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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
History of culture. Culture of Russia (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 3. Culture of Russia 1. Culture of the ancient Slavs Slavs - part of the ancient Indo-European ethnic unity. They are part of the Indo-European family along with Europeans. Their history is presented in ancient books. For example, the Bible speaks of the three sons of Noah, and from one of them, Jophet, the Slavs descended. The biblical version of the origin of the Slavs is not the only one, there are a number of versions, and disputes on this issue are ongoing to this day. One of the most significant sources of information about the Slavic tribes II-I millennium BC. e. the Veles book is considered to be dedicated to Veles, the god of wealth among the ancient Slavs. In 1943, during the occupation of Brussels by the Germans, she disappeared. But some notes have survived, copied and translated by the writer Yu. P. Mirolyubov. The book talks about the Triglav of the gods, which was worshiped by the ancient Slavs, consisting of Svarog, Perun and Sventovit. But this composition was not permanent. For example, in Kyiv, Triglav was represented by Svarog, Dazhdbog and Stribog, and in Novgorod by Svarog, Perun and Beles (in the Book of Veles - Did, Oak and Sheaf). At this time, the ancient Slavs had a very common maternal cult (the patron bird of Russia, the Slavic mother of the cheese earth) and the cult of ancestors - manism. Analyzing the beliefs of the Slavs, we come to the conclusion that their worldview was characterized by anthropotheocosmism, which manifested itself in the fact that they did not have a clear distinction between the spheres of human, natural and divine. The ancient Slavs had a lot of all kinds of rituals and customs. For example, on the day of the vernal equinox, a funeral ceremony was held for Marena, symbolizing victory over winter (death). On the day of the summer solstice, the feast of Ivan Kupala (the deity of the sun) was held. On the night of June 24, according to the old style, rituals were held with fire and water, gathering herbs and flowers, games, songs, divination and round dances, after which they burned the effigy of Kupala as a sign that he is a solar deity. Sorcery was also common among the Slavs, that is, New Year's divination for the harvest with the help of deep vessels called charms. Archaeologists have found an ancient Slavic sanctuary dating back to the XNUMXnd-XNUMXth centuries, the altar of which was made of fragments of clay bowls. Various vessels were also found, intended not only for New Year's divination, but also for other rituals. Any spiritually developed people comes to the need for the existence of writing. The ancient Slavs had their own original writing system - knot writing. The signs were knots on threads, and the books were balls. Nodular writing was replaced by pictographic letter. It can be seen in the ornament of ritual objects. A new round in the history of the Slavs is associated with the 862th century. It was at this time that they were reunited under princely rule into a single young state. The era of Kievan Rus begins with the Varangian princes (Rurik, Sineus and Truvor) in 988. In order to further strengthen and unify the state in XNUMX, the prince Vladimir / adopted Christianity as the unified state religion of Russia. With the beginning of his reign, Russia enters the period of its heyday and international recognition. An important cultural stage in Russia was the creation of writing. This event is associated with the names of two brothers, Cyril (827-869) и Methodius (815-885). Slavic writing was based on Greek writing. There are documents confirming that already in the 10th century. Cyrillic alphabet was used. And from the 11th century. children of rich people began to be taught to read and write, and libraries began to appear. The first literary monuments written by East Slavic authors: "The Tale of Bygone Years", "The Tale of Boris and Gleb", "The Life of Theodosius of the Caves", "The Word of Law and Grace". In the XI-XII centuries. There are three main literary genres: 1) annals - historical work. Chronicles were divided into all-Russian and local; 2) life (biographies); 3) word - and a solemn speech, and a military story. 2. Kievan Rus and the era of feudal fragmentation The main idea of the "Tale of Bygone Years", written by a monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor в 1113 g., - the unity of Russia. In his work, Nestor points to the beginning of princely strife and strife, condemning them. To the beginning XII in. there was a huge number of principalities (Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, etc.), which sought to have power in Russia, waged constant wars. By the beginning of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, there were about 50 independent principalities. That is why the period of the XII-XIII centuries. called in Russia period of feudal fragmentation, "the destruction of the Russian land." But despite the difficult period for Rus', this era was accompanied by the flourishing of culture and the progressive growth of cities. Literature continues to flourish. In the XI-XII centuries. the names of 39 scribes are known, 15 of them were clergy. As in Europe, during the Middle