Topic 3. Hardware and software architecture of IBM-compatible technologies

3.1. Microprocessors

The central processing unit is an integral part of any computer. This is usually a large integrated circuit, which is a silicon crystal in a plastic, ceramic or cermet case, on which there are leads for receiving and issuing electrical signals. The functions of the CPU are performed by microprocessors. They carry out calculations, data transfer between internal registers and control over the course of the computational process. The microprocessor interacts directly with the OP and the motherboard controllers. The main information carriers inside it are registers.

An integral part of the microprocessor are:

▪ ALU, consisting of several blocks, for example, an integer processing unit and a floating point processing unit;

▪ a control device that generates control signals to execute commands;

▪ internal registers.

The operation of each microprocessor unit is based on the pipeline principle, which is as follows. The implementation of each machine instruction is divided into separate stages, and the execution of the next program instruction can be started before the completion of the previous one. Therefore, the microprocessor simultaneously executes several program commands following one after another, and the time for executing a block of commands is reduced several times. A superscalar architecture is an architecture based on the pipeline principle. This is possible if there are several processing units in the microprocessor.

In the program, there may be commands to transfer control, the execution of which depends on the results of the execution of previous commands. In modern microprocessors, when using a pipelined architecture, mechanisms for predicting transitions are provided. In other words, if a conditional jump instruction appears in the instruction queue, then it is predicted which instruction will be executed next before the jump flag is determined. The selected branch of the program is executed in the pipeline, however, the result is recorded only after the transition sign is calculated, when the transition is selected correctly. In case of incorrect selection of the program branch, the microprocessor goes back and performs the correct operations in accordance with the calculated transition sign.

Important characteristics of the microprocessor are:

▪ its performance, which largely depends on the clock frequency of the microprocessor;

▪ microprocessor architecture, which determines what data it can process, what machine instructions are included in the set of commands it executes, how data is processed, and how much internal memory the microprocessor has.

The structure of the microprocessor may include a cache memory (super-operational), providing a faster transfer of information than the OP. There is a first-level cache memory, which is usually built into the same chip and operates at the same frequency as the microprocessor; Second-level cache memory - shared when instructions and data are stored together, and divided when they are stored in different places.

When solving complex mathematical and physical problems, some computers provide for the use of a special device called a mathematical coprocessor. This device is a specialized integrated circuit that works in conjunction with the CPU and is designed to perform floating point mathematical operations.

3.2. System boards. Buses, interfaces

The main electronic part of the PC is structurally located in the system unit. The system unit can be of several sizes and types, for example desktop, tower type. Various computer components inside the system unit are located on the system board, which is called the motherboard.

The motherboard plays a significant role, since the operation of the PC largely depends on its characteristics. There are several types of motherboards that are usually designed for specific microprocessors. The choice of the motherboard largely determines the possibility of future computer upgrades. When choosing a motherboard, consider the following characteristics:

▪ possible types of microprocessors used, taking into account their operating frequencies;

▪ number and type of system bus connectors;

▪ basic fee;

▪ the ability to expand RAM and cache memory;

▪ the ability to update the basic input/output system (BIOS).

The system board contains one or more integrated circuits. They manage communications between the processor, memory, and I/O devices. They are called the system chipset.

Intel 440LX, Intel 440BX are in the greatest demand among microcircuits. The largest motherboard manufacturer is Intel, which has introduced most of the technological and technical innovations for motherboards. However, Intel products are not cheap.

Directly on the motherboard is the system bus, which is designed to transfer information between the processor and the rest of the PC components. With the help of the bus, both the exchange of information and the transmission of addresses and service signals take place.

IBM PC-compatible computers originally used a 16-bit bus running at 8 MHz. After the advent of new microprocessors and high-speed peripherals, a new standard was proposed - the MCA bus with a higher clock speed. It contained arbitration functions to avoid conflict situations when several devices work together. This bus has increased throughput and achieved greater compactness, and the bus width is MCA-16 and 32.

