literary symbolism, the musicality of rhythms and the decorative generalization of forms.

From 1905 to 1907 there was another trend in painting - fauvism. It, like Nabism, appeared in France under the influence of such painters as Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Albert Marquet (1875-1947), Georges Rouault (1871-1958), Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), Maurice de Vlaminck (1876-1958). Fauvism was characterized by the desire for emotionality in the transmission of the artistic image, dynamism and color intensity.

In the first quarter of the XNUMXth century, cubism began to flourish in France, which later appeared in other countries. Its most famous representative is Pablo Picasso (1881-1973). In 1907 he, together with the French painter Georges Braque (1882-1963) created a direction, which was characterized by the promotion of formal experiments, such as three-dimensional forms on a plane, geometric figures (ball, cube, cylinder, etc.). Cubism is characterized by a certain analysis, i.e., the decomposition of complex forms into simpler ones. Picasso, using neutral tones, combining various geometric shapes, creates absolutely radical works of art ("Queen Isabeau", "Lady with a Fan" (1909); "Portrait of A. Vollard" (1910); "Dryad", " Farmer", "Three Women" (1909-1910)).

Cubism had two stages of development:

1) analytical (1907-1909);

2) synthetic (since 1913).

The synthetic stage of cubism differs from the analytical stage in the greater color of forms, in the flat image of objects.

But Picasso did not stand still, he was constantly looking for new forms of expression. As a result, in the early 20s, he came to a new direction - surrealism ("Metamorphoses" (1930)).

Surrealism (from the French surrealisme - "superrealism") chose the sphere of the subconscious as a source of artistic images. Surrealists used instincts, their dreams and hallucinations.

At the initial stage, surrealism served as a kind of reflection of the absurd reality that the post-war world seemed to be. And if you pull the subconscious out, then, according to artists, in this way you can improve the world. The largest figure in the world of surrealist painting was the Spanish painter Salvador Dali (1904-1989). His works (“Poetry of America” (1943), “Portrait of Picasso” (1947), “Madonna of the Port of Lligat” (1949), “A Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee Around a Pomegranate, a Second Before Awakening” (1944 g.), "Atomic Leda" (1947), etc.) are distinguished by courage, boundless imagination, virtuosity in execution, as well as many contradictions and a combination of seemingly incompatible things and objects.

But surrealism also touched other types of art (literature, theater, cinema).

If the transition to the XX century. affected painting, it did not have a noticeable effect on literature. Literary art continued to develop, but without fundamental changes.

The beginning of the XNUMXth century is associated with the emergence of a huge number of talented writers. In France it is worth highlighting Marcel Proust (1871-1922), Andre Gide (1869-1951), Georges Bernanos (1888-1948), Francois Mauriac (1885-1970) and others. At this time, the heyday of the French novel falls, which becomes more intense, heartbreaking and frank.

In English and German literature, there has been a tendency to follow the classical traditions. An example is the work of the English novelist John Galsworthy (1867-1933), German writer Thomas Mann (1875-1955).

Despite following the classical traditions, in the literature of the XX century. the influence of modernism is very noticeable. This influence can be traced in the novel by Marcel Proust "In Search of Lost Time", the works of the Austrian writer Franz Kafka ("The Trial", "America", etc.), the Irish writer James Joyce (1882-1941) ("Dubliners", "Ulysses", "Portrait of the Artist in his youth"). Many writers in their works use a new creative principle, characteristic of Western European literature at the beginning of the XNUMXth century, the "stream of consciousness". For the first time this term was used by an American philosopher and psychologist William James in his book The Scientific Foundations of Psychology (1890). This principle is understood as the transfer of the processes of mental life, a kind of "inner monologue". This makes, when reading the book, to believe in one's presence in the conditions described by the author, to empathize with the characters more strongly.

The Second World War affected not only people's lives, but also culture. A new direction emerged in philosophy and literature - existentialism (from late Latin exsistentia - "existence"). The main theme of existentialism is human existence with its manifestations (fears, worries, conscience, etc.).

Existentialism has two branches:

1) religious existentialism (German philosopher Karl Jaspers, French philosopher and playwright Gabriel Honore Marcel, etc.);

2) atheistic existentialism (French writer Jean Paul Sartre, French writer and thinker Albert Camus).

Probably one of the most significant events in the history of culture of the XX century. - the emergence of a new ("seventh") art form, cinematography. At the initial stage it was silent cinema, but in 1927 cinema became sound. Cinematography cannot be considered as a separate art form, because it is a synthesis of literature, theater, music, fine arts, etc. At the initial stage of its existence, cinema is associated with such names as Rene Clair, Jean Renoir, Jean Cocteau и Marcel Carne. These outstanding French directors made cinema independent.

The cinema of the post-war period is, first of all, films Jean Luc Godard, Francois Truffaut, Roberto Rossellini, Luis Buñuel, Frederico Fellini and more

For the first two decades after the end of the Second World War, the problematic cinema of the "new wave" is in the lead. In its place comes the heyday of comedy. Fantasy films, melodramas, adventures, action films and many other genres appear. The United States plays a huge role in cinema. Hollywood is of particular importance. It was here until the 50s. was the bulk of the American film industry. A new national genre appears in American cinema - western. Gradually, the United States is becoming a leader in cinema. The largest number of films and movie stars appear here. Hollywood becomes the pioneer of American aesthetics and standards of mass culture in the United States, the influence of which on the rest is enormous.

Author: Dorohova M.A.

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