Ages, the culture of Russia was greatly influenced by the church. As a result, the most widespread church literature. The development of literature in Russia was hampered by the fact that literature existed only within the framework of the manuscript tradition. Until the XV-XVI centuries. continued to write on parchment, calfskin. Quills and ink (or cinnabar) were used for writing. This situation continued until the XNUMXth century. That is why, due to the high cost of the material, scribes always tried to save money with handwriting and abbreviations under titles. The words were written without syllable separation. Thanks to its clarity and solemnity, the handwriting of the 11th-13th centuries. got the name charter. Often, to increase the speed of writing, a type of charter was used - semi-charter, it appeared in the 14th century. The appearance of luxurious books with cinnabar letters falls on the XNUMXth century. Artistic miniatures appear in books. Two books serve as an example: "Ostromir's Gospel" (XI century) and "Mstislav's Gospel" (XII century). Books have a very rich finish, their binding was bound with gold or silver, and also decorated with precious stones, gold, etc. Old Russian literature can be divided into two sections: 1. Translated literature, which was considered part of national literature. These were mainly church works. 2. Original literature, written by East Slavic authors. In addition to the three well-known genres of ancient Russian literature (chronicle, life and word), speechrelated to the genre of eloquence. Mostly the speeches were of an edifying nature, so they were often called teachings. The most famous teaching that has come down to us as part of the Tale of Bygone Years is the Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh. It contains moral instructions, a will, and lessons for sons on the topic of government. Also a striking example of this genre are the “Teachings of Archbishop Luke to the Brothers” (1058), written by the Novgorod bishop Luka Zhidyata, and "Teachings to the priests" (XIII c.), written by an ancient Russian preacher and writer Serapion of Vladimir. The main themes of these works are themes of morality, spiritual purification and Christian piety. In addition to speeches (teachings), there was another genre that required, in addition to ideology, and literary skill. This genre is called solemn eloquence. A striking example of this is what was written by the Kyiv Metropolitan Illarion "The Word of Law and Grace". Illarion was known not only as an ecclesiastical politician, but also as a brilliant orator. He first uttered his "Word" in 1038 at the feast of the Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos at the Golden Gate in Kyiv. "The Word of Law and Grace" has three parts. 1. Introduction, here the author contrasted the New and Old Testaments. 2. The narrative part, in which some biblical stories are interpreted, the author connects them with law and grace. 3. Conclusion, in which Hilarion praises the Christian religion and Prince Vladimir, who baptized Russia. In the Lay, Illarion deals with issues of equality, independence of the Russian people, patriotism and other topics related to the meaning of the Fatherland. Like a true literary master, Hilarion uses various literary forms and tropes to embellish his speech. That is why the "Sermon on Law and Grace" is an example of the literary language, according to which the scribes of the XII-XV centuries studied. 1185th century - the time of exacerbation of feudal fragmentation. It was at this time that the most significant work appeared, written in Kyiv around 1812 - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". The fate of this manuscript was very tragic, in XNUMX the Moscow fire on Razgulyav carried away a great literary monument, and at the same time instilled many doubts in scientists. Since a copy of the manuscript has survived to this day, this has given rise to disputes about the originality of the text in it. Versions about the unreliability of this copy are offered to this day. Despite everything, The Tale of Igor's Campaign remains the greatest work of ancient Russian literature. It is worth noting the language in which the "Word" is written. The author uses different rhythms depending on the plot being described. Recall at least the famous cry of Yaroslavna. The rhythm in it is like folk crying, makes the reader breathe faster. Another important feature of the work is the use of various metaphors: “he circled the field like an eagle like a gray wolf, soared under a cloud”, “damp mother earth groans with a groan”, etc. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" is a unique work of the lyrical-epic genre, imbued with love for the motherland, for the Russian people, for its history. The "Word" greatly influenced subsequent generations, becoming a source of inspiration not only for writers, but also for artists and musicians. The invasion of Batu did not go unnoticed in ancient Russian literature. By 1238-1246. The creation of the "Word about the destruction of the Russian land" also concerns the creation of the "Tale of the devastation of Ryazan by Batu" on the topic of the invasion. In general, the literature of the XII-XIII centuries. represented by works, the main feature of which is patriotism, faith in one's people. The heroes of these works are always endowed with traits of high morality, spirituality, church diligence. Another art of Ancient Russia, architecture, also received great development. The church had a huge influence on architecture, as well as on literature. That is why churches and monasteries remained the main architectural monuments. The Kiev Caves Monastery was the very first in Russia. Its founders Feodosia и Anthony Pechersky. In 1069, Anthony of Pechersk was forced to hide in Chernigov to avoid anger Izyaslav Yaroslavovich. There he founded the equally famous Ilyinsky underground monastery. Such underground monasteries became very common in Russia and served as centers hesychia, i.e. silence and detachment. In them, cultural life was very developed, since it excluded strict orders, and monastery residents could engage in completely secular activities. That is why it was monasteries that for a long time remained the main centers of spiritual culture, where most of the literary and artistic values were created. With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, the beginning of stone construction is associated, since at the first stages the construction was carried out precisely by Byzantine masters. One of the first buildings Church of the Assumption of the Virgin in Kyiv. Only archaeological excavations allowed us to find out how majestic this building was, how skillfully everything was done, since the church has not survived to this day, as it was destroyed during the invasion of Batu in 1240. During the reign Yaroslav the Wise in 1037, another magnificent architectural monument was erected, an indicator of the skill of the builders - Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. This cathedral became the main church and public building of all Kievan Rus. Sophia Cathedral had five naves (interiors), thirteen domes, and was built of brick and stone. In the XI century. it was decorated, adding to the majestic building mosaics (images from colored stones) and frescoes (painting on wet plaster with paints). In the 30s of the XI century. by order of Yaroslav the Wise were built Golden Gate in Kyiv with the Gate Church of the Annunciation, as well as the monasteries of St. George and Irina. All these buildings from the reign of Yaroslav the Wise characterized Kyiv as a new center of the Orthodox world. In addition to Kyiv, construction was carried out in other cities in Russia. Considered a great architectural monument Sophia Cathedral (1045-1050) in Novgorod. It was built during the reign of the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Vladimir Yaroslavovich. This is a five-nave cathedral with five domes, distinguished by its external severity and lack of decoration. It was built of stone and had a sixth huge staircase tower. In the XI century. temples were built in Polotsk, Vyshgorod, Chernigov and other cities. In the era of feudal fragmentation, architecture did not decline, but, on the contrary, it flourished. Of particular note is the Novgorod and Vladimir architecture. Novgorod architecture was characterized by such features as the severity of forms, simplicity, symmetry, and small decor. An example is the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, built in 1198, the small church of Peter and Paul on Sinichya Gora, built by the inhabitants of Lukina Street in 1185-1192, the stone church of St. Nicholas on Lipna (1292), Yuriev and Antoniev monasteries. In addition to religious buildings in Novgorod, it is worth noting the detinets located on a high Kremlin hill - an internal fortification in the city. The center of the trading life of the Novgorodians was Yaroslav's yard, and the residence of princes Settlement. The architecture of Vladimir Rus has great cultural value. It belongs to the XII-XIII centuries. One of the largest buildings Assumption Cathedral, built during the reign of the prince Andrey Bogolyubsky in 1158-1160 The cathedral was made of white hewn stone and originally had three naves, six pillars, the height of the cathedral was 32,3 m. The Assumption Cathedral served as a model for the construction of many cathedrals in Russia. Under the prince Vsevolod the Big Nest in 1194-1197 built in Vladimir Dmitrievsky Cathedral. He was the prince's cathedral and at the first stages was part of the complex of the prince's palace. Dmitrievsky Cathedral is a one-domed four-pillar temple, which has many sculptural decorations on its facade. An outstanding monument of the Vladimir-Suzdal school is Church of the Intercession on the Nerl (Church of the Intercession of the Virgin Mary), built in 1165. This single-domed temple is distinguished by its amazing harmony, it seems to be directed upward. Along with architecture, painting also developed. Basically, it was represented by two areas: frescoes and icons. Since a huge number of temples were destroyed, very few frescoes of those times have come down to us. But many icons have been preserved. Among the most famous are the icon of the Apostles Paul and Peter (XI century), the icon of St. George (c. 1170), the Savior Not Made by Hands (XII century), the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir, which became the main shrine of the Moscow state, the icon of the Prophet Elijah, etc. In the XIII century. Russia was subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, which tormented the state for almost 250 years. After the expulsion of the invaders, the Russian state begins to take shape around Moscow, so the period of the XIV-XVI centuries. called Muscovite Russia. 