In 1989, the EISA bus was developed, which actually became an add-on to ISA. This bus was mainly used in high-performance servers and professional workstations with high performance requirements.

Since 1991, so-called local buses have been used to increase system performance. They connected the processor directly to the controllers of peripheral devices and thus increased the overall speed of the PC. Among the local buses, the most famous is the VL-bus, which was focused on PCs with microprocessors of the i486 family, although it can also work with Pentium processors.

The processor-independent PCI bus operates at a clock frequency of 33 MHz and has a high data transfer rate. Especially for this bus, many adapters for peripheral devices have been released - video cards, disk controllers, network adapters, etc.

To work with graphic and video data, the AGP bus was developed, which is faster than PCI. The AGP bus directly connects the graphics adapter to the PC's RAM, and this is very important when working with video, two- and three-dimensional applications; It operates at a frequency of 66 MHz.

Peripherals are connected to the system bus using controllers or adapters. Adapters are special boards that are different for different types of peripherals.

3.3. External device controls

External devices provide input, output and accumulation of information in the PC, interact with the processor and operating system through the system or local bus, as well as through input-output ports. They are located both outside the system unit (keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, external modem, scanner) and inside it (disk drives, device controllers, internal fax modems). Often, external devices are called peripheral, although in the narrow sense the term "peripheral" means a part of the devices that provide input and output of information (keyboards, pointers, scanners, printers, etc.).

Most external devices for IBM-compatible PCs are controlled by controllers that are installed in the expansion slots on the motherboard. A controller is a board that controls the operation of a particular type of external devices and ensures their communication with the system board. Most controllers are system expansion cards, with the exception of port controllers and floppy and hard disk drives that are built directly into the motherboard. In early IBM compatible PCs, these controllers were usually placed on a separate board called a multiplato or multicard. Sometimes other controllers are built into the motherboard in laptop computers, including video adapters and sound cards.

Expansion boards, called daughter boards, are installed on the motherboard. They are designed to connect additional devices to the PC bus, and the motherboard usually has 4 to 8 expansion slots. In accordance with the bitness of the processor and the parameters of the external data bus of the motherboard, they are 8-, 16- and 32-bit.

Daughterboards are divided into two types:

1) full-size, i.e. the same length as the motherboard;

2) half-sized, i.e., two times shorter.

Any daughter boards can be installed in the expansion slots if they are compatible with the bus in terms of control, bitness and power supply.

The serial port transmits information one bit at a time, and devices such as a mouse, external modem, and plotter are connected through the serial ports.

The most important types of expansion boards are:

1) video adapters (required for the normal functioning of the PC);

2) internal modems (required to use internal modems);

3) sound cards (designed for multimedia systems);

4) LAN adapters (required when using a computer in a local area network environment).

In addition to the above, other types of expansion cards are used:

▪ scanner control;

▪ streamer management;

▪ SCSI interface;

▪ virtual reality device controllers;

▪ ADC;

▪ barcode reading devices;

▪ Light pen control;

▪ connections with mainframe computers;

▪ accelerator boards.

The PC has special I / O controllers, which is implemented through the I / O ports.

The serial port transmits information one bit at a time, while the parallel port transmits information byte by byte. Serial ports connect devices such as a mouse, external modem, and plotter.

3.4. Information accumulators

A device designed for long-term storage of significant amounts of information is called a drive or an external storage device, a mass storage device.

Depending on the location in the PC, drives are distinguished:

1) external, which are outside the system unit and have their own case, power supply, as well as a switch and cable;

2) internal, which are located on the mounting rack of the computer system unit. These devices do not have their own housing and are connected to the storage controller and PC power supply.

According to the recording method, random access devices and sequential access devices are distinguished.

The main types of disk drives are:

▪ floppy disk drives;

▪ hard magnetic disk drives (HDD), hard drive;

▪ storage devices on removable CDs.