3. Culture of Moscow Russia The victory over the Mongol-Tatar invaders marks the beginning of the rise of Russian culture. Starting from the second half of the XIV century. Moscow is given a leading role in the Russian state. Firstly, this is due to the fact that the city is located in the center of the north-east of the country, a huge number of Russian citizens flock here, and secondly, profitable trade routes pass through Moscow, which makes it the center of the state's foreign policy. Therefore, it was the Moscow princes who began to acquire the title of the Grand Dukes of All Russia. The great importance of Moscow for the whole of Russia made it a new cultural center. In the XV-XVI centuries. Russia finally got rid of the Mongol-Tatar invaders, the Russian united state was fully formed. These phenomena had a significant impact on culture. After all, it was the struggle of the Russian people against foreigners, the new tasks of the state that became the main topics in the development of Russian culture. In particular, this theme can be traced in the literature. The most famous literary works of that time were "The Tale of the Capture of the City of Vladimir by Batu", "The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu" (XIV century), telling about the times of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, praising the courage and courage of the Russian soldiers-liberators. Another literary work telling about the life of the prince Alexander Nevsky (1221-1263), about the Battle of the Neva (1240) and the Battle of the Ice (1242), “The Life of Alexander Nevsky” is a literary monument written for the glory of the Russian state and its people. Another victory over the Golden Horde, on the Kulikovo field (September 8, 1380), is dedicated to the work "Zadonshchina", written at the end of the XNUMXth century. It is assumed that the author is Sofoniy Ryazanets. The main idea of the work is the unification of Russian lands for a joint struggle for the Russian state in the face of foreign invaders. After the final unification of the Russian lands in the XV century. there is also a fusion of local cultures. Appears common Russian culture with its characteristic features that have been preserved for many centuries. Features of the new united state, its policy are described in such works as "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir" and "The Tale of Vladimir Monomakh" (XVI century). In the XV century. a new literary genre appeared - literary travel. Merchant Afanasiy Nikitin described his journey to India (1466-1472) in his notes "Journey Beyond the Three Seas". This work is distinguished by its versatility. Another talented author, Russian writer-publicist Ivan Semyonovich Neresvetov. AT in his works ("The Tale of Tsar Constantine", "The Tale of Mohammed-Saltan", "Predictions of Philosophers and Latin Doctors about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich") he described the transformations in the country, advocated strengthening autocratic power. In 1549, he handed over all his writings Ivan IV. On the contrary, another Russian writer, Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky (1528-1583). He owns the work “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow” (1573), as well as three messages to the Tsar with an accusatory text. Of course, this could not please the “fierce autocrat” Ivan IV the Terrible, and Andrei Kurbsky was forced to flee to Lithuania in 1564. An important stage in the development of Russian literature was the emergence of printing at the end of the XNUMXth century. Prior to this, parchment began to be replaced by paper. The first printing house appeared in Moscow, headed by Ivan Fedorov (c. 1510-1583) и Peter Mstislavets. The first book, published in 1564, was The Apostle. By the end of the XNUMXth century. They and their students wrote about twenty books on church and religious topics. In the XVI century. with the help of a priest Sylvester a set of rules and instructions "Domostroy" appeared, in which family patriarchy was supported, advice was given on housekeeping, etc. Along with literature in Muscovite Russia, other areas of art, such as painting and architecture, are also developing. At the initial stage of the formation of a unified Russian state, Novgorod and Pskov were the most developed architecturally. Since it was these cities that suffered the least during the Mongol-Tatar invasion. In the XIV century. New architectural forms began to take shape in Novgorod. An example of this is the Church of the Savior on Koval (1345), the Church of the Assumption on the Volotovo Field (1352), the Church of Fyodor Stratilat on the Brook (1360-1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyina Street (1374). The new style is characterized by elegant external decoration. These are fresco paintings, and sculptural crosses, and decorative niches. But not only temples were erected in Novgorod, civil construction was widely carried out. A striking example of urban architecture are Faceted Chamber (1433) and Stone Kremlin (1302). A huge pace of construction has been outlined in Pskov. By the 22th century 9 new churches appeared here, as well as a huge Kremlin with a length of about XNUMX km. And of course, in the new state, the construction of the capital begins. The most famous of the architectural works of Moscow - Moscow Kremlin. It was originally fortified with a rampart. But during the reign Ivan III began its transformation. In 1485-1495. the white stone walls were replaced with brick. During the reign of Ivan III in 1475-1479. was built Assumption Cathedral, and in 1484-1489. - Blagoveshchensky cathedral, and was also built Faceted Chamber (1487-1491). During the reign of his son Basil III (1505-1508) was built Cathedral of the Archangel Moscow Kremlin, the bell tower "Ivan the Great" (1505-1508), which was built on in 1600. Inseparably from architecture, painting also developed. First of all, iconography. Brilliant artists of the XIV-XV centuries. were Theophanes Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405) и Andrei Rublev (c. 1360/70 - c. 1430). In the work of Theophan the Greek, two periods can be distinguished: 1) Novgorod (Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1378)); 2) Moscow (Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (1395-1396)), Archangel Cathedral (1399), Cathedral of the Annunciation (1405)). The Annunciation Cathedral was painted by Theophan the Greek together with the greatest master Andrei Rublev. Rublev owns many frescoes, miniatures, icons. His most famous works are: "Archangel Michael" (beginning of the 1420th century), "Savior" (beginning of the XNUMXth century), "Trinity" (XNUMX) from the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Now these works are in the largest museum of Russian art - the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. By the XNUMXth century the range of themes of painting has noticeably expanded. A new genre begins to develop - historical portrait. Now these are not only images of saints, portraits of great princes, thinkers and poets of the ancient world, and Byzantine emperors appear. So, the culture of Muscovite Russia in the XIV-XVI centuries. - this is a symbol of prosperity, the beginning of the formation of a single all-Russian culture. 4. Russian culture of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries In the XNUMXth century not everything was smooth in Russia. If by this time the majority of European countries had taken the path of "bourgeois development", then Russia lingered at the stage of feudal relations. This largely hindered the development of Russian culture, which, as it were, remained at the stage of the Middle Ages. But despite this, new trends began to emerge. Attempts to bring Russia to a higher level are made during the reign of the first Russian emperor Peter I the Great (1672-1725). Russia's external relations with other countries of the world are developing. In the 18th century The capitalist system begins to take shape. The main cultural event of this time was the final formation national Russian culture. New areas of culture are beginning to develop, such as science, secular painting, fiction, theater, etc. The turning point in the history of Russian culture was secularization of culture, i.e. deviation from church traditions towards secular life. This process is also called secularization. To For example, everyday and historical tales appear in literature, while the ecclesiastical element is lost ("The New Tale of the Glorious Russian State"). New literary genres are being laid: life ("The Life of Archpriest Avvakum, written by him"), democratic satire (“About the Shemyakin Court”, “About Ersha Ershovich - the son of Shchetinnikov”), poetic works (“The Parable of the Prodigal Son” by Simeon of Polotsk, “The Tale of Woe-Misfortune”). Worldliness is also characteristic of architecture. Here there is a departure from the canons proposed by the church. The new style, which appeared in the 17th century, was called “marvelous patterning” by contemporaries. It is characterized by an abundance of scenery. The so-called tent temple, for example, the Church of the Nativity in Putinki (built by 1652). But Nikon, who ascended the patriarchal throne in 1652, prohibited the construction of tented churches and called for a return to the five-domed structure traditional in the Russian state. Under Nikon, the buildings of the New Jerusalem Monastery, the Patriarchal Chambers in the Kremlin, the Resurrection Monastery, etc. were built in this style. Despite the return to tradition, by the end of the XVII century. and new architectural trends are beginning to take shape. One of the most striking styles, rich in decorations and patterns, was the style Moscow Baroque. An example of this style is the Church of the Intercession in Fili (1690-1693). Painting had a huge development. Here a new everyday genre appears, portraiture, which uses the techniques of icon painting. Such portraiture is called parsuna. Among the artists of the 17th century. worth highlighting Simon Fedorovich Ushakov (1626-1686). He, following traditions, introduced many innovative ideas into painting. His main works: “The Savior Not Made by Hands”, “Trinity”, “Our Lady of Vladimir - the Tree of the Russian State”, etc. In the XVIII century. education is of great importance in the development of the state, it is especially worth noting the period of the reign of Peter I, when education became a state policy. Schools appeared, including a number of vocational schools (Engineering, Artillery, Medical, etc.), in 1724 the Academy of Sciences began to work, and in 1755, with the assistance of a Russian scientist of world importance Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765) The first Moscow University opens. Already by the end of the XVIII century. There are 550 educational institutions in Russia. The development of education is impossible without well-formed book publishing. There are such books as "ABC", "Arithmetic", written by a Russian teacher of mathematics Leonty Filippovich Magnitsky in 1703, "Grammar" by M. Smotrytsky, it was subsequently replaced by "Russian Grammar" by M. V. Lomonosov, created in 1757. Fiction also began to develop. Its largest representatives were the Russian poet, the representative of Russian classicism Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin (1743-1816) ("Felitsa", "God", etc.), Russian writer and educator Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin (1744/1745-1792) ("Undergrowth", "Notes of the first journey"), Russian historian and writer Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin (1766-1826) ("Poor Liza", "History of the Russian State", etc.). In 1702, by order of Peter I, the first public theater in Russia was created in Moscow. Soon theaters began to appear in other cities of Russia. The most famous theatrical figure of this time was the Russian writer Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (1717-1777). He worked in the St. Petersburg theater, where he staged plays by Russian masters, including his own ("Khorev", "Sinav and Truvor"), with cadets performing as actors. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. continue to develop Russian national traditions in culture. They paved the way for the XNUMXth century, which was the heyday of Russian culture. 5. The cultural image of Russia in the XNUMXth century In the 1812th century there is an unimaginable rise of Russian culture, despite the fact that in political and economic terms, Russia still lagged behind the leading European states. Works of literature, painting, music of the XIX century. were included in the world cultural treasury. The Patriotic War of XNUMX had a strong influence on cultural development, primarily this influence can be traced in the increased patriotism that united the Russian people. First half of the XNUMXth century significant development of science. At this time, major scientific discoveries were made. Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792-1856) - the great Russian mathematician. He owns the creation of non-Euclidean geometry, later called Lobachevsky geometry. Boris Semenovich Jacobi (1801-1876) - Russian physicist-inventor. In 1834 he created an electric motor, in 1838 - electroplating, in 1840-1850. - Several telephones. Together with another Russian physicist and electrical engineer Emil Khristianovich Lenz (1804-1865) B. S. Jacobi studied electromagnets. The first Russian steam-powered railway appeared thanks to two Russian inventors: Efim Alekseevich и Miron Efimovich Cherepanov. The first steam locomotive was created in 1833-1834. Huge progress in metallurgy too, thanks in large part to two metallurgical engineers, Pavel Petrovich Anosov (1799-1851) и Pavel Matveevich Obukhov (1820-1869). Geography also developed rapidly. Knowledge on it was replenished thanks to outstanding navigators. Among them Yury Fedorovich Lisyansky, who discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands, later named in his honor; Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern - Head of the first Russian round-the-world expedition, founder of oceanology in Russia, mapped thousands of kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island. Discovery of Antarctica and a huge number of islands in 1819-1821. belongs to Russian sailors Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen и Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev. At the beginning of the XIX century. historical science is also developing. The Society of Russian History and Antiquities opens at the university in Moscow. It was the members of this society who found a literary monument of the XNUMXth century. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign". XNUMXth century - this is also the flowering of Russian literature. One need only mention the names of such literary masters as A. S. Pushkin, Yu. M. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy etc., as no one will have any doubts about it. The appearance of romanticism in Russian literature is associated primarily with the names of two literary geniuses: Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin (1799-1837) и Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (1814-1841). The Golden Age came to literature with A.S. Pushkin. He is the creator of the modern literary language. This is truly a Russian poet who was able to convey reality in unique and vivid images, by studying people, he was able to correctly understand the character of the Russian person. The works of A. S. Pushkin are multi-genre. He wrote poems ("Ruslan and Lyudmila", "Prisoner of the Caucasus", etc.), and stories ("The Queen of Spades"), and novels ("The Captain's Daughter", "Eugene Onegin"), and fairy tales ("The Tale of the Tsar Saltan...", "The Tale of the Priest and His Worker Balda"), and poetry. We can say that M. Yu. Lermontov