In floppy disk drives (floppy disks), information is recorded along tracks, divided into separate sectors. There are inter-sector gaps between these sectors. Depending on the type of device and media and the method of marking the latter, the number of tracks and sectors and the sector size are selected.

The principle of operation of such drives is that the diskette, which is installed in the drive, rotates at a speed of 300-360 rpm, which provides access to the desired sector. Writing special control information to a disk is called formatting.

Hard disk drives are several metal disks that are placed on the same axis and enclosed in a sealed metal case. These discs must be formatted before use. On hard disks, information is located on tracks, and inside tracks - on sectors. A set of tracks on a package of magnetic disks with the same numbers is called a cylinder.

Among the main characteristics of HDD are:

▪ information capacity;

▪ recording density;

▪ number of tracks;

▪ access time (milliseconds);

▪ external overall dimensions;

▪ storage devices on rewritable CDs;

▪ storage devices on high-capacity removable magnetic disks;

▪ Magneto-optical disk drives.

Such drives are connected to the system bus using various types of interface, including connection elements and auxiliary control circuits needed to connect devices.

Removable CD drives are used when using multimedia systems. These drives (CD-ROM) are adapted to read information from CDs containing up to 700 MB. Recording on such discs is carried out once using special equipment.

CD-RW drives, unlike CD-R drives, allow multiple rewrites.

High-capacity removable magnetic disk drives are designed to record up to 200 MB of information or more on a removable disk.

Drives on magneto-optical disks use an original scheme for reading and writing information, which ensures high information capacity of the media and the reliability of storing the recorded information. Recording on these media is carried out for a long time, and reading is fast enough.

Devices for writing and reading digital information on a magnetic tape cassette are called streamers. They are tape drives. They are used for backup archiving of information. Among the positive qualities of such records are large amounts of stored information and low cost of data storage.

3.5. Video controllers and monitors

Devices that display information on the monitor screen are called video adapters, or video controllers. The video controller is an expansion card that provides the formation of an image on the monitor screen using information that is transmitted from the processor.

Video controllers are connected to a PC using special local PCI or AGP buses. The AGP interface is used to speed up data exchange between the processor and the video card. Many video cards are designed to be connected to the motherboard via the AGP connector.

The information is displayed in text or graphics mode. Text mode uses a character-by-character image of the data on the monitor screen, and the image data is stored in ROM. Images after turning on the power of the computer are overwritten from ROM to the OP. When working in graphics mode, a point-by-point display of information on the screen is used, with each point of the screen being modeled by a number of bits that characterize the color of each of the displayed points. In VGA mode, each dot is specified by a sequence of four bits, so each dot can be displayed in one of 16 = 24 possible colors. Graphic screen modeling can be done with different sets of points, both vertically and horizontally.

Modern video adapters are called graphics accelerators, as they have special chips that allow you to speed up the processing of large amounts of video data. Also, these graphics accelerators are called accelerators, they have their own specialized microprocessor and memory. The size of this memory is important, since it forms a complete graphical bitmap of the screen. In the process of its work, the video adapter uses its own memory, but not operational.

However, for high-quality image reproduction, it is not enough to have the video memory of the required amount. It is important that the monitor be able to output in high resolution modes and that the software that sets up the imaging can support the appropriate video mode.

Desktop computers use cathode ray tube monitors, liquid crystal monitors (LCD), and less commonly plasma monitors.

When working in graphical environments, monitors with a screen size of at least 15-17 inches should be used. Among the main parameters of monitors are:

▪ maximum resolution;

▪ length of the diagonal;

▪ distance between pixels;

▪ frame rate;

▪ degree of compliance with environmental safety standards.