was the heir to the work of A. S. Pushkin and the successor of his work. After the tragic death of Pushkin, Lermontov dedicated his poem "Death of a Poet" to him, since such a loss for all of Russia could not but excite the Russian people. The works of M. Yu. Lermontov are imbued with the themes of love of freedom, aspirations for a rebellious life, romanticism and even Decembrist moods. An example of this is his works "Mtsyri", "The Prophet", "I go out alone on the road", etc. But there are also works whose main theme is patriotism, love for the Fatherland - "Borodino", "Motherland". M. Yu. Lermontov was deeply worried about the fate of his state and the Russian people. Often in his works he expressed discontent, rebellion against the world order. The cycle of "Little Russian stories" brought fame and recognition to the great Russian writer Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol (1809-1852). His appearance in the literary world began to symbolize the transition from romanticism to realism. The works of N.V. Gogol are filled with lyricism, humor, romantic and humanistic sentiments. Meanwhile, they touch on many pressing problems of people, for example, the problem of the “little man” (“The Overcoat”), the moral depravity of people (“The Inspector General,” “Dead Souls”). The "Natural School" of N.V. Gogol was continued by the next generation: I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, N. A. Nekrasov, F. I. Tyutchev, A. A. Fet. These great Russian writers and poets conveyed in their works love for the Motherland, faith in the high spiritual qualities of the Russian people, and showed its pressing problems. End of the XNUMXth century was crowned with the work of two outstanding writers, Fedor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (1821-1881) и Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy (1828-1910). In the book "Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics" (1929), an outstanding Russian literary critic and art theorist M. M. Bakhtin wrote: "Dostoevsky is the creator of a polyphonic novel. In his works, a hero appears, whose voice is built in the same way as the voice of the author himself is built in a conventional type novel. Dostoevsky thought not in thoughts, but in points of view, consciousnesses, voices. He strove to perceive and formulate every thought so that the whole person is expressed and resounded in it. The most famous works of F. M. Dostoevsky: "Crime and Punishment", "The Idiot", "The Brothers Karamazov", "Demons", etc. The great artist and the great moralist united in the personality of the famous Russian writer Leo Tolstoy. In his works ("The Cossacks", "Anna Karenina", "War and Peace", etc.), Tolstoy sought to explore the inner world of man, his aspirations, spiritual values, moral ideals, and other problems. For the XNUMXth century accounts for the flourishing of the fine arts in Russia. At the first stage, classicism occupied a leading position. It was presented by the work of the artist Karl Pavlovich Bryullov (1799-1852) ("The Last Day of Pompeii", "Bathsheba"). Realism appeared thanks to the Russian painter and draftsman Pavel Andreevich Fedotov (1815-1852). He owns such works as “Fresh Cavalier”, “Major’s Matchmaking”, “Widow”, “Anchor, More Anchor!” and etc. Realism was traced in the works I. E. Repina ("Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan"), V. I. Surikova ("Boyar Morozova"), V. A. Serova ("Girl with peaches"), I. I. Levitan ("Evening Bells"), etc. The development of music is continuously connected with the development of literature and painting. A large place in the musical culture is given to the musical group "Mighty Handful", which included outstanding composers. M. A. Balakirev, A. P. Borodin, Ts. A. Cui, M. P. Mussorgsky and N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov. The work of these composers was built on the traditions of classical music, a desire for nationality and a penchant for program music. A huge number of brilliant works belong to the great Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). He owns operas ("Eugene Onegin", "The Queen of Spades", "The Enchantress", etc.), ballets ("The Nutcracker", "Swan Lake", "Sleeping Beauty"), 6 symphonies, overtures, fantasies, concerts, etc. Late XIX - early XX century. It is customary to call the "silver age" of Russian culture. Its representatives depart from the classical traditions in their work, the main idea of which is critical idealism. In literature, there has been a new direction - symbolism. Its representatives: V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, A. Bely and others. At the initial stage of his work, A. A. Blok also belonged to the Symbolists, but revolutionary moods changed his work. An example of this is the poem "The Twelve", which describes the revolution. Another major movement in literature was the Futurists, who advocated the art of the future and called for "throwing Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy off the ship of modernity." Futurist poets were V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, A. Kruchenykh, V. Mayakovsky. Their work is characterized by an anarchist attitude, freedom of speech. Vladimir Vladimirovich Mayakovsky (1893-1930) - the most famous and prominent representative of the futurists. In his works, reality is the apocalypse, and he is forced to scream in order to be understood. V. V. Mayakovsky was a reformer of the literary language. His language is militant, rude, contrasting. The most famous of his works: "A cloud in pants", "Man", "Protsessed", "At the top of his voice" and others. Painting of the "Silver Age" is represented by such artists as M. A. Vrubel, N. Roerich, K. Korovin and others. The main style is modern, which is characterized by the desire for a symbolic transmission of reality. Vrubel used a special color and "crystal" clarity of forms, so his works have a tensely tragic color ("Demon", "Pan"). Roerich is called an artist-mystic. His works are colorful and emotional. Their main theme is the history of Russia, mythology and oriental nature ("Messenger", "Patrol", "Overseas guests"). 