An image is considered to be of better quality if the distance between pixels is minimal and the frame rate is high. At a frequency of at least 75 Hz, the level of image comfort for the eye is ensured. The ideal refresh rate is 110 Hz, at which the image is perceived as completely still. The frame rate is not a fixed value, i.e. when working with a higher resolution, the same monitor uses a lower frame rate. The type of video adapter used also affects the image quality, since inexpensive models may not support the appropriate frequency.

Personal computers use LCD and TFT displays, as well as displays with dual screen scanning. TFT displays are the most promising, but quite expensive. The resolution of TFT displays is 640x480, and in more expensive portable PCs - 800x600 pixels and less often 1024x768.

3.6. Input devices

The main standard input device in a PC is the keyboard. In its case there are key sensors, decryption circuits and a microcontroller. Each key corresponds to a specific serial number. When a key is pressed, information about this is transmitted to the processor in the form of an appropriate code. This code is interpreted by the driver - a special program that accepts characters entered from the keyboard.

There are keys on the keyboard that do not send any code to the processor and are used to switch the state of special keyboard status indicators.

To save space, laptops and pocket PCs use keyboards with a small number of keys.

The layout of the keys on the keyboard corresponds to the standard of Latin typewriters.

Coordinate manipulators are coordinate input devices. These include mice, trackballs and pointers.

The mouse is connected to the computer via a serial port. When the mouse is moved, information about the type of this movement is transmitted to the driver, which changes the location of the mouse cursor on the screen. Thanks to this, it is possible to inform the application program of the current values ​​of its coordinates. The mouse plays a special role when working with graphic information in graphic editors, computer-aided design systems. The most commonly used are the left and right mouse buttons. Usually, programs track single and double clicks of the left mouse button, as well as single clicks of the right mouse button.

The trackball is a ball built into the keyboard, which differs from the mouse in that it does not need to be moved around the work surface.

The pointer is an analogue of the joystick and is placed on the keyboard.

Trackballs and pointers are most often used in laptop computers, while PDAs use a touch screen as a coordinate input device.

Scanners are devices for entering graphic information into a computer. There are manual, flatbed and roll scanners; black and white and color.

Using a handheld scanner, it is necessary to move it along the surface of the sheet from which the image is taken. Separate image elements can be entered in parts and combined in the required sequence using special programs.

Flatbed scanners are easy to use, more productive than manual scanners, and more expensive. When working with such scanners, an unfolded book is placed on the scanner tablet, and it reads the entire sheet on its own. These scanners have a high resolution, so they are used to enter photographs and complex illustrations into a PC.

Roll scanners are also easy to use and designed for continuous reading of information from roll media, for example, when analyzing experimental data.

Scanners can be divided into black and white and color. Black and white scanners are mainly used for scanning text information, and color scanners for graphics.

Digitizers are devices for point-by-point coordinate input of graphic images that are used in automatic design systems, computer graphics and animation. This device allows you to enter complex images, such as drawings, maps, etc., with great accuracy.

By assembly, the digitizer is a tablet containing a work plane with a coordinate grid applied to it. It has a control panel and a special light pen connected to a tablet. The digitizer is connected to the computer by a cable through the port.

3.7. Information output devices

Printing devices include printers that print text and graphics on paper, film, and other media. Printers connect to a computer using a parallel or USB port, and multiple printers can be connected to a computer at the same time. Network printers are called printers that have increased productivity, capable of simultaneously servicing several computers connected to it in a general queue.

There are petal, thermal, specialty, dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers.

Flap and thermal printers are now rarely used, special printers are used to print on the surfaces of parts, fabric, glass, etc. The most commonly used dot matrix, inkjet and laser printers.

Dot matrix printers consist of a print head that moves along the paper; in the head are thin rods that move with the help of an electromagnet. The "ejection" of a certain combination of needles hits the ink ribbon, which imprints on paper the image of a certain set of dots. With a sequential set of printed dots, the outline of a particular character is obtained. Dot matrix printers are distinguished by the width of the carriage: "wide" printers are used when printing on A3 paper, and "narrow" printers are used on A4 paper.