6. Culture of the USSR and the RSFSR According to many culturologists, the culture of the USSR is of no value. Of course, the totalitarian regime constantly held back the development of culture, set boundaries. But at the same time, even in these difficult times for creativity, there were figures in the opposition who formed a culture of dissent, many of them were forced to create abroad. In Soviet times, sciences developed very rapidly, especially natural and exact sciences. Great merits - the Russian physiologist I. P. Pavlova (1849-1936). He carried out works on the study of higher nervous activity, the physiology of blood circulation and digestion, the development of the method of conditioned reflexes, etc. The founder of the complex of modern earth sciences, such as radiogeology, hydrogeology, biogeochemistry, geochemistry, etc., was a natural scientist V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945). He introduced the concept of the noosphere - the sphere of the mind where man is the decisive factor. The flourishing of botany and biology is largely associated with the name of geneticist and plant scientist N. I. Vavilova (1887-1943). He owns the teachings on the biological foundations of selection, etc. In the development of physical science, it is worth noting the theoretical physicist L. D. Landau. He dealt with the issues of magnetism, superfluidity, solid state physics, atomic physics, quantum electrodynamics, astrophysics, etc. During the Great Patriotic War, good engineers and inventors were needed. Among aircraft designers, one can distinguish A. S. Yakovleva, A. I. Tupoleva, V. M. Petlyakova and others, in the construction of tanks - A. A. Morozova, Zh. Ya. Kostina и A. F. Shamshurina. Soviet literature is represented by such writers as M. A. Sholokhov ("Quiet Don"), L. N. Seifullina ("Virineya"), A. A. Fadeev ("Destruction"). Many literary figures were forced to leave their homeland and write outside of it. Among them is the Russian poetess M. I. Tsvetaeva ("Craft", "After Russia"), writers IA Bunin ("The Gentleman from San Francisco", "The Village"), E. I. Zamyatin ("We"), A. I. Kuprin ("Garnet Bracelet", "Olesya"), master of the historical novel A.K. Tolstoy ("Peter I") and more In the second half of the XX century. the most significant figures in literature are A. T. Tvardovsky ("Vasily Terkin"), A. I. Solzhenitsyn ("Gulag Archipelago"), poet E. A. Evtushenko ("Intimate Lyrics"), etc. In musical culture, the work of composers was of great importance. D. D. Shostakovich, V. S. Solovyov-Sedogo, A. V. Alexandrov, S. S. Prokofiev, D. B. Kabalevsky and others. The stage begins to form. The first vocal and instrumental ensembles appear. Composers who wrote popular songs - A. Pakhmutova, R. Pauls, E. Martynov and more Cinema continues to evolve. Movies are shot on completely different topics: from classics to military-political and documentaries. Famous directors are G. Chukhrai ("Forty-first", "Ballad of a Soldier"), S. Bondarchuk ("War and Peace"), E. Ryazanov ("Beware of the Car", "Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath"), N. Mikhalkov ("Burnt by the Sun", "The Barber of Siberia"), G. Danelia ("Seryozha", "Way to the pier"), S. Govorukhin ("Ten Little Indians"), A. Tarkovsky ("Solaris", "Andrey Rublev", "Stalker") and many others. After the collapse of the Soviet Union and the recognition of Russia as a democratic state, artists received greater freedom for creativity. Now culture is designed for mass character, entertainment, commercial benefits, so it is based on archetypes. On the one hand, freedom of creativity and self-expression is a big plus. To make themselves known, people of creative professions do not need to hide or leave the country. On the other hand, there has been a backlash. In culture, nationality is being lost, Western trends are being instilled, which are not always a high indicator. Many new directions in culture appear, new genres in the existing types of culture, but very often quality is lost behind quantity. Therefore, the Russian people should think about how not only to preserve the cultural wealth of their country, but also to increase them. Author: Dorohova M.A. << Back: Culture from ancient to modern times (Change of cultures. Culture of primitive peoples. Culture of the Ancient World. Culture of the Middle Ages) >> Forward: Religion and culture (Paganism as a phenomenon of cultural history. Main religions: Buddhism, Islam, Christianity. The importance of religion in the history of culture)
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