Printing in dot-matrix printers is carried out in the following modes:

▪ draft - low-quality printing;

▪ NLQ - high-quality printing;

▪ graphic.

Most often, dot matrix printers have the following set of font sizes:

▪ pica - 10 characters/inch;

▪ Elite - 12 characters/inch;

▪ proportional spacing - proportional, when the width of different letters is not the same, as a result there may be a different number of them per inch.

In addition to black and white, color dot matrix printers are also used.

Inkjet printers, unlike dot matrix printers, do not use the principle of printing needles. Instead, they use the ejection of microscopic ink droplets through the nozzles of the printer head. This greatly improves the speed and quality of printing in graphic modes.

Of the color printers, the most common are three- and four-color printers, and the cheapest are printers with one cartridge used at a time.

Laser printers differ from others in that the image in them is formed by a laser beam on a light-sensitive drum inside the printer. In the place where the beam illuminates the surface of the drum, an electrical discharge is formed that attracts dust particles of dry paint. After the drum touches the paper, the toner melts and leaves a dot impression on the paper, forming an image.

Laser printers have high print quality and high speed, but they are more expensive than other printers.

Plotters, or plotters, are devices that are used to draw complex graphics. Plotters can be of two types: flatbed and roll. The sheet in the plotter is fixed as on a drawing board, and the drawing pen moves in two coordinates along the entire sheet. In a roll-type plotter, the drawing pen moves only along the sheet, and the paper is pulled back and forth by a transport roller, so roll-type plotters are much more compact.

3.8. Information transfer devices. Other peripherals

A device that converts information as it is transmitted between computers over the telephone network is called a modem.

The basis of this process is the conversion of data received from the processor from digital form into a high-frequency analog signal.

There are modems:

▪ internal, which is an expansion card that is installed in one of the free expansion slots on the system board;

▪ external, connected using a special connector to the PC serial port.

One of the most important characteristics of a modem is the maximum data transfer/reception rate it provides, which is measured in bauds (a unit of data transfer rate, measured in bits per second). Currently, modems operate at a maximum speed of 28 kbaud and higher.

The fax modem has the functions of receiving and transmitting fax messages. Most often, modern modems are fax modems, and therefore the terms "modem" and "fax modem" are considered synonymous.

Currently, devices are used that can simultaneously transmit data and voice over telephone lines based on DSVD technology. The most common modems in Russia are USRobotics, ZyXEL, GVC.

The computer's power supply is turned off in emergency situations. Approximately 80% of computer failures are the result of a power failure, so an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) is used to keep it safe from power surges or power outages.

The uninterruptible power supply unit contains a voltage stabilizer, built-in rechargeable batteries and an alternator. In the event of a power failure, this device switches over the voltage to itself and provides the computer with power for some time, which ensures stable operation of the computer. This device is able to maintain normal PC power for 3-20 minutes.

An interactive computer system that provides the synthesis of text, graphics, sound, speech and video images is called multimedia. A multimedia system is a computer, the main devices of which meet modern requirements. Such a computer must be equipped with a CD drive, sound card, speakers or headphones. The CD is one of the main storage media in multimedia systems; encyclopedias, games and educational programs are recorded on it. CDs are sometimes more convenient than books, finding the information you need through the use of special software becomes easier and faster.

Audio adapters are used to play, record and process sound, such as sound cards and sound cards. These devices convert computer digital data into an analog audio signal and vice versa; the sound card houses several different devices that allow you to create a recording studio based on a PC. The main characteristics of audio adapters include: bit depth, the number of playback channels (mono or stereo), the synthesis principle used, expandability and compatibility. The sound quality also depends on the type of sound cards and acoustic systems. Sufficient sound quality is provided by any active speakers, and better sound is achieved by connecting an audio card to the amplifier input of a home audio system.

Author: Kozlova I